Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another, typically involving a

change in residence. It can be voluntary or forced, temporary or permanent, and can occur within
a country (internal migration) or across international borders (international migration).

Types of migration:

1. Internal migration: This refers to the movement of people within the same country. It can be
rural to urban migration (from rural areas to cities), urban to rural migration (from cities to rural
areas), or interregional migration (between different regions within a country).

2. International migration: This involves the movement of people from one country to another. It
can be further categorized into immigration (moving into a new country) and emigration (leaving
one's home country).SS

Immigration and emigration are both related to the movement of people from one country to
another, but they refer to different perspectives of this movement.

Immigration refers to the act of individuals moving into a new country with the intention of
settling there. It involves the process of entering and establishing oneself in a new country, often
for reasons such as work, study, family reunification, or seeking asylum.

Emigration, on the other hand, refers to the act of individuals leaving their home country to settle
in another. It involves the process of leaving one's home country and establishing oneself in a
new one. Emigration is often driven by factors such as seeking better economic opportunities,
escaping political persecution, or joining family members who have already emigrated.

In summary, immigration focuses on the perspective of the receiving country, while emigration
focuses on the perspective of the sending country.

Merits of migration:

1. Economic benefits: Migration can contribute to economic growth by filling labor market gaps,
especially in sectors with labor shortages. Migrants often take up jobs that locals are unwilling or
unable to do, boosting productivity and overall economic output.
2. Cultural exchange: Migration allows for cultural diversity and exchange as migrants bring
their traditions, languages, and customs with them. This enriches the host society's cultural fabric
and promotes understanding between different communities.

3. Remittances: Migrants often send money back home in the form of remittances, which can
provide a significant source of income for their families and contribute to poverty reduction in
their home countries.

Demerits of migration:

1. Brain drain: Migration can lead to a loss of skilled professionals from developing countries as
they seek better opportunities abroad. This brain drain hampers development efforts in their
home countries by depleting human capital.

2. Social tensions: The influx of migrants can sometimes lead to social tensions between host
communities and newcomers due to competition for resources, cultural differences, or perceived
threats to local identity.

3. Exploitation and vulnerability: Migrants are often vulnerable to exploitation due to their
limited legal protections and unfamiliarity with local laws and customs. They may face
discrimination, low wages, poor working conditions, or even human rights abuses.

It is important to note that the merits and demerits of migration may vary depending on specific
contexts and circumstances

Migration versus refugee

Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another, typically with the
intention of settling in a new location. It can be voluntary or forced, and can occur for various
reasons such as economic opportunities, education, family reunification, or seeking a better
quality of life. Migration can be within a country (internal migration) or across national borders
(international migration).
Refuge, on the other hand, refers to the act of seeking protection or safety in another country due
to fear of persecution, violence, or other forms of harm in one's home country. Refugees are
individuals who have been forced to leave their homes and seek refuge elsewhere. They often
flee due to conflicts, wars, human rights abuses, or natural disasters. Refugees have a well-
founded fear of persecution and are protected under international law.

While migration can encompass various reasons for moving, including seeking refuge, not all
migrants are refugees. Refugees have a specific legal status and are entitled to certain rights and
protections under international law, such as the right to seek asylum and be granted refugee
status if their claims are valid.

In summary, migration is a broader term that encompasses any movement of people from one
place to another for various reasons. Refuge refers specifically to seeking protection from harm
in another country due to fear of persecution or violence.

Classifying and analyzing migration involves categorizing different types of migration and
studying the patterns, causes, and impacts of these movements. This process helps researchers,
policymakers, and organizations better understand migration trends and develop strategies to
address related issues.

There are several ways to classify migration:

1. Internal vs. International Migration: Internal migration refers to the movement of people
within a country's borders, while international migration involves crossing national borders.

2. Forced vs. Voluntary Migration: Forced migration occurs when individuals are compelled to
leave their homes due to conflict, persecution, or environmental disasters. Voluntary migration,
on the other hand, is driven by personal choice or economic opportunities.

3. Rural-Urban Migration: This type of migration involves the movement of people from rural
areas to urban centers in search of better job prospects, education, healthcare facilities, or
improved living standards.
4. Economic Migration: Economic migrants move from one place to another primarily for
employment opportunities and economic reasons.

5. Refugee and Asylum Seeker Migration: Refugees are individuals who have fled their home
countries due to fear of persecution based on their race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or
membership in a particular social group. Asylum seekers are individuals who have applied for
refugee status but have not yet been granted protection.

Analyzing migration involves studying various aspects:

1. Push and Pull Factors: Understanding the factors that drive people to migrate (push factors) or
attract them to specific destinations (pull factors) helps identify the root causes of migration.

2. Demographic Analysis: Analyzing demographic characteristics such as age, gender, education

level, and family composition provides insights into the composition of migrant populations.

3. Socioeconomic Impact: Assessing how migration affects both sending and receiving
communities in terms of labor markets, economic development, social cohesion, cultural
diversity, and remittances helps policymakers make informed decisions.

4. Integration Challenges: Analyzing the challenges faced by migrants in terms of language

barriers, discrimination, access to healthcare and education services helps identify areas where
support is needed for successful integration.

5. Policy Evaluation: Evaluating existing policies related to immigration and asylum can help
identify gaps or areas that require improvement in order to ensure effective management of
migratory flows.

By classifying and analyzing migration patterns and trends using these approaches, researchers
can gain a comprehensive understanding of this complex phenomenon and develop evidence-
based policies that address its challenges effectively.

Push factors of migration:

1. Economic hardship: Lack of job opportunities, low wages, and poverty can push people to
seek better economic prospects elsewhere.

2. Political instability: War, conflict, persecution, and human rights abuses can force people to
flee their home countries.

3. Environmental factors: Natural disasters, climate change, and environmental degradation can
make certain areas uninhabitable, leading people to migrate in search of a safer environment.

4. Lack of social services: Inadequate access to healthcare, education and other essential services
can motivate people to move to places where these services are more readily available.

5. Discrimination and persecution: Ethnic or religious discrimination, as well as persecution

based on gender or sexual orientation, can drive individuals or communities to seek refuge in
other countries.

Pull factors of migration:

1. Economic opportunities: The promise of better-paying jobs and higher standards of living can
attract migrants to countries with strong economies.

2. Political stability and security: Countries with stable governments and low levels of crime may
be seen as more attractive destinations for migrants seeking safety and security.

3. Access to social services: The availability of quality healthcare, education, and social welfare
programs can draw migrants to countries where these services are more accessible.

4. Family reunification: The desire to be reunited with family members who have already
migrated is a significant pull factor for many individuals.

5. Better quality of life: Factors such as better infrastructure, healthcare facilities, educational
institutions, and overall quality of life can attract migrants seeking an improved standard of
living
Globalization and migration are closely interconnected phenomena that have significant impacts
on societies, economies, and cultures around the world. Globalization refers to the increasing
interconnectedness and interdependence of countries and people through the exchange of goods,
services, information, and ideas. Migration, on the other hand, refers to the movement of people
from one place to another, often across national borders.

Globalization has facilitated the movement of people across borders by creating opportunities for
work, education, and better living conditions in different parts of the world. As a result,
migration has become a key feature of globalization, with millions of people leaving their home
countries in search of better opportunities elsewhere.

Migration can have both positive and negative impacts on both sending and receiving countries.
On one hand, migrants often contribute to the economies of their host countries by filling labor
shortages and bringing new skills and ideas. They also send remittances back to their home
countries, which can help alleviate poverty and stimulate economic development. On the other
hand, migration can also create social tensions and competition for jobs in host countries, as well
as brain drain in sending countries.

Globalization has also led to increased cultural exchange and diversity as people from different
backgrounds come into contact with each other through migration. This can lead to greater
understanding and appreciation of different cultures but can also create challenges related to
integration and social cohesion.

Overall, globalization and migration are complex phenomena that have far-reaching implications
for individuals, communities, and nations. It is important for policymakers to consider these
dynamics when developing strategies for managing migration flows and promoting inclusive
societies in an increasingly globalized world.

Gender and Migration

Gender and migration are closely intertwined, as migration patterns and experiences can differ
significantly based on gender. Women and men often have different reasons for migrating, face
different challenges during the migration process, and may have different opportunities and
outcomes in their new country.
For example, women may be more likely to migrate for family reunification or to escape
domestic violence, while men may be more likely to migrate for economic opportunities.
Women migrants also often face higher risks of exploitation, trafficking, and sexual violence
during their journey and upon arrival in a new country. Additionally, gender norms and roles can
impact the integration of migrants into their new communities. For example, women may face
barriers to accessing education or employment due to traditional gender roles, while men may
struggle with mental health issues related to the pressure of providing for their families. It is
important for policymakers and service providers to consider the intersection of gender and
migration in order to ensure that all migrants have access to the support and resources they need
for a successful integration process. This includes addressing issues such as gender-based
violence, access to healthcare, education, and employment opportunities that are tailored to the
specific needs of women and men migrants

Challenges of migration

Legal and policy challenges: Many countries have strict immigration laws and policies that make
it difficult for migrants to enter and stay in the country legally. This can lead to migrants being
forced to live in the shadows, without access to basic services or legal protections.

2. Economic challenges: Migrants often face economic challenges, including finding stable
employment and housing in their new country. They may also face discrimination in the job
market, leading to lower wages and limited opportunities for advancement.

3. Social challenges: Migrants may face social challenges such as language barriers, cultural
differences, and social isolation. They may also experience discrimination and prejudice from the
local population, which can impact their mental health and well-being.

4. Health challenges: Migrants often face barriers to accessing healthcare services in their new
country, including language barriers, lack of insurance coverage, and cultural differences in
healthcare practices. This can lead to poor health outcomes and increased vulnerability to
diseases.

Trends of migration:
1. Forced migration: The number of people forced to flee their homes due to conflict,
persecution, or environmental disasters is on the rise. This has led to an increase in refugees and
internally displaced persons seeking safety and protection in other countries.

2. Urbanization: More people are moving from rural areas to urban centers in search of better
economic opportunities and improved living conditions. This trend has led to overcrowding in
cities, strain on infrastructure and resources, and increased competition for jobs.

3. Climate change migration: As climate change continues to impact communities around the
world, more people are being forced to migrate due to environmental disasters such as droughts,
floods, and hurricanes. This trend is expected to increase in the coming years as the effects of
climate change worsen.

4. Labor migration: Many countries rely on migrant workers to fill labor shortages in key
industries such as agriculture, construction, healthcare, and hospitality. This trend is likely to
continue as global demand for labor continues to grow.

Simply put, migration presents both challenges and opportunities for individuals and societies
around the world. It is important for policymakers to address these challenges while also
recognizing the contributions that migrants make to their new communities.

According to data from the United Nations, Europe has the highest inflows and outflows of
migrants among all continents. This is due to factors such as economic opportunities, political
stability, and proximity to conflict zones in other regions. Countries in Europe such as Germany,
France, and the United Kingdom are popular destinations for migrants, while countries in
Eastern Europe such as Ukraine and Poland also see significant outflows of migrants seeking
better opportunities elsewhere.
Chapter Two: Migration Theories, Rights, and Policies/Laws

A theory is a well-established explanation for a phenomenon that has been tested and supported
by evidence. It is a broad, overarching framework that explains how and why certain things
happen.

On the other hand, a model is a simplified representation of a system or process that is used to
make predictions or test hypotheses. Models are often based on theories but are more specific
and focused on particular aspects of the phenomenon being studied.

Simply put, a theory is a comprehensive explanation for a phenomenon, while a model is a

simplified representation used to make predictions or test hypotheses within that theory. Theories
of migration explain how and why migration happens.

Lee's (1966) theory of migration: Lee's theory emphasizes the push and pulls factors that
influence migration decisions, such as economic opportunities, political instability, and social
networks. It also highlights the role of individual decision-making in the migration process.

2. Mabogunje's (1970) migration systems theory: Mabogunje's theory focuses on the

interconnectedness of different regions and the flow of migrants between them. It emphasizes the
importance of social, economic, and political networks in shaping migration patterns.

3. Zelinsky's (1971) mobility transition theory: Zelinsky's theory posits that societies go through
stages of mobility transition, from traditional societies with limited mobility to modern societies
with high levels of mobility. It highlights how changes in technology, infrastructure, and social
norms impact migration patterns.

4. Skeldon's (1990) work on migration transitions: Skeldon's work examines how migration
transitions occur in response to changes in economic development, urbanization, and
globalization. It emphasizes the role of structural factors in shaping migration patterns.

5. Harris and Todaro’s (1970) neo-classical migration theory: Harris and Todaro's theory focuses
on the role of wage differentials in driving migration decisions. It suggests that individuals will
migrate to areas with higher wages, even if there are risks or barriers to entry.
 6. Piore’s (1979) dual labour-market theory: Piore's theory highlights the segmentation of labour
markets into primary and secondary sectors, with different levels of job security and
opportunities for advancement. It suggests that migrants often fill low-wage jobs in the
secondary sector

7. Stark’s (1978, 1991) new economics of labour migration: Stark's theory emphasizes the role of
household decision-making in shaping migration patterns. It suggests that individuals migrate to
maximize their income and improve their standard of living for themselves and their families.

8. Massey’s (1990) cumulative causation theory: Massey's theory argues that once a region
becomes a destination for migrants, it creates a feedback loop where more migrants are attracted
due to existing social networks and economic opportunities. This leads to a cumulative increase
in migration to that region over time

Putting together all the facts, all theories tried to come up with generalized understandings of
migration phenomena. Migration theories can be clustered together into some main paradigms,
following a more general division between ‘functionalist’ and ‘historical-structural’ social
theory.

A. Functionalist social theory Historical-structural Social theory Symbolic interactionist

theory
1 classical equilibrium models (from neo-Marxist conflict theory transnational
economics)
2 push–pull models and migration dependency theory diaspora
systems theories (mainly from
geography and demography)
3 dominant interpretations of migrant world systems theory creolisation
network theories (primarily from
sociology)
4 dual labour-market theory
5 critical globalization theory

An optimization strategy of individuals or families making cost–benefit calculations

 See migration as a positive phenomenon contributing to productivity, prosperity and,
eventually, greater equality in origin and destination societies through bidirectional flows
of resources such as money, goods and knowledge.
interpret migration as a function of income and other opportunity gaps between origin
and destination areas
 structural economic and power inequalities, both within and between societies, as well as
the ways in which migration plays a key role in reproducing and reinforcing such
inequalities
 how powerful elites oppress and exploit poor and vulnerable people, how capital seeks to
recruit and exploit labour and how ideology and religion play a key role in justifying
exploitation and injustice by making them appear as the normal and natural order of
things.
 People’s ability to make independent migration choices is constrained by states and other
structures such as family, community, networks and culture, which ultimately determine
the social, economic and human resources which people are able and willing to deploy to
migrate
 economic and political power is unequally distributed and that cultural beliefs (such as
religion and tradition) as well as social practices serve to justify and reproduce such
inequalities
 Focus on migrants’ everyday experiences, perceptions and identity

Instrumental and (2) intrinsic dimensions of migration

Instrumental aspirations have received the most attention in research and are related to migration
as a ‘functional’ or ‘utilitarian’ means to achieve another end, such as a higher income, higher
social status, better health care, better education or, in the case of refugees, protection from
persecution and violence.

the instrumental (functional, means-to-an-end) dimension of migration reflects the role of

migration as a way to achieve other personal or family goals such as increased income,
education, living standards or, in the case of refugees, personal safety
Intrinsic aspirations refer to the value which people may attach to the migration experience in
and of itself, such as the joy and pleasure derived from exploring new societies, seeing the
‘bright lights’ of the city

direct contribution of the freedom of mobility to people’s wellbeing, irrespective of whether they
move or not (‘migration as freedom’) people’s innate desire for adventure, discovery and
separation from (the parental) home for shorter or longer periods as well as to the intrinsic
wellbeing derived from the awareness of having the optional freedom to move.

Positive and negative liberty as manifestations of structural conditions

Capabilities approach enables us to conceptualize human mobility (people’s freedom to choose

where to live)

The concept of negative liberty refers to the absence of obstacles, barriers or constraints. This
comes close to popular ways of conceiving freedom, which often focus on the role of
governments in imposing constraints on people’s freedom or even being an outright threat to
people’s lives, for instance through regulation, oppression, violence or war.

Positive liberty refers to the ability to take control of one’s life and to realize one’s fundamental
purposes. Positive liberty ‘derives from the wish on the part of the individual to be his own
master’

Migration models

1. User Migration Model: Contains fields for user information such as id, username, email,
password, created at, and updated at.

2. Post Migration Model: Contains fields for post information such as id, title, content, user_id
(foreign key), created at, and updated at.

3. Comment Migration Model: Contains fields for comment information such as id, content,
post_id (foreign key), user_id (foreign key), created_at, and updated_at.

4. Category Migration Model: Contains fields for category information such as id and name.

5. Tag Migration Model: Contains fields for tag information such as id and name.
6. PostTag Migration Model: Contains fields to establish a many-to-many relationship between
posts and tags using foreign keys post_id and tag_id

A foreign key is a column or a set of columns in a database table that is used to establish a link
between two tables. It is used to enforce referential integrity between the two tables, ensuring
that data in one table corresponds to data in another table. The foreign key in one table is
typically linked to the primary key in another table.

Political Responses to Migration

1. Border control measures: Governments may implement stricter border control policies, such as
building physical barriers or increasing patrols to prevent unauthorized entry into the country.

2. Immigration policies: Governments may revise their immigration laws and regulations to
regulate the flow of migrants into the country, including setting quotas for different types of
migrants and prioritizing certain groups over others.

3. Refugee resettlement programs: Governments may establish programs to resettle refugees in

their countries, providing them with housing, education, and other support services.

4. Integration programs: Governments may implement integration programs to help migrants

adjust to their new communities, including language classes, job training, and cultural
orientation.

5. Diplomatic efforts: Governments may engage in diplomatic efforts with other countries to
address the root causes of migration, such as poverty, conflict, and persecution.

6. International cooperation: Governments may work with other countries and international
organizations to develop coordinated responses to migration issues, such as sharing information
on migrant flows and coordinating efforts to provide humanitarian assistance.

7. Humanitarian aid: Governments may provide humanitarian aid to migrants in need, such as
food, shelter, and medical care.

8. Public awareness campaigns: Governments may launch public awareness campaigns to

educate the public about migration issues and promote tolerance and understanding towards
migrants
International Law and Migration

International law plays a crucial role in governing migration and protecting the rights of
migrants. It provides a framework for countries to cooperate on issues related to migration, such
as border control, refugee protection, and human trafficking.

One of the key principles of international law related to migration is the principle of non-
refoulement, which prohibits countries from returning refugees or asylum seekers to a country
where they would face persecution or serious harm. This principle is enshrined in various
international treaties, such as the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol.

International law also sets out guidelines for the treatment of migrants, including their right to
seek asylum, access to healthcare and education, and protection from discrimination. The
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights are two key treaties that protect the rights of migrants.

Additionally, international law addresses issues such as human trafficking and smuggling,
providing a framework for countries to cooperate in combating these crimes and protecting the
rights of victims.

Overall, international law plays a crucial role in shaping policies related to migration and
ensuring that the rights of migrants are protected. By upholding these legal principles, countries
can work together to address the challenges posed by migration while respecting the dignity and
rights of all individuals involved

Human, Civil and employment related rights of migrants

Migrants, like all individuals, are entitled to certain human rights and civil rights regardless of
their immigration status. These rights include the right to life, liberty, and security of person; the
right to freedom of movement; the right to work and receive fair wages; the right to education;
the right to health care; and the right to freedom from discrimination.

In terms of employment-related rights, migrants should be treated fairly and equally in the
workplace. This includes being paid a fair wage for their work, having safe working conditions,
and not being discriminated against based on their immigration status. Migrants also have the
right to join trade unions and participate in collective bargaining.
It is important for governments and employers to respect and protect the rights of migrants in
order to ensure that they are able to live and work in dignity. Additionally, civil society
organizations play a crucial role in advocating for the rights of migrants and providing support
services to help them navigate legal systems and access resources. By upholding these rights, we
can create a more inclusive society that values the contributions of all individuals, regardless of
their background or nationality.

International Law and Cooperation Frameworks

International law is a set of rules and principles that govern the relations between states and other
international actors. It is based on treaties, customary practices, and general principles of law.
International law plays a crucial role in promoting cooperation and resolving conflicts between
states.

There are several key international cooperation frameworks that help facilitate cooperation
among states:

1. United Nations (UN): The UN is an international organization established in 1945 to promote

peace, security, and cooperation among its member states. It provides a forum for countries to
discuss and address global issues, such as climate change, human rights violations, and armed
conflicts.

2. International treaties: Treaties are formal agreements between states that establish legal
obligations for the parties involved. Treaties can cover a wide range of issues, including trade,
environmental protection, human rights, and disarmament.

3. Regional organizations: Regional organizations, such as the European Union (EU), African
Union (AU), and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), play an important role in
promoting cooperation among neighboring countries. These organizations often focus on
regional economic integration, security cooperation, and conflict resolution.

4. International courts and tribunals: International courts and tribunals provide a mechanism for
resolving disputes between states or individuals from different countries. The International Court
of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the UN and hears cases involving violations of
international law.
5. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs): NGOs play a crucial role in advocating for human
rights, environmental protection, and social justice on the international stage. They often work
alongside governments and international organizations to address global challenges.

Overall, international law and cooperation frameworks are essential tools for promoting peace,
stability, and prosperity in the global community. By upholding shared values and principles,
countries can work together to address common challenges and build a more just and sustainable
world.

Policy Principles (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
Policy on Migration)

Focus on the Needs and Vulnerabilities of Migrants- an integrated and impartial approach,
combining immediate action for migrants in urgent need with longer-term assistance and
empowerment.
Include Migrants in Humanitarian Programming - to guarantee impartiality and
nondiscrimination, taking into account the humanitarian needs of the host population
Support the Aspirations of Migrants - consider migrants’ own needs and interests, and support
their social inclusion, integration, and their aspirations
Recognize the Rights of Migrants - promote their social inclusion and their aspirations.
Link Assistance, Protection and Humanitarian Advocacy for Migrants - Assistance to migrants
goes hand in hand with efforts to protect them against abuse, exploitation, and the denial of
rights
Build Partnerships for Migrants - In working with external partners on migration, a common and
principled approach of the Movement is indispensable
Work Along the Migratory Trails - focus on situations and conditions in which migrants all
along their journey are especially susceptible to risks

Assist Migrants in Return - providing counselling and informing migrants about their options
Respond to the Displacement of Populations - The displaced populations might seek assistance
and protection within their own country, or might find refuge across international borders
Alleviate Migratory Pressures on Communities of Origin - social and economic distress;
environmental degradation; natural or man-made hazards; persecution, armed conflict, and
violence.
International Cooperation on Migration

1. The United Nations Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration: Adopted in
December 2018, this non-binding agreement sets out a comprehensive framework for
international cooperation on migration, addressing issues such as human rights, labor rights, and
migrant integration.

2. International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families: Adopted by the United Nations in 1990, this treaty aims to protect
the rights of migrant workers and their families, including the right to equal treatment with
nationals in terms of working conditions and social security.

3. International Organization for Migration (IOM) Migration Governance Framework: The

IOM's framework provides guidance on developing comprehensive migration policies that
promote safe, orderly, and regular migration while protecting the rights of migrants.

Regional Migration Policies/Laws:

1. European Union Common European Asylum System: The EU has established a common
asylum system to ensure that asylum seekers receive equal treatment across member states. This
includes regulations on asylum procedures, reception conditions, and qualification for refugee
status.

2. African Union Migration Policy Framework for Africa: Adopted in 2006, this framework aims
to promote safe, orderly, and regular migration within Africa by addressing issues such as human
trafficking, irregular migration, and migrant integration.
3. Mercosur Residence Agreement: Mercosur is a regional trade bloc in South America that has
established an agreement allowing citizens of member states to reside and work freely within the
bloc. This agreement promotes regional integration and facilitates labor mobility among member
countries.

These are just a few examples of international and regional migration policies/laws that aim to
regulate migration flows while protecting the rights of migrants. Each country or region may
have its own specific laws and policies governing immigration and asylum processes
Migration policies are shaped by a variety of factors, including economic, social, political, and
security considerations. Some of the key determinants of migration policies include:
1. Economic factors: Countries often design their migration policies based on their economic
needs. For example, countries facing labor shortages may implement policies to attract skilled
workers from abroad. On the other hand, countries with high unemployment rates may restrict
immigration to protect domestic job opportunities.
2. Social factors: Public opinion and societal attitudes towards immigration play a significant
role in shaping migration policies. Countries with strong anti-immigrant sentiments may adopt
restrictive policies, while those with more welcoming attitudes may have more open immigration
policies.
3. Political factors: Political considerations also influence migration policies. Governments may
use immigration as a tool to achieve political objectives, such as increasing diversity or
addressing demographic challenges.
4. Security concerns: In the wake of terrorist attacks and other security threats, many countries
have tightened their borders and implemented stricter immigration controls to prevent potential
threats from entering their territory.
Some of the most influential international policies and laws that shape migration include:
1. The United Nations Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration: Adopted in
2018, this non-binding agreement sets out a comprehensive framework for international
cooperation on migration issues.
2. The European Union's Common European Asylum System: This system establishes common
rules for asylum procedures and refugee protection across EU member states.
3. The International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families: Adopted by the United Nations in 1990, this convention sets out
rights and protections for migrant workers and their families.
4. The Refugee Convention: Adopted in 1951, this convention defines who is considered a
refugee and sets out the rights and obligations of both refugees and host countries.
Overall, migration policies are complex and multifaceted, influenced by a range of factors at
both national and international levels. By understanding these determinants and influential
policies/laws, policymakers can work towards creating more effective and humane migration
systems that benefit both migrants and host societies.
Is there Conflict between International and Regional Policies/Laws?

Yes, there can be conflicts between international and regional policies/laws. This can occur when
a regional policy or law contradicts or undermines an international treaty or agreement that a
country is a party to. In such cases, countries may face challenges in implementing both sets of
laws simultaneously and may need to navigate complex legal issues to ensure compliance with
both. Additionally, regional policies/laws may also conflict with each other, creating further
challenges for countries trying to navigate multiple legal frameworks.

CHAPTER THREE: HUMAN SECURITY: CONCEPTS, ORIGIN, THEORIES, & APPROACHES