CHA R TER

Structural and Functional Unit of

Life Forms

LEARNING OBJECTIVES "The body is a cell state in Which every~,.~,

citizen. Disease is merely the conflict of thee~~
On completion of study of Chapter 3, the student of the state brought about by the act~
will be able to: '"'· ion«
ext~rpal forgr
understand the concept of cells and why it is
-Rud~lfVir~
called structural and functional unit of living
organisms.
• describe the basic components of the Cell
Theory and how it gradually evolved. 3.1 Introduction
• describe the fundamental properties of cells.
Have you ever wondered what distinguishes a!iii
• understand how organisms are classified into
prokaryotes and eukaryotes and what are the
organism from a lifeless object? Most of you wo/
basic differences between them. say a living organism moves, talks, sings, dance!
• understand the structure, properties, and func- feels, and cares for loved ones, while a non-livingoo
tions of different organelles present in the cells. ject does not do all these. When someone asks w
• understand the basics of cell division and explain what are you made up of, you'll mostly say that1ou
the events that takes place during different are made up of 'cells' and define them as the struc
phases of mitosis and meiosis, which are two tural and functional unit of life as per your mem
types of cell division.
ory of biology lessons in school. In simple term1
• describe the similarities and differences between cells are the smallest piece of you that is alive and a1'
mitotic and meiotic cell division.
everything that you do to keep your body alive sucn
as take in food to obtain energy, remove waste, ana
respond to stimuli. The word 'cell' has been derivea
from a Latin word 'cella' meaning 'small room'. A
cell is considered as the smallest basic structural anJ
functional unit oflife and acts as the building bloc~
of all living beings.
. even
Cells vary in shape, size, and functwns, theJJJ
within the same organism, although all of are
follow the same principles and processes t~at!llf'
necessary to maintain life. The smallest cell i~ fee·
coplasma (~ 10 µm) a bacterium that cause 10 ·en
.
hons, '
whereas the largest cell is the egg of an ostrI
. (he
15
(170 mm x 130 mm). In humans, a sperm eo'
smallest cell (~.60 µm long), while an ovum or D~

J
 Chapter 3 Structural and Functional Unit of Life Forms

cell is the largeS t ( ~O. lS-0, 2 mm). You will be surprised to know that a human being has ~37 trillion cells, but
they are so small th at ~SO cells would be required to cover the area of a dot on the letter. The loss of function
or flaws in functi_on of any cell can lead to serious abnormalities in the body of an organism.
Several studies wer~ performed by many scientists after the discovery of the cell. In 1665 Robert Hooke
undertook several stu dies to understand cells in great details. After almost two centuries, the scientists
proposed th ~t th e cell is the basic unit of life and all living beings are composed of one or more cells, which
became two important tenets of the 'cell theory'.
Cells are primari~y of two 1:"Pes, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, based on the presence of different subcellu-
lar structures and their properties. A prokaryotic cell is like a multifunctional cutlery serving many purposes
without any well-defined organelles, while a eukaryotic cell is like a silverware set comprising different orga-
nelles such as the nucleus, golgi apparatus, ribosomes, etc., with each of them performing individual functions
within the cells. These have been described concisely in this chapter. Each cell, be it prokaryote or eukaryote,
divides to produce multiple copies, which is called 'cell division' that helps in replacing damaged or old cells
such as skin cells with the new ones and growth of the organism by increasing the number of cells. Mitosis
and meiosis are two types of cell division that takes place in somatic and germ/reproductive cells, respectively,
which operates through a series of phases, which are like chapters of a story. These phases and the associ-
ated events have been described in this chapter in addition to highlighting the similarities and differences
between them.

3.2 Discovery of Cell

'Cell' was discovered and coined for the first time in 1665 by Robert Hooke using the compound microscope
devised by him, which he referred to as tiny functional units of life. Robert Hooke saw very tiny irregular and
shallow spaces surrounded by walls, like a honeycomb while examining a thin, dried slice of cork under his
microscope. He called these tiny spaces 'cells: which he documented in his book 'Micrographia'. He assumed
that cells were only present in plants and fungi (e.g., mushroom). This discovery changed the study of biol-
ogy forever, although he could not observe subcellular structures within the cell due to t\\lO possible reason~: ·
(i) the microscope he devised was of a very low magnification, and (ii) his samples were cork which compris~d
dead cells that lacked cytosol (fluid content of the cell) or organelles. •
Later, Antony van Leeuwenhoek built several of his own microscopes with advanced lenses employing
the designs described by Robert Hooke in Micrographia. Using these advanced microscopes of ma-gni-
fication 10 times more than that of Robert Hooke's microscope, he observed different microorgai;iisms
in the water of Berkelse Meer, a lake located at Delft in the Netherlands. He was the first person to
observe the living cells. He discovered single-celled organisms and structures present within the walls of
Hooke's originally-thought empty cells. This discovery by Antony van Leeuwenhoek marked the begin-
ning of a new discipline, termed as microbiology - the study of microscopic organisms. Leeuwenhoek
was the first to observe and explain the microscopic living organism 'bacteria' in 1674, which he called
'animalcules'.

3.3 Cell Theory

Robert Hooke and Antony van Leeuwenhoek were the first to observe cells, but it took almost 200 years to
achieve a unified understanding of cells. In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, proposed that all
plant parts were made of cells and one year later, Theodor Schwann, a German physiologist, pr.o posed that all
 40 Biology for Engineers . .

· · -- ·· · ·- .. · · .. S h ann in 1839 stated for the first tillle th

animal tissues were also composed of cell • FmaUy;; Theodor c w work, 'M'icroscopica · IR <searches into at •I
5
·n his ublished
living things are composed of cells and cell products I d Pp! ts' This became the first statement in Ce]) th 14
h
Accordance in the Structure and Growt Of Animals an . an d· Schwann are ;om · · tlYered ·ted• schJeid eoti
1
also known asthe '<ell doctrine , ,or wh'ICh b th Schle1den an s generation, wh'1ch was Iater dispro,'<I en,I
, c O

Schwann also stated that cells originated through spontanleohuV'rchow He proposed in 1855 "Ornn · 'Or
1
PY"~WJ
replaced by a dictum proposed by _German h · · Rudo ells'pThis became
· the accepted third
. principle s ce//
1 of ~
e "Uufa" meaning '.',]] cells only anse from pre-ex,shng c · of cell division. Three basic comp
theory as all cclf, come from pre-existing cells through the process •~
of the cell theory are provided below: 0
1

i. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.

ii. The cell is the basic unit oflife in all living things.
iii. All cells only arise from pre-existing cells.
S
evera] advancements in technologies took place alter t e propos110 ea,
· h ·t· n of the classical cell theory, which l
to new discoveries about cells. These discoveries lead to the formation of the 'modern cell theory•, >hi<!
includes the below tenets in addition to the original classical cell theory:

i [ l, cell ceU contains genetic information in the fonn ofDNA which is passed on from ccll to cell do,"g
Thedivision.
I : ',/
I I
If : '/ U. AU ceU, are basicaUy the same in theic chemical composition and metabolic activities.
;ti·I lll. All energy flow ofllfe occurs within the ceUs. This mean, basic chemical and physiological lunctforu
I
j
i
!
l

I
such as movement and digestion are carried out inside the cells.
lv, The activity of cclls depends on the activities of sub-cellular structures within it.
' However, following are the exceptions to the cell theory:

I 1!
,
• Viruses, The'.e have no cells and cannot divide or generate energy on their own, which violates th,
cell theo,y. Varnses are composed of protein, and one of the nucleic adds (DNA or RNA) d 1 k

lI -.
protoplasm and behave as living ocganJsm, when they are pre.sent Within the h
non-living when present outside the host.
• • Bacteria and blue-green algae: These organisms lack well-orgarused nucl
. anb ac
os organisms, ut as
1
I
' membrane, nucleolus, and nucleoplasm. Their genetic ffialeria] nak';;' "dWell as the nucleac
•. chromosome. • an alone forms the
i Coenocytic hYPhae of Rhllopus (fungus) and cells of Vaucberia ( ell
i
' multinucleate. 1 oW-green algae) au
11
I ,
/ JIBc., RBCs are cells of blood but lack nude":' ~d _m<>st ocgan,n,,, indu . . .
i I! reticulum and mitochondria, and hence cannot d1v1de like other cells Vi t' ding the endoplasmic
0I
! The discoveries about the cell, and cell strnctuces conhnued to mcrease With' the a. mg the cell theorY.

Il i:::,-nt
. .
I
1
j I
ity_ and magnification of microscopes. It soon became evident that there - in the qual-
. /,·_1
umceUulac and multicellular - based on the nwnber of ceU, the ocganum, comJ>ri, d ior type, of cells -
1

that some have a membrane-bound nucleus and some did not, which wee, ten,,ed ' ; It"" fiutber noticed
· 'w1'th the nut' or 'k'CUel,), "'I>ectiv.J
'he/ore the nuf o, 'kernel') and eukaryote (meanmg, ~yote, (llleanin&
as ProJr,,__
Here, the nut o, kernel refers to the nucleus. Y(discu.,,d later).

I"
i'
·,

ij
 Chapter 3 Structural and Functional Unit of Life Forms
• • 1,
' . .

-J44•tiJit•1~•·~•i~tA1~1iid1~fc-L_____________----;-----
BioMEMS is a subset of miniaturised mechanical and electro-mechanical elements or devices, termed as MEMS
(MicroElectroMechanical Systems). This refers to MEMS that are used in biological applications or use biological mol-
ecules as a part of the device. For example, MEMS are used in cell sorting, separating organelles, drug delivery, and
as an inertial sensor of pacemaker as well as for virus detection or disease diagnosis by incorporating appropriate
biomolecules such as antibodies into the MEMS device. From this, you can understand that engineering contributes
to biology and also uses biology for technological innovations. ·

3.4 Fundamental Properties of Cells

Cells are the smallest units of the organism that exhibit properties of life just like plants, animals, and other
organisms. The fundamental properties shared by all cells are listed below:
i. Cells possess a genetic program encoded in the form of DNA which is decrypted whenever needed.
ii. Cells can produce more copies of themselves like any organism by adopting the process known as
'cell division', which is described in the later part of this chapter.
iii. Cells can acquire energy from the food or environment and utilise them for performing different
activities.
iv. Cells are involved in mechanical activities such as transport of materials, movement of cells from one
place to the other, etc.
v. Cells are like 'miniaturised chemical plants' which perform several chemical reactions within
themselves, especially with the help of enzymes, the biocatalysts.
vi. Cells respond to stimuli. When you touch leaves of the 'Touch-me-not' plant (Mimosa pudica), the
leaves fold up in response to your touch. This is one of the best examples of response to stimuli. Do '
you know why this response to stimuli occurs? Refer to 'BRAIN TICKLING FACTS: It may be
noted that response to stimuli is less observed in case of multicellular organisms. ·
,r
vii. Cells have the ability of self-regulation to protect themselves from variations such as temperature,
pH, and chemical composition by switching on different mechanisms. :
viii, Cells have the ability to evolve, which is evident from the evolution of humans from apes. ,<
t

' BRAIN TICKLING FACTS

You might have observed that the leaves of the 'Touch-me-not' plant ('TickleMe plant') fold up and droop if you
touch them. This might be an evolutionary event adopted by this plant to protect themselves from herbivores
while trying to eat them up. They protect themselves by disguising as 'wilted' when touched. Now, you may
wonder, how does it happen.
When one touches this plant, the extensor cells of the pulvinus bend and the flexor cells of the pulvinus
stretch jointly create a movement leading to bending. The stimulus exerted by touching produces electrical
signals that forces water to move out of the extensor cells of the pulvinus located at the base of each leaflet
,

'
 42 Biology for Engineers

resulting ,n (
. a Ioss of turgor pressure of the water) in the extensor cells that causes drooping of the leaves of the
'Touch-me-not' plant.

3.5 Classes of Cells - Prokar otic and Eukar otic

Many scientists believe that life originated on Eru-th from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) which
' appeared about 3,5 billion years ago, The first life forms were possibly prokaryotes made of bacteria and
archaea (formerly known as archaebacteria), Hence, the prokaryotes are considered as the most primitive
organisms from which complex eukaryotes have evolved which differ from each other in their structural
featll('s and presence of different sub-cellular structures. A prokaryotic cell is like a simple multifunctional
cutlery serving many purposes, whereas a eukaryotic cell (plants, animals) is like a silverware set consist-
ing of fork, spoon, knife, etc., that has different items for each individual function. Prokaryotes usually lack
organelles, e.g., endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondri~ and lysosome, which are present in
the eukaryotes. However, they contain few organelles such as nucleoid, mesosome, and plasmid exclusively
within tliem, but are not membrane-bound like eukaryotes (Hgure 3.1). Eukaryotes, in addition to other
organeJies contain a well-defined true nucleus containing genetic material (DNA) coupled with histone pro-
teins that prokaryotes
cytoplasm lack. In prokaryotes, the genetic material is only DNA which is present naked in the
termed as 'nucleoid'.

AthU-d category of cells are also there which are known as 'me'.okaryotes' :'he'.ein the nuclear membrane
is present around the nucleus but DNA is not associated with h~tone protems bke that of the eukaryotes.
These cells are more advanc;d than prokaryotes, but less advanced than eukaryote, e.g., Dinoflagellates
(marine
many moreplankton).
to it: Table 3.1 shows some differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes but the,, are
 Chapter 3 Structural and Functional Unit of Life Forms

Golgi apparat us
43 -
Ribosomes - - -u.

• • • •

Lysosome - -_µ..

Nucleus - - - - 1L.1.

Mesosome

Endoplasmic
Chromosom reticulum

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

I
Figure 3.1
Differences between the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

Table 3.1 --~~ .

These are unicellular organisms These are usually multicellular organisms

0.1-5.0 µm 10-100 µm
Size
A well-defined nucleus is absent. Instead, A well-defined nucleus is present bound
Nucleus
by a nuclear membrane
nucleoid is present
DNA is circular and double-stranded DNA is linear and double-stranded .
Genetic material
Organelles are not membrane bound, if present. Organelles are membrane bound. i
Organelles
Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum,
All these organelles are present r
Lysosomes, and Golgi Apparatus are absent
805
Ribosome 705
Mostly sexual
Mode of Asexual
Reproduction
Multiple origins of replication
Replication Single origin of replication

3.5.1 Classification of Bacteria

Prokaryotic cells, for example bacteria, are classified into different categories based on their morphology
(sphere shaped, rod shaped, and spiral shaped; refer to Figure 3.2 on next page), motility/structural features,
physiological features, and Gram staining.
 Cocci
Bacilli
Spirilla
Figure3.2
Classification
and Spirilla areofspiral-shaped
bacteria based on their
bacteria) morphology (Cocci are sphere shaped, Bacilli are rod shaped,

'
3.5. 1. 1 Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
Likewise, bacteria are classified into Gram-positive and Gram-negative based on the difference in their cell
wall structures that decides their capacity to hold the 'Gram stain'. The Gram-positive bacteria retain the cry,.
taI violetwith
staining (CV)safranin
dye and(discussed
stains purple, whereas the Gram-negative bacteria lose CV and stains red on counter.
later).

The cell wall of a Gram-positive bacteria (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus) is primarily made up of multiple
layers of peptidoglycan (mesh-like outer layer) along with teichoic acids and phosphate (Figure 3.3). On the

Lipopolysaccharides

Outer membrane

Upoproteins-~ - - ,

Peptidoglycan

Gram-positive
Gram-negative

I Upopolysaccha,ldes ) ( Porin I Protein

I Figure 3.3
Cell Wall pf Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
 __ _________.:,
Chapter 3 Structural and Functional Unit of Life Forms 45 -

other hand, th~ cell wal! of a Gram-negative bacteria (e.g., Escherichia coli) is composed of the outer membrane
consisting of hpoprotems, phospholipids, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and layers of peptidoglycan (often a
single layer). The presence of multiple layers of peptidoglycan makes Gram-positive bacteria more rigid and
thicker (20-80 nm), although they lack an outer membrane. The other differences are listed in the Table 3.2.

Cell Wall thickness 20-80 nm < 10nm

. Peptidoglycan layer Thick and multi-layered Thin and often single-layered

• Teichoic acids Teichoic acids are present Teichoic acids are absent

Lipopolysaccharide Lipopolysaccharide is absent Lipopolysaccharide is present

Outer membrane Outer membrane is absent Outer membrane is mostly present

Lipid content Very low 20%-30%

Resistance to antibiotics Very sensitive to antibiotics Very resistant to antibiotics

, Gram staining Stains purple Stains red

Gram Staining
This technique was developed by Hans Christian Gram in 1884, which is used to distinguish between
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria by staining these cells as purple and red, respectively. Gram-positive
bacteria stain purple by retaining CV due to the presence of a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls,
whereas Gram-negative bacteria stain red due to a thinner peptidoglycan wall, which does not retain the
CV during the decolouring process. The red colouration is because the counterstaining with safranin, an-
other dye. Gram staining involves four basic steps: applying a primary stain (CV) to a heat-fixed smear of
bacteria, followed by the addition of a mordant (Gram's iodine) that intensifies the colour of the primary
stain, rapid decolorisation with alcohol, and finally counterstaining with safranin. More details are pr~vided
in section 10.3.1.2 of Chapter 10.

r··- . ---- ..
f A cHECKPOINT
1. Do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have similarities between them? If so, mention the key
similarities.
2. How do bacteria look like?
3, Why is alcohol used in one of the steps of the Gram staining procedure?
4, Which cellular structure is accountable for the differential staining by the Gram stains? .
5, List the organelles that are absent in the prokaryotic cells.
II I 3 6 Prim~ u
. :a'l._B~n~c~tio~n~o~f~C~el:ls~a-=n~d=O:r: a::n:e~ll;es: :-:--
I you now tell what are theprimary jobs of cells and who performs these jobs? Cell,
Can•-=----
jobs: . Perforni thre, Pti~,
I (i) gy
To produce ener that is needed to fuel daily life and perform all activities and c ea,, u
t
I roduced while producing energy. p"I
'I
'j (ii) To m e P . n.1
P ak roteins and other biomolecules to run daily life, including their modiflcati·o
4
I (iii) }To make more cells that are needed for growth and repil!r of damaged or diseased cell,.
All th
·obs are being performed by the 'organelles; which are tiny cellular structures Present With· h
/! ese . I d. d . . . int ec,n,
I like dilli,rent units in a factory lllvo ve m pro UCIJon, processlllg, packaging, and transport of moJec,1e, i·
and out of the cells (Figure 3.4). These are also commonly cal]ed little organs of the eel&' that do the
of cells. The organelles associated with_ the first job of the cell are mitochondria, eel] membrane, Iy, , :~
0
vacuoles,
and and veSJdes.while
golgi apparatus, Thethesecond
thirdJob
JobISJSperformed
done by thebynucleus
the nudeos, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (!R),
and centriole.
0 0

• U.-
Glucose

Carbon dioxide

@
7. -.. ,,,
+
OOOOQO Aminoac1

t
Mitochondria (} . 'd s Nucleotides,
,,,,,.

ATP units (energy)

l
Protein I Modified/ Lysosome
~f RibosomemRN} /
- / \I

r ,' .-.,!-
tagged
import
Modified/ I lipids
tagged I, 0
I
0
proteins
I Unfolded~ - " J - -i ChromatinlI

-r•RNA I
--, , ,, , "' '1 Nude"', '

\ I
,!'J,
...
:"""'.....

IJ
.----- Litids ~ -\ -~
Protein
export Nuclear
Rough . ~' ~ ucleo~ s .,i, membrane
endoplasmic
CYtoplasm
Smooth •etkulum Processed
Plasma membrane reticulum
eodoplasmk protelru

ICell organeues are shown as analogous components of a

Figure
and 3.4of rnolecules in and out of the cells
transport
Y
. 1ved I·n production, processing, packaging,
factor mvo

aspects,
It iswhich are listed
interesting in Table
to note 3.3.anrma
that the e ce . lly of
ndeukaryotic
cisely in this section. T h• 01rganelles, 11 cells, ave
11 (Figure 3.5a) a plant ce (Figure
especia h 3.5b)
beendiffer in several
described pre-
 (a)
Chapter 3 Structural and Functional Unit of Life Forms 41 -
Plasma membrane
Peroxisome
Mitochondria - - -~ ~ ~
Centrosome
Ribosome - - - --»---,,
Vacuole

Smooth Endoplasmic
Nucleus - --11--
Reticulum (SER)
Nucleolus ----,-t--a
Microtubule
Chromatin - ---i\-
~ -"'' - - - - - - , f f - - - - Golgi apparatus
Rough Endoplasmic ---~___,•
Reticulum (RER)
Lysosome

Animal cell
(b)

Mitochondria - - ~ - -- - Cell wall

- - - Plasma membrane
Golgi apparatus - ---- - -- .~ ,---_ __ ,..___ _ Nucleus
~ - ~ - ---- - Nucleolus
Smooth Endoplasmic - - ------4
Reticulum (SER) ~ - Chloroplast
Rough Endoplasmic
Pero xi some - ------111----1n
Reticulum (RER)
Vacuole - - ---ll '------ -- Amyloplast

--~- - - - - - Ribosome

Plant cell

Figure 3.5
Structure and organelles of (a) an animal cell and (b) a plant cell

'
Table 3.3
q
~malcell I Plant cell
The size varies from 10-30 µm in length The size varies from 10- 100 µm in length, which means plant
cells are larger than animal cell s
Animal cells possess a plasma membrane but lack Plant cells possess both plasma membrane and cell wall
cell wall
Animal cells have lysosomes Plant cells rarely contain lysosomes as the plant vacuole
helps in degradation of waste products
An imal cells may have many small vacuoles Plant cells have a large central vacuole that occupy up to
90% of the cell's volume

(Con tinued)
 Biology ror tngmeer!>

Table 3.3
lantce I
lmH .
. . centrioles are absent In plant cells
entrioles are present in animal cells
Plastids are present in plant cells. E.g., Chloropl
Plastids are absent in animal cells. ast
Plasmodesmata are present in plant cells wh·i h
Plasmodesmata are absent in animal cells , c fanI
communication and transport of materials acr itate ,
oss Plant 1,11
Plant cells can synthesise food by photosynthesis ce111
Animal cells cannot synthesise food by
_JP
~h~o~t~o'.:
sy~n~t~h-=
e~si:_
s____________________________

....
...._J441Gt5it•1~• 1~•i~M 1~1iiil 1~tf-L_______________
SeveraI branches of engineering, especially mechanical, electrical, and engineering ~echanics, contribute t
ter understanding, detection, and treatment of cancer by investigating the mechanical, electrical, magner°~
-----
chemical properties of cancer cells that differs from normal cells. Mechanically, flexible nanohelices, a crucial ~,ai
nanorobots, are being synthesised for the treatment of cancer. The magnetic field is applied on them that pr~~
1

mechanical stress on cancerous cells causing their death.

Another example includes development of efficient cryopreservation techniques by the mechanical engin11
to preserve stem cells without any cryoinjury (damaging or killing of cells at lower storage temperature) thathol
great promises for stem cell transplantation and therapy, even personalised medicine.

3.6.1 Cell Membrane -The Outer Boundary

The cell membrane, otherwise known as plasma membrane, forms the outer boundary of the cell that contn
movement of materials in and out of the cell in addition to enveloping contents of the cell. The structure ru
composition of the plasma membrane has been explained through several models put forward by differe
scientists (see Table 3.4).
.... , ~
Table 3.4 _ -·-~

(8¥ Year Propositio~/ rood~ljmW' ~ - ; ,

4
; ' 1:

C.E. Overton 1895 The cellular limiting barrier is made of lipids

. . f l'pid bila1e
E. Gorter and F. Grendel 1925 For the first time, 1t was proposed that cell membrane is made O a 1 .
t0 wh1C1
H. Davdson and J.F. Danielli C1935 0rd
A 'sandwich model' of the cell membrane was proposed acc ing. hed
plasma membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer that is sa nd wic
between two layers of globular proteins
J.D. Robertson 1960 A 'unit mem_brane model'was proposed, according to ~hich th ~t:~he i
membrane Is made of three layers (protein-lipid-protein), ofwh ·ddlelayer
I
external layer is hydrophilic in nature comprising proteins, the_~ ·nnerlayer
1
!ight hyd_rophobic in ~ature comprising phospholipi~s, and t~e prote1~
1s comprised of proteins. It also stated that there is difference ~s _g nf11·
6
of the outer and inner layers. The thickness of the membrane 1 _
S.J. Singer and G. Nicolson 1972 Fluid-mosaic model
 Chapter 3 Structural and Functional Unit of Life Forms

Among the above models, the 'fluid-m . ,. . .

which the plasma membrane is a . fosaic model is umversally accepted till date, accordmg to
mosa:ic o compo t . . I d
roteins that move freely in the pl f h nen s cons1stmg of phospholipids, cholestero , an
P model considers cellular me b
This ane o t e memb h' h h
rane, w ic as a quasi-fluid structure (Figure 3.6).
m ranes as dynam · t · • ·1
and capable of interacting with each othe ic s ru~tures m which the components are mob1 e
interactions. r th rough vanous types of transient or semipermanent

Carbohydrate Glycolipid

Globular Hydrophilic
Glycoprotein heads
protein

Prospholipid
bilayer

Cholesterol

Integral Alpha-helix
protein protein (integral protein)
Surface
protein

I Figure 3.6
Fluid-mosaic model of the plasma membrane

In plants, another rigid, protective barrier is present outside the cell membrane, known as the 'cell wall'.
The cell wall is made up of cellulose which supports and protects cells. Bacteria also have cell walls like that
of plants. ·

3.6.2 Nucleus - Boss or Administrative Head of the Cell

The nucleus (Latin: nucleus- kernel or seed) is the largest membrane-bound spherical organelle of
the cell occupying 10% of its volume, which was discovered by Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, in
1831. The nucleus is the first organelle discovered and is considered as the control centre or boss or
administrative head of the cell. It is present in eukaryotes, only one per cell except in a matured human
 so Biology for Engineers 7
RBC which is enucleate (no nucleus), a slime mould which is multinucleate , a n d a paramec ·
, has two nuclei. iurn ,,.hi h
1
It performs two major
. functions
. that include
. storing of DNA and controllin difr
g 1erent acti · . . c
,
1 such as growth, metabolism,
,
protem synthesis, and reproduction •
The nucleus ·s
1 s d d
urroun e by d b Viti es of the h
ceij
1
i
· 'nuclear envelope that
. separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm but has nucl ear pores on it tha ou le-Jaye red
specific types and sizes of molecules to move across it. The nuclear pores all at perrnits On] _
the nucleus that are essential for synthesis of DNA/RNA. The nucleus c t ~w passag~ of the molecules ih )
, , th h b on ams a semifluid . .,,to
which is called nucleopJasm at ar ours chromatin, the condensed form of DNA matrix Within it
tains up to four membrane-less organelles known as 'nucleolus' w h'ch th . . · The nucleus also con.·
. I syn es1se nbosom d
other smaller components, su ch as CaJal bodies, GEMS (Gemini of coiled b 0 di . es, an a variety of
clusters (Figure 3.7). es), and mterchromatin oranuJe 0

- ...llilliiii:::--------- Nuclear envelope

~ ~ - - - - - Nuclear pore

u--,.~--\-------- Chromatin
~-,.~~~-UI---- Nuceolus

-,"'9..,_..,_____ Nucleoplasm

I Figure 3.7
Structural parts of a nucleus

3.6.3 Mitochondria - Powerhouses of the Cell

Mitochondria (Greek: mitos - thread, _chondros - _granule) we~e first discovered b . .
1857 and then coined by Carl Benda m 1898. This organelle 1s commonly kn Y Albert Von Kolhker 111
the cell" as it provides most of the energy (-90%) in the form of ATP that
0
;11
as the "powerhouse of
from the breakdown of food by the process of oxidative phosphorylation in th;e need to Survive, derived
ble membrane-bound organelle with inner and outer membranes separated ;utochondria. This is a dou-
(Figure 3.8). The inner membrane forms numerous folds termed as 'cristae' h'y an intermembrane spa.::t'
of the organelle termed as the 'matrix'. The inner mitochondrial membrane~ wt ich extends into the interior
small molecules between the cytosol and the matnx · t ht
a 31'd s m
· maintaining th
csasabarrier · to the passage of
·d • e Proton grad·
oxi at1ve phosphorylation. ient required for
The matrix contains circular DNA as the genetic material of the organeU
responsible for oxidative metabolism of the carbohydrates a~d fats for the produc~oas Well as the enzyn1es
mitochondrial DNA contains 37 genes that encode 13 proteins as well as 16S a d n of energy. In humans
· coded by th · n 12S rn"'A
which are required for translation of the protems en e mitochondrial genome. =" s and 22 tRNAs",

EM
 Chapter 3 Structural and Functional Unit of Life Forms

_ _ _ _ _ _ Outer membrane
Ribosome (SSS) _ _ _ _ Inter-membrane
space
Crista
Inner membrane

Granule
Mitochondrial
DNA Matrix
ATP synthase

Mitochondrion

I
Figure 3.8
Different parts of the mitochondrion of human

In addition to acting as a powerhouse of the cell, the mitochondria regulate programmed cell death or
apoptosis which is essential for intrauterine development, removal of damaged or aged cells, and maintaining
cell numbers through release of proteins such as cytochrome c from their intermembrane space in response to
cellular stresses. The mitochondria are also involved in storage of calcium ions and generation of heat through
brown fat. Surprised hearing 'brown fat'? Refer to the "BRAIN TICKLING FACTS" section.

.
~, .· BRAIN TICKLING FACTS
When we talk about fat, we are generally scared. But you will be surprised to know that fats help to produce heat
when you feel cold to maintain your body temperature. These are brown fats, not the white fats that we are gen-
erally afraid of. Brown fat contains more mitochondria than white fat which help in burning calories to produce
heat. Can brown fat's calorie-burning properties be exploited for weight management? You can ponder on that.

3.6.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)-A Manufacturing and Packaging System of the Cell
Endoplasmic reticulum is a series of membrane-lined Nuclear Envelope
channels running through the cytoplasm which was ---Nucleus
Ribosomes
independently discovered by Keith Porter and Helen
P. Thompson in the year 1945 but coined by Keith
Porter in 1953. This organelle is found in all eukary-
otes except mature RBCs.
ER acts as a manufacturing and packaging sys-
tem for the cells because it is involved in production,
Smooth Endoplasmic
processing, ·and transport of proteins and lipids.
Reticulum
There are two types of ER termed as rough ER and

I
smooth ER (Figure 3.9). The rough ER, present Figure 3.9
both in plants and animals, are peppered with ribo- Structure of the Endoplasmic reticulum (rough and
somes and located adjacent to the nucleus where its smooth)

be
 2 1ologY for E,, g;neers
b ane of the nuclear enveIope. V Th
Iike n.b osomes Iocat d ·.
s with th e outer JlleJll r t tothe ER l'.cor processing. h n eh rough
I ER' th e sine oh., i
e js B are
,ontil'ooos . s which th<• sen . s thesis of lipids, suc as c o esterol and1 ooi
are
,,.,.,::synthesis'.' P'~::mes, bot involved ;;:,an••I• addition, this _ER is involved in th''Pho/
roug t peppered with r1 "of buiJdiilg new plasma d h r.,,,ful chemicals in the liver, conversion ofeI %th
ids, no
are th< basic ,omP nents
the detoxifi"110•.
1• •
of drugs
. ban sarcoplasmic
a ,.. reticulum m. Ih e muscle cells. g yco~,e
0
·dbOrmones, of calcium ions y
of steroi_
gJucose i1l th e
Jjver, and storage • M k'ng rv,achines of t he Ce II 5
1
5 Ribosomes - protein- ·da b dy) are non-membrane small spherical organelle ( .
·. · . Jeic ac1 , soma-
(Latin: ribo-ribonuc . . th cytoplasm 0
or bound to the ER an d acts as a protein-m dia k· me~
3 6 These are presen free noall•g
robosomes e . II · I b
. b th karyotic and prokaryollc ce s m arge num ers, someti Ing~
,n a
nm[or. the cell. Th.is is found
23bi!le I d' 111 o the eu protein need of the celJs. The fl'b osome was d.IScoveredmes b se,,,
,
thousands) or IlliJfons
i depen I mgIdupon
th t these organelles perform protein . synth eSIS. wll. h.m the cells'yGe°'I
Emil pala e lil . 1955 who aso
b p. . to aJJ1. physiology or medicine along wit . h Alb ert Claude and Chior. wh·. 1Id
1974
t re of ribosomes was determined much later by Ada E. Yonath, Thomas A n 09
he was awar
~~*e•'"
d th
e struc1u
uve. However, R·=akrishnan for which they were awarded the NobeI pflZe . chemrstry
. m -
. in 20 . Ste·1
and A ribosome comprises ,RNA and proteins and_ hence are ca11_e d fl'b onuc1eoprotems. · Each ribow.· 1
D Venkatraillan .:u»
as ,..., ,obuni" _ small and large subunit coropflS1ng rRNA
L"' db and
) 'birregular number
h' h of flbosomal prote~-liJ
(Figut' .10). In .,,1<aryotes, ribos01nes arecalled sos (Sve erg fl osomes w JC contains 40S small ,.
unit
h and 0 60S large subunit. 1be eukafYoOc nbosomes have four rRNAs: JSS rRNA rs present in 40S

subunit and 3 5S, 5.8S and 28S rRNAs are present in 60S large subunit of ribosomes. In prokaryotes, the ~I
mes are called 70S that contain only three rRNAs, J6S rRNA is present in 30S small subunit, and 23Sn °
5S are present in sos large subunit The ribosomal subunits are synthesised from RNA in the nucleol
otiJising
50 rRNA produced in the nude~• and proteinS transported from the cytoplasm in the eukaryotes'1.~
7
nbosorne plays a key role m translating the messages encoded within the messenger RNA (mRNA)
scribed from the gene which is discussed in detail in Chapter 6. "'

60S

sos

sos
70S ( ubunit-S rRNA, 5.85 rRNA, 285 rRNA, so Proteins)
605 5 5
(SOS ~~~uti~SS_rRNA, 235 rRNA, 34 Proteins) ( o5 5ubunit-185 rRNA, 33 Proteins)
4
u unit- 165 rRNA, 21 Proteins)

Figure 3.1 o
I Subunits of Prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes

3.6.6 Golgi Apparatus - o·

15t n'b ut1on . · 189
The Gol ·
t!~
This is a~!aratus, also known as Gol . b d
Yorganelle that "named
· g,after0 the
and Sh· •
Yorscientist
Golgi co ;;'[i
tppmg Unit of the Cell
j ~x, was discovered by Camillo Golgi in _ I j
· gi complex, present in both plant and a!ljJll
 53 __
Chapter 3 Struct ural and Functional Unit of Life Forms

Incoming
transport~
vesicle -

. _ Secretory
vesicle

I Figure 3.11
Structural components of the Golgi apparatus

cells, comprise a series of 5-8 cup-shaped, membrane-covered sacs called 'cisternae' that look like a stack of
deflated balloons (Figure 3.11). This is usually located close to the ER, whose number varies within the cell
according to its function. The Golgi apparatus is present in hundreds in some plant cells, whereas animal cells
have only few except the cells which are secretory in function.
The Golgi apparatus assists in modifying proteins and lipids synthesised in the ER and prepares to dis-
tribute them outside or to other locations of the cell. That is why this is considered as the distribution and
shipping unit of the cells. Proteins and lipids synthesised in the ER bud off as tiny bubble-like vesicles and
reach the Golgi apparatus, where these vesicles fuse with them to release the molecules into it. The Golgi
apparatus processes these molecules by adding molecules or chopping them off as well as tagging (chemical
labelling) them. These are then squeezed out from the Golgi apparatus and directed to different destinations
inside the cell such as lysosomes, plasma membrane, or to the outside of cell. The tagging of the processed
molecules by the Golgi apparatus ensures delivery to desired destinations.

3.6.7 Vesicle
A vesicle is a small, spherical organell~ located within the cytoplasm. The walls of vesicles are made
up of a lipid bilayer and hence can easily fuse with the plasma membrane (also made up of lipids) that
facilitate bulk transport of large molecules in and out of the cells by the process of endocytosis and
exocytosis, respectively (Figure 3. 12). Endocytosis occurs when a part of the plasma membrane folds
onto itself, enclosing various molecules or microbes. The resulting vesicle then falls off and is trans-
ported within the cell. Exocytosis occurs when vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release
 54 Biology for Engineers

their contents to the outside as shown in

Figure3.12. d f: · Endocytosis
Based on their content an unction, .
. are o£five types - transport vesic
vesicles . 1es,
secretory vesides ' lysosomes,
. peroxisomes,
and extracellular vesicles. The transport ves-
. 1 move the molecules such as proteins
K9 .
within the ceII between different locations.
The secretory vesicles excrete materials from
the cell, such as hormones, neurotransmit-
ters, and wastes. The extraceIIular vesicles are
,. usually involved in ceII-ceII communications,
I e.g., viruses and bacteria interact with the
healthy ceIIs through these vesicles. The func -
tion of lysosomes and peroxisomes are dealt
in separately.
IFigure 3.12
Structure of a vesicle showing endocytosis and exocytosis

3.6.7.1 Lysosomes - Digestive and garbage disposal system of the cell

What do you when you are hungry? Obviously, you would look for food and eat. Now, can you guess what
happens to your cells when food is not available to them? It might sound funny, but the cells deal with hun-
ger by eating their own components by a process called autophagy, one of the activities performed by a key
organelle or vesicle called lysosomes which are commonly known as the 'stomach of the cells'. Lysosomo
(Greek word: lysis- digestive or loose, soma- body) are membrane-bound organelles containing -so diffe,-
ent degradative enzymes (e.g., acid phosphatase,, sulphatases, proteases, peptidases, nuclease,, lipases, and
carbohydrates) that can break down proteins, DNA, RNA, polysaccharides, and lipids. This organelle w•
accidentally discovered by Christian Rene de Duve in 1955. Lysosomes are present in all animal cells except
RBCs but absent in plants and fungi wherein their function is taken over by vacuoles.
The lysosomes work as the digestive system of the cell which degrade materials taken up from ou~ide the
cell by endocytosis as well as degrade unnecessary waste materials of the cell derived from phagocytosis aod
autophagy. In phagocytosis, specialised cells, such as macrophages, ingest and degrad'. large unwa_nted part,-
cles such as bacteria cell debris and damaged/aged cells. These particles are taken up m phagocytic vacuoles
(phagosomes), which, then fuse 'with lysosomes that results in d,gesaon °
· · f t he,r
· cont:nts. Th_e enzymes f thed
lysosomes are active in the acidic environment with pH ~5.0, which provides protectwn agam uncontro
O
e
digestion of the contents of the cytoplasm m case t ere 1s rea 5t II
. . h • b k down of the lysosomes.

3,6.7.2 Peroxisomes - ·
.
Peroxisomes earlier known as 'microbodies', were discovere dby Johannes
ced byRhodin
the newinterm while studymg
1954'peroxisome' by
' , •
ultrastructure of the mouse kidney. The name m,cm body' was rep1a
. d" etec) multipw-pose o,ganelle, found rn .
Christian De Duve in 1965. These ruce small (-0. l - LO µm m ':'es a,e involved in a variety of binchem-
animaI d I · · ~SO different enzymes. These enzy ell as hydrogen peroxide (which
s an , p ants contammg ids mducing ene,gy as w . h ernxisome ;t,df
i~ai pathways. These include oxidation o~ fatdtybac e~zyme called catalase pre~ent_ malt e ~akes place in th~
· · h ll ) · h · th detox1fie Yan r id ox1dat10n so
1shtoXJc to t e ce s , wh1c 1s en dd" . to peroxisomes, 1atty ac When peroxisomes fail
T at 1s
. why peroxisomes are name so.
d In a ition. h" peroxisomes mp an s
. 1 t and yeasts.
mit9c_hondria of animal cells but occur soIelyw1t m
 Chapter 3 Structural and Functional Unit of Life Forms 55 -

to break down th e fa~ty acids_ in animals,these get accumulated on the myelin sheath surrounding the neurons
that adversely af~ect its function ~y delaying signals and commands. In plants, specialised peroxisomes known
as 'glyoxysomes are pr~~ent whic~ convert fatty acids and lipids to sugars in germinating seeds through th e
glyoxylate cycle. In addition, peroxisomes are also involved in photorespiration of plants.

~, -- BRAIN TICKLING FACTS

•
Have you watched th e Hollywood movie of 1992 'Lorenzo's Oil'? The movie speaks about the darker side of
the peroxisomeS, wherein a boy suffered from a neuronal disorder called X-linked aldrenoleukodystrophy (ALD)
due to the inability of ~he peroxisomes in his cells to oxidise land chain fatty acids because of deficiency of an
enzy_me_- These fatty a<:ids _got acc~mulated in the brain and destroyed the myelin sheath arou nd the nerve cells.
This indicates how essential perox1somes are for us.

3.6.8 Centriole
When a sperm swims quite far and reaches the ovum, they start dividing million times to make a new human.
Do you know how this miracle of life happens? The answer is centriole, an organelle that helps the cells to
divide or make copies of themselves which are only found in animals. Centrioles are found in pairs and are
typically located near the nucleus in the 'cen-
trosome: which move towards the opposite
ends of the nucleus during the time of cell di- 1--- - - - - - ~ Microtubules
vision. The centrioles are positioned at right
angles to each other within the centrosome
and are made up of nine triplets of microtu-
bules arranged in a ring (Figure 3.13). The
centrosome is like a courier box within which
two centrioles are wrapped along with some
-- _____
Centrioles
extra proteins. Plant cells do not contain cen-
trioles, instead they have a tubulin protein
_,,.k--- - - - Centrosome
called 'gamma tubulin' which is used to nu- (Microtubule +
cleate microtubules just like centrioles in an- centrioles)
imal cells.

3.6.9 Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are specialised organelles found
I figure 3.13
Structure of centrosome with centrioles and microtubles
in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that can ab-
sorb sunlight and perform photosynthesis to prepare food by utilising water and carbon dioxide. Chloroplasts
are double membrane-bound organelles. The inner membrane is permeable to small organic molecules, while
the outer membrane is studded with transport proteins. There is also another internal membrane known as
the thylakoid membrane which is extensively folded into small disc-like compartments called thylakoids
which are stacked one upon the other. The stacks of thylakoids are known as grana and one thylakoid stack
is called a granum (Figure 3.14). Thylakoids contain chlorophyll as well as the electron transport chains
necessary for photosynthesis. The thylakoids are surrounded by the innermost matrix or liquid portion of the
chloroplast called the stroma which contains enzymes and the chloroplast genome.
 56
---~~--~-
Bio logy for Engineers

Starch granule
Strama lamellae

Strama
Grana
Thylakoid

Ribosome --:111~ Chloroplast DNA

IFigure 3. 14
Different structural components of the chloroplast

r A, cHECKPOINT
1. How many mitochondria are present in a cell?
2. Why is the inner membrane of the mitochondria folded unlike the outer membrane?
3. What is sarcoplasmic reticulum? Do they contain ribosomes?
4. What are the functions of rough ER?
5. Is it advantageous for the cells to have non-membranous ribosomes? If so, how?
6. Why are lysosomes called the stomach of the cells? Enlist its similarities with t _
h e stomach.
7. Why are peroxisomes named so?
a. What are vesicles? What functions do they perform within the cells?
9. What are ribosomes? How do prokaryotic ribosomes differ from eukaryotic ribosomes?
10. How are ribosomes different from other organelles in the cell with respect to their cha_racteristic features/
•' 11. What is chloroplast? Describe its function.

3.7 Cell Cycle and Cell Division __

As mentioned earlier, cells can produce more copies of themselves by dividing through the proce_ss_ of c~;
division. Do you know why cells divide? Cells divide to replace damaged cells when you have any inJury!ls
to replace old or dead cells as well as assist in growth of the organisms by increasing the number of c:ace
In humans, ~ 2 trillion cells divide every day among which skin cells are constantly dividing to r~iyJo
50 million cells that we lose every day. On the other hand, differentiated nerve cells or neurons usua
not divide. d. ·Jes
There are two ways in which cells divide known as mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, a single cell 1·riv~d
· t O twO rep1·ica cells with same number of chromosomes, which is necessary for basic growth ' repa '
m
r maintenance_ of cells. This ~appens in somatic or non-reproductive cells. On the other hand, meiosis occurs
in reproductive cells wherem cell divides into four cells that have half the number of chromosomes and is
necessary for reproduction.
Cells have a life cycle, which is M Phase
termed as 'cell cycle' comprising different I
phases like interphase (G1 phase, S phase, Meta phase
G phase), and mitotic phase (M) in a Anaphase
Telophase
se~uential manner (Figure 3.15). Cells
spend most of the time in the interphase
before it starts dividing. For example, in
a typical human cell, interphase occupies
23 hours, while M phase occupies only

0G1}
I hour of a 24-hour cycle. During in-
terphase, the cell increases in size in G
phase (G represents 'gap'), followed b; • S lnterphase
film G2
replication of DNA in S phase (S repre- • Mitosis } h
sents 'synthesis'), and then production of • Cytokinesis M p ase
proteins and microtubules in G2 phase
preparing the cells to divide. Then fol-
lows the M phase during which the rep-
licated DNA and cytoplasmic contents
are separated and the cell gives rise to two
daughter cells.

3.7.1 Mitosis I Figure 3.15

Different phases of a cell cycle

Mitosis (Greek: mitos- warp thread) occurs in somatic cells, which is essential for growth and repair. This term
was coined by Walther Flemming in 1882. Mitosis consists of four phases: pro phase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase, which are described briefly below. The pictorial representation of all phases of mitosis in sequential
manner is provided in Figure 3.16.
i. Prophase: After the completion of S and G2 phases of interphase during which new indistinct and
intertwined DNA molecules are synthesised, the first phase of mitosis, known as prophase begins.
In prophase, the chromosomes of the parent cell condense into compact structures, termed as chro-
matids attached at the centromere and the centrioles which have duplicated in the S phase move
towards opposite poles of the cell. The nuclear envelope also starts disintegrating. There is another
phase prior to metaphase, termed as prometaphase or late prophase wherein chromosomes begin to
attach to microtubules emanating from the two poles of the forming mitotic spindle, and the nuclear
envelope disintegrate.
ii. Metaphase: The condensation of chromosomes is completed by this second phase and hence these
are distinctly seen under the microscope which make the study of morphology of chromosomes
most easy at this stage. During this phase, chromosome comprises two sister chromatids, which are
held together by the centromere and are aligned at the middle of the cell through the spindle fibres.
iii. Anaphase: During this phase, the centromere splits and sister chromatids get separated that become
the chromosome of the daughter cell and move towards the opposite poles of the cell.
- 58 Biology for Engineers , - - - - ~ - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - -- ~

Multipolar
spindles

• /
(j - - - ~
P,: phase
e ••
· Detectionofcell

I
~. division errors

lnterphase Meta phase

(!).
[

.::;~~~nt
~- /
Cytokinesis Ana phase

Telophase

I Figure 3.16
Sequential events of mitotic cell division

iv. Telophase: During this phase, the chromatids cluster at opposite ends of the cell and begin to deconden
and become undifferentiated mass.Then, the nuclear envelope assembles around the chromosome du
ters and reformation of nucleolus, Golgi complex, and ER occurs, which had disappeared after propha,
After the chromosome segregation is done in the mitosis, the cytoplasm is divided by the process of cytol
nesis (meaning 'division of the cytoplasm') and produces two identical daughter cells.
Mitosis is otherwise known as 'equational division' because the number of chromosomes and amount'.
DNA in daughter cells are equal to that of the parent cells. This usually occurs in the diploid cells only. Mito;
as mentioned earlier, is necessary for the growth and repair of cells in multicellular organisms. For exampi
. and mner
the cells of the skin . . . o f t h e gut are constantly replaced by new cells generated throughm1tos
lmmg

3.7.2 Meiosis

The term 'meiosis' is derived from a Greek word, 'meioun' meaning 'to make small'. Meiosis was d'"\overe, ,, ,

and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876 by Oscar Hertwig. However, the tenn _w;the0 lP
in 1905 by J.B Farmer and J_E Moore. Meiosis occurs in the germ cells or reproductive cells, in wh>e d""'' "'
loid cells divide into four genetically distinct haploid daughter cells by undergoing two success,ve ',ph•'
termed as meiosis I and meiosis II. Both meiosis I and meiosis II comprise four phases such '.s P~thl '
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase like that of mitosis but are named slight differently by suffixeng , 1<n>"
IL In meiosis I, these are known as prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I, while these ar
as prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II in meiosis II.
 Meiosis is often called 'reduction division' because the number of chromosomes is halved, which oc-
curs duri~g meiosis _1 0 _nly.. Meiosis II that follows meiosis I is an equational division resembling mitosis
of a haploid cell. Me1os1s I 1s preceded by both G phase and s phase, while meiosis II is only preceded by
s phase of interphase. Once meiosis I is complete, the cell takes rest for a while before entering meiosis II.
This resting period is known as 'interkinesis' as it occurs in between the cell division. It is short-lived and
characterised by reformation of the nuclear membrane in each of the two cells around the chromosomes.
Meiosis ensures that the new offspring should contain the number of chromosomes exactly similar to that
of their parents.
The events of stages of meiosis I are briefly described below. Go through it by referring to Figure 3.17.

3.7.2.1 Meiosis I
i. Prophase I: Prophase I is the first phase of meiosis I which is longer and complex than prophase of
mitosis. This is subdivided into five sub-stages in the order Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplo-
tene, and Diakinesis (refer to Table 3.5 on next page).
ii Metaphase I: The bivalent chromosomes line up at the equatorial plate and the microtubules from
the opposite poles of the spindle attach to these.
ill. Anaphase I: The homologous chromosomes separate and move to the opposite ends of the cells,
while sister chromatids remain associated at their centromeres.
iv. Telophase I: The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear and then cytokinesis occurs which
marks the end of meiosis I. This is called 'dyad of cells'.
After completion of meiosis I, the cell undergoes interkinesis before entering meiosis II, the second phase of
meiosis.

,@ lnterphase
MEIOSIS

Meiosis! [ (D ~~~)·@ Ga Meta phase I Anaphase I Telophase I

Prophase I

A ©© ~,, 11

e @ <~~) ca ©©
Meiosis II

Daughter cells
Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase 11

IFigure 3.17
Different phases of meiosis I and II of cell division

L
 60 Biology for Engineers

Table 3.5

Leptoterie The chromosome condenses and become compact

Zygotene The chrom~somes start pairing together, which,is called 'syn~psis'that results in for,mation of a complex
structure, called 'synaptonemal complex'. The paired chromosomes are called homologous chromosomes.
A pair of synapsed homologous chromosome forms a complex known as bivalent or tetrad.
Pachytene In this stage, crossing over, i.e., the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of
two homologous chromosomes occurs ' · . · · . · •· ,
' '
. Diplotene The synaptonemal complex start disappearing and the recombined homologous chromosomes of
the bivalents separate from each other except at the sites of crossovers. These X-shaped structures
formed are called 'chiasmata'. ,, ·
· Diakinesis The chromosomes are fully condensed a~d the ~ -~iotic s·pindle is asse~bled to prepare the homologous
chromosomes for separation. The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope breaks down.

3.7.2.2 Meiosis II
The stages of second phase of meiosis, i.e., meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, ~aph~~e II and telophase II)
3:
(Figure I 7) resembles a normal mitosis which is discussed above. · ·

3.7.3 Similarities and Differences Betwee'n Mitosis and Meiosis

Although the functions of mitosis and meiosis are different, these show some simihu-iti~~ besides obvious
differences. The similarities are as follows:

a. Both the events usually take place in diploid cells ~ith few
. exceptions, such as m·t . occurs m
1 os1s •
haploid cells oflower plants and some insects (honeybees and wasps). . .· .
b. Both the events consist of interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and t I h .h h
. . . . , e op ase wit t e
exception that these events occur twICe m m~10s1s. . . • .
C. The pair of chromatids line up along the equator in ~etaphase and metaph II ': .' · . . d
, , ase m m1tos1s an
meiosis, respectively. , . · ·,
d. The sister chromatids ate separated at the opposite poles in a~aph;se and anaph I,I'. · · . . d
ase m m1tos1s an
meiosis, respectively. ·
e. Both the events end with cytokinesis.
Some of the differences between mitosis and meiosis are as follows:
a. The mitotic cell division involves one cell division, while meiosis involv · .
es two successive cell
divisions.
b. Mitosis results in two diploid daughter cells, while meiosis results in four haploid cells
c. The dau hter cells produced from mitosis are genetically identical, whereas th ·
. g . . ey are genetically
different in me10s1s.
d. Mito • tes all cells in the body except germ cells, while meiosis produces O
SIS crea n1y germ 11 (
and egg). ce s sperm
Mitos· rs in all organisms except viruses, while meiosis occurs in animal
e. IS occu s, p1ants a d fu .
n ng1.
 Chapter 3 Structural and Functional Unit of Life Forms 61

rr·,·'7.'.·rc:T:.,,..,"":"---"'-----::- --·-'"--• -·-··· ----·.---------~- -··:·-~-..,,.,,,cc·~

!'f1• t~~}l!:[·~)1;}fh~.\:,
:z. ·
th ~ ~ham of Cen cYcle? '
Why Is meios,s called reductional division?
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(b) syi,~ps~. (c) cylokinesis, (d) karyoki~esis
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f,14.\,. ,What are the roles of_ceptrioles during cell division?
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Points to Remem ber

Living beings are characterised by the pres- A third category organism called 'mesokary-
ence of 'cell' which is considered as the basic otes' prevails in which true nucleus is present,
structural and functional units of life. but DNA is not associated with histone pro-
'Cell' was discovered and coined by Robert teins like that of the eukaryotes. For example,
Hooke in 1665 using the compound microscope dinoflagellates, which are more advanced
devised by him. The word 'cell' is derived from a than prokaryotes, but less advanced than
Latin word 'cella' which means 'small room eukaryotes.
The smallest cell is mycoplasma (~ 10 µm), a Each cell has tiny cellular structures called
pathogenic bacterium, and the largest cell is organelles which do the work of cells. Some
the egg of the ostrich ( 170 mm x 130 mm). · of the organelles are cell membrane, cell wall,
vesicles,' mitochondria, nucleus, ribosomes,
Some living beings are made up of only_one
ER, Golgi apparatus, and centriole.
cell, known as unicellular organisms, and
others are made up of multiple cells, known Cells have a life cycle, which is terme~ as 'cell
as multicellular organisms. cycle: The cell cyde comprises i.J:terphase
that consists of G1 phase, S phase, and G2
"All living things are composed of cells and cell
phase as well as mitotic phase in a sequential
products" is the first tenet of cell theory for
manner. The cells spend most of the time in
which both Matthias Schleiden and Theodor the interphase. : , '• '
Schwann are jointly credited.
There are two processes through which cells
Rudolph Virchow proposed 'Omnis cellula e replicate/divide, i.e. mitosis and meiosis. · ·
cellula' in 1858 which means :A.11 cells only
arise from pre-existing cells: This became th e • The term mitosis (Greek: mitos- warp thread)
was coined ·in 1882 by Walther Flemming
third principle of the cell theory proving the
which consists of •five . phases: prophase,
earlier statement 'cells form by free-cell for-
prometaphase,, metaphase, . anaphase, and
mation, like the formation of cryst als (spon -
telophase, followed by cytokinesis. This cell
taneous generation)' of cell theory wrong.
division results in two identical daughter cells
• There are two major types of organisms based and is necessary for growth and repair. ·
on the presence/ab sence of true nucleus.
· "before .the Meiosis comprises meiosis I and meiosis II
These are prokaryote (meanmg,
nut» or "kernel") and eukaryote (meanmg, and results in four daughter cells. This cell
division is necessary for reproduction.
"with the nut" or "kernel"). The nut or kernel
refers to the nucleus.
• 62 Biology for Engineers
Glossary of Key Terms
Cell Cycle: The cell cycle is the life cycle of a cell con-
sisting of a sequential series of events leading to its
replication. This includes G , S, G and M phase.
I 2
Cell: Cell is the basic structural and functional unit
of living beings.
Centromere: It is the primary constriction in chro-
mosome where the sister chromatids are joined. The
mitotic spindle fibres attach at this point to pull sister
chromatids apart during cell division.
Chromatid: The replicated arms of chromosomes
produced during cell division that are joined together
at the centromere are termed as chromatids.
Chromatin: Chromatin is the complex of DNA and
protein (histones) present within the chromosomes.
Chromatin helps to package DNA in a compact form
to make it fit within the cell. The changes in chroma-
tin structure are associated with gene expression as
well as replication.
Chromosomes: These are thread-like strands of
DNA located in the nucleus that contain the genes.
Cytokinesis: This is the division of the cytoplasm
of a cell after division of the nucleus that occurs in
mitosis and meiosis.
Eukaryote: Eukaryotes are the organisms that clearly
possess a distinct nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
G Phase: The G phase is the phase in which cell
exist in a quiesce~t state and do not divide further,
although cell is metabolically active.
G Phase: The G 1 phase is part of interphase dur-
ing
1 which cells grow an d synt h es1se
· proteins and
Review Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Meiosis was discovered by
a. Oscar Hertwig
b. Sutton and Boveri
c. Hofmeister and Waldeyer
d. J.B Farmer and J.E Moore
enzymes as well as new organelles.. This
. phase oc curs
before the S phase and after cytokines1s.
G Phase: G2 phase is the final phase of interphase
m~rked by rapid growth to prepare cells for M Phase.
Interphase: The phase during ""."hich cells grow,
accumulate nutrients, and sy~thes1se DNA making
cells ready for mitosis, is called mterphase. Interphase
includes G 1, S, and G2phases.
Kayrokinesis: This is the process of partition of nu-
cleus of the cells into the daughter cells.
Mitosis: The phase during which the cell divides
itself into two distinct and identical daughter cells, is
termed as mitosis. This occurs in somatic cells.
Prokaryote: The prokaryotes are unicellular
organisms without distinct nucleus and specialised
organelles.
S Phase: S phase is the synthesis phase of interphase
of the cell cycle during which DNA is replicated. This
phase occurs between G 1 phase and G phase.
2
Spindle fibres: It is a group of microtubules
made from tubulin protein that extend from the
centromere of chromosomes to the poles of the
dividing cell. These are formed during the promet-
ap~as~ of mitosis as well as metaphase I and 2 of
me10s1s.
Synapsis: This is the pairing of tw h
h
c romosomes along their length h. oh omo1ogous
d
· prop h ase I of meiosis.
mg , w 1c occurs ur-
2. The number of DNA in
p h ase of t h e ceII cycle is _ chromosome at G 2
a. one
b. two
c. four
d. eight