CONSTRUCTION

METHODS AND
OPERATION
Construction Operations
Construction Operations
means all operations carried out when building or demolishing a
construction works (land digging, plastering, concrete work,
installation work, foundations and roof erection, joinery work, exterior
and interior finish, setting in motion and adjustment of equipment).
Construction operations shall be divided into general works
(earthworks, operations related to construction and installation of
building structures) and special works (other construction operations).
Site Clearance
Site Clearance/Preparation
From here, the actual construction process starts. Based on the site
and building plan, necessary excavations, leveling, and filling can be
undergone to prepare the site. The necessary excavation for utilities,
power, water and sanitation lines, temporary storage facilities are
prepared. Mostly the works needed to set up the utilities are prepared.
This is followed by an inspection. This includes removing any trees,
boulders or other obstacles that are in the way of your building, and
leveling or grading the ground.
Level the Site
Level the Site
Once the land is cleared, the clearing team will fill in any holes and
level the ground. Then, the team will put up wooden stakes to market
out where the foundation should be poured.
If the land has dips or hills, these will be graded to make sure there’s a
flat surface to accommodate the house and driveway.
Excavation
Excavation
generally means work involving the removal of soil or rock from a site
to form an open face, hole or cavity, using tools, machinery or
explosives. Excavation work can occur anywhere, including: on
construction sites. on business premises.
Earth Filling
Earth Filling
All buildings need refilling to refill for example sides of foundations,
trenches and floor to reach proper level. This involves demolition, if
any, the removal of rubbish and waste to 15cm depth of topsoil to
reach the good and clean soil. All filling shall be deposited in layers, not
exceeding 20 cm. loose depths.
Foundation
When the space you are building one is cleared and excavated, the
foundation can be poured. Depending on the size of your building and
the stability of the land, preparing the subsurface may need to be done
prior to the foundation being poured.
A foundation is the lower portion of building a structure that transfers
its gravity loads into the earth. Foundation work is done based on
drawings indicating the foundation’s depth, width, and length, etc. and
kind of foundation.
Foundation
Types of Foundation:
• Wall Footing :
It uses to carry applied loads that transfer
through bearing wall. A footing may have a base
course of concrete or may be entirely built up of
one material (bricks or stones). Bearing wall transfer
applied loads to footing at angle equal to 45° which
causes shear stresses.
Foundation
Types of Foundation:
• Isolated Footing:
The foundation which receives concentrated
loads from one column or pier and transmits the load
to the ground. The footing shape is square or
rectangular depend on the column shape to resist the
applied bending moment.
Foundation
Types of Foundation:
• Combined Footing:
Where there is a wide spread of pad
foundation to a framed building due to the low bearing
capacity of the subsoil or the close spacing of columns,
such that the edge of adjacent separate foundations
would be close together, it may be economical and
convenient to form one continuous foundation.
Combined foundation receives concentrated loads
from two columns.
Foundation
Types of Foundation:
• Cantilever Foundation:
Where a framed building is to be erected
alongside an existing building it is often necessary to
use a cantilever foundation for the columns next to the
existing building, so that pressure on the subsoil due to
the base may not so heavily surcharge the subsoil
under the foundation of the existing building as to
cause it to appreciably.
Foundation
Types of Foundation:
• Mat Foundation:
A raft or mat foundation is a large continuous
rectangular or circular concrete slab that carries the
entire load of the superstructure and spreads it over
the whole area beneath the building. It is considered
as one type of shallow foundation and is useful in
controlling the differential settlement
Foundation
Types of Foundation:
• Pile Foundation:
A pile foundation is defined as a series of
columns constructed or inserted into the ground to
transmit loads to a lower level of subsoil. A pile is a
long cylinder made up of a strong material, such as
concrete. Piles are pushed into the ground to act as a
steady support for structures built on top of them.
Concrete Works
Concrete Works
• Components of Concrete:
1. Cement :
Cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets,
hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. A
commonly known type of cement, Portland cement, is manufactured
from limestone and clay which are ground together with water to form
slurry. This is then dried and burnt at high temperature after which it is
ground to a fine powder.
Concrete Works
• Components of Concrete:
2. Aggregates :
The type and quality of aggregates, which make up the bulk of
concrete, vary according to the purpose. The size, shape, grain, density
and grading of aggregate all affect the workability of the concrete.
They also affect its strength. Aggregate used in concrete classified to
fine and coarse aggregate.
Concrete Works
• Components of Concrete:
3. Water :
Mixing water should be clean and free from acids, vegetable or
deleterious matter. Normally it should be fit for drinking.
4. Admixtures :
They are used in concrete to get especial properties.
Concrete Works
• Batching of Concrete
This operation is concerned with the measurement of dry materials for
making concrete which may be mixed either by hand or machine.
Manual mixing is fairly common with small builders. To get the correct
proportion of materials a gauge box is used.
Concrete Works
• Mixing
Hand mixing is used where only small quantities of concrete are
needed. It should be carried out on a clean hard surface or platform to
prevent soil contamination. The cement, sand and coarse aggregate
must be thoroughly mixed before water added. The amount of water
must given a good workable mix.
Structural Framing
Framing comes after the foundation is poured and has dried. Then the
construction crew will create the framework of the building, which
consists of, among other things, beams, trusses.
Structural Framing
• Steel Frame characterized by:
 High strength.
 Relatively low weight.
 Ability to span large distances.
 Ease of installation.
 Off site fabrication, allowing high quality.
 Mass production of repeating units.
 Availability of a wide range of ready-made structural sections.
Structural Framing
• Reinforced Concrete Frame characterized by:
 All raw materials excepting reinforcing steel bars are locally
manufacturing.
 These frames may be cost in site or precast in special factories.
 Concrete frames give the construction designer more ideas about
the style of construction.
 These frames characterized by high durability and fire strength.
 Disadvantages of these frames are heavy weight; need long time to
construct it
Masonry
Masonry
Masonry is the term for building structures by laying individual units
(brick, stone, concrete block) and binding them (by cement mortar and
rebar).
In the Philippines, the Concrete Hollow Block is the common masonry.
Masonry
Rebar Works
Rebar Works
Rebar is a steel bar that is used in concrete construction. By adding
these reinforcing steel bars, you're creating reinforced concrete.
Whether your project includes floor slabs, walls or posts, rebar helps
keep cracks that form from making the project fall apart.
Rebar Works
• Marking
a. Manufacturer’s Mark
A logo or symbol registered or to
be registered with the Philippine
Patent Office
b. Bar Size – Arabic Number
reflecting the nominal diameter of
the bar
Rebar Works
• Marking
c. Grade – Dash or the
grade number itself
No dash – grade 230
1 dash – grade 275
2 dashes – grade 415
No W – regular steel bar
W – Weldable steel bar
Rebar Works
• Marking
Color Codes painted on the surface of the ends of each bar may also be
used of its grade
Grade 230 - white
Grade 275 - yellow
Grade 415 - Green
Weldable Grade – red (additional color code)
Formworks
Formworks
Formwork is the term used for the process of creating
a temporary mold into which concrete is poured and
formed. Traditional formwork is fabricated using timber, but it can also
be constructed from steel, glass fibre reinforced plastics and
other materials.
While formwork is a broad term that is used in relation to the forming
process using a wide variety of materials, shuttering is a term that is
often used to refer to the process of using plywood to form the mold.
Formworks
Here is what makes a formwork perfect:
• Resistance against the pressure of fresh concrete, the speed of it welling up
while being poured and its vibro-tamping.
• High quality and smooth finishing of concrete surfaces.
• Sturdy formation supported and efficiently reinforced both horizontally and
vertically, in order to maintain shape and stability.
• Formwork materials must be economical, procurable and facilitate reutilization
• The formwork follows a precise positioning line, along with a smooth, flat
surface.
Formworks
Timber Formwork:
• Timber formwork takes the form of a
structure of boards surrounding an open
cavity, and also offers several advantages
over other formwork types. Cost. Timber
formworks can be constructed at a lower
starting cost when compared to steel
because of its availability and cheaper
production costs.
Formworks
Timber Formwork Advantages:
• Ease of execution and connections
• Lightweight
• Higher execution speed than metal formwork due to its lightweight
(in small projects)
• Low thermal coefficient
• Less cost than metal formworks
Formworks
Timber Formwork Disadvantages:
• Requires sufficient care in concreting to prevent damage to the edges of the
Timber formwork
• Low resistance to moisture
• Impossibility to use them more than 10 times
• Being time-consuming in implementing large projects
Formworks
Plywood Formwork:

• Plywood formwork is a lightweight,

durable and eco-friendly system that
provides high quality concrete cast
surface. It is prepared by combining
the specially prepared three layers
on top of each other.
Formworks
Plywood Formwork:
• Plywood formwork is applicable wherein a large surface needs be coated with a
light and durable material. It is especially preferred in molds prepared for pouring
concrete in constructions. Usually, plywood boards are made of birch, poplar,
spruce, or pine but there are many types of materials used by plywood
manufacturers in different parts of the world. While the type of plywood used is
important, the real opportunity for making a difference for the final concrete
result is the type of coating: the film that is applied on the plywood surface.
Formworks
Plywood Formwork Advantages:
• Provides high-quality concrete cast surface
• Favorable for weight to strength ratio
• Minimal deflection due to inherent stiffness
• High durability
• Can be reused
• The panel shear of plywood is nearly double that of solid timber due to its cross laminated
structure.
• Easy to machine and fix using standard machining and fastening methods
• Wide variety of different overlays and sizes available
Formworks
Steel Formwork:

• Steel formwork features large steel

plates secured together with bars
and couples known as falsework.
Using steel is a good choice for
builders because steel will not bend,
warp, or otherwise become
misshapen during the concrete
curing process
Formworks
Steel Formwork Advantages:
• Steel formworks can be installed and removed easily and quickly. Using steel
formworks ensures a better quality of the concrete surface and do not require
further treatment. Steel formworks do not absorb moisture from concrete. Steel
formworks do not shrink nor deform.
Formworks
Steel Formwork Disadvantages:
• The downside to steel formwork, however, is the weight: the plates can be
difficult to lift into place, which means heavy machinery may be necessary to
place the panels correctly.
• Another drawback to steel formwork is the difficulty with which it can be
transported and stored. The panels can be exceptionally heavy, which means
transporting them can be difficult, especially in bulk
Doing Rough Electrical and Plumbing Works
After the building has been completed framed out, specialty contractor
will come in to complete rough electrical and plumbing work. This
involves installing the pipes and wires where they need to go. Their job
will not be completed at this point, but it helps to get the rough work
in place so drywall, insulation and ceilings can go up.