● Chemical Reaction= The process where reactants are transformed

into products
● Balanced Chemical Reaction= Represents the change from
reactants to products
● Stoichiometry= Relationship between the amount of chemical
reactants and products.
● Law of Conservation of Mass by Antoine Laurent Lavoisier=
“Matter can neither be created nor destroyed”
● Antoine Lavoisier= “Father of modern chemistry”, leading financier
and public administrator before the French revolution.
○ He was executed along with other financiers during the
revolutionary terror.
● Oftentimes, reactions do not occur with perfect stoichiometric
proportions
● Limiting Reactant= Reactant that is entirely consumed, determines
how much of the products are produced.
● Excess Reactant= Reactant leftover from the reaction
● All chemical reactions are reversible, in principle, many reactions
lead to incomplete conversion of reactants to products
● Almost all reactions that occur in living things are carried out in
solutions in which the reacting substances are dissolved in water.
● A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more substances
○ Solvent= Medium (usually liquid or water)
○ Solute= Thing being dissolved
● Electrolytes= Compounds whose aqueous solutions conduct
electricity/all ionic compounds that are soluble in water
○ The conductivity of a solution depends on its ion concentration
○ A water molecule is electrically positive on one side (H Atoms)
and electrically negative on the other (O Atoms). These
charges enable water to interact with both positive and negative
ions in an aqueous solution.
○ When an ionic substance is dissolved in water, each ion is
surrounded by water molecules
○ Electrolyte drinks contain a converted ionized substance, which
has been dissolved in an ionizing substance such as water.
In order for a chemical reaction to take place, the reactants must
collide

Types of Reactions
● Combination, Decomposition, Single Displacement, Double
Displacement
 ● Precipitation reaction= When solid/s (s) are formed in the product
● Gas Forming reaction= When a gas (g) is formed in the product
● Acid-Base reaction= If the product has H20 and NaCl
● Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) reaction= When a transfer of
electrons is involved
○ Oxidation Is a Loss of electrons, Reduction Is a Gain (OILRIG)

● Combustion reaction= When H20 and CO2 are formed as products

Oxidation Numbers
● Each atom in a pure element has an oxidation number of 0
● Monoatomic Ions= oxidation number is equal to the charge of the ion
● When combined with another element, flourine always has an
oxidation number of -1
● Oxidation number of 0 is -2 in most compounds

Exceptions:
● When oxygen is combined with flourine, oxygen takes a positive
number
 ● Peroxides= Oxygen has an oxidation number of -1
● Superoxides= Oxygen has an oxidation number of -½
● Cl, Br, and I have an oxidation number of -1 in compounds, except
when combined with oxygen and flourine.
● The oxidation number of H is +1 in most compounds.
● The algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers for the atoms in a neutral
compound must be zero; in a polyatomic ion, the sum must be equal
to the ion charge

Materials (Special Topics)

● Different eras in human history are named after the metals
predominantly used during that era (Stone, Bronze, Iron, Porcelain
and Ceramics, Steel Age, Information/Silicon Age)
● Defined by modes of primary bonding: Ionic, Covalent, and Metallic
● Ionic Bonds=Ceramics
○ Compounds made from combining metallic and non-metallic
elements. Held together by Coulombic bonding force
○ Frequently occurs as oxides, nitrides, and carbides
○ Relatively stiff and strong
○ Have high hardness and typically insulative to electricity and
heat ex: Clay
● Covalent Bonds=Polymers
○ Consists of long organic molecular chains (polyethylene chains
of Carbon and Hydrogen)
○ Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically
based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements
○ Low densities and low softening temperatures
○ Ex: Plastics, polystyrene, nylon, rubbers
● Metallic Bonds=Metals
○ Inorganic substances composed of one or more metallic
elements and often also nonmetallic elements (C, N, O) in
relatively small amounts.
○ Metal alloy is composed of 2 or more metals.
○ Large number of delocalized electrons (electron sea)
○ Very good conductors of heat and electricity
○ Fe, Cu, Al, Brass (Cu and Zn)