Topics 1-4. SKELETAL & MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: AS 1- 1ST SEM-2021-2022
College: Agriculture
Campus : Bayombong
DEGREE PROGRAM BSABE COURSE NO. AS 1

SPECIALIZATION COURSE
Introduction to Animal Science
TITLE
WK AS 1
YEAR LEVEL 2 TIME FRAME 2-9 IM NO.
NO. 1ST -2021-2022
I. CHAPTER TITLE: 2. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

II. LESSON TITLE: Systemic Anatomy and Physiology
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
This chapter provides information in the study of forms and functions of the body of farm
animals. It presents the external and internal parts of farm animals which are vital in learning and
understanding the creation and development of an animal.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Differentiate anatomy from physiology;
2. Describe the different organs in the system of the animal’s body and be able to discuss
how these structures work;
3. Estimate body weight using body parts of farm animals;
4. Explain the procedure in taking the vital signs of farm animals and relate these to the
animal’s health condition;
5. Classify farm animals according to their digestive system; and,
6. Discuss the different parts and functions of the reproductive system.
VI. LESSON CONTENT

A thorough knowledge on the structures of an animal’s body imparts a lot of information
about the various functions of each structure. The term anatomy refers to the science that deals
with the form and structure of all organisms. Literally, the word means to cut apart. In contrast to
anatomy, which deals primarily with structure, physiology is the study of the integrated functions
of the body and the functions of all its parts (systems, organs, tissues, cells, and cell components).
It attempts to explain the physical and chemical factors that are responsible for the origin,
development and progression of life.
There are many organ systems and several organ sub-systems within the body the work
together to support animal health, movement, and production. The body systems of different farm
animals are almost similar in structure and function however, they have differences which could
give clues and define the care given to those animal.
The approach to the study of anatomy and physiology of farm animals in this course will
be chiefly by systems — systematic anatomy
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Topic 1. PLANES of REFERENCE in the ANIMAL’S BODY

A standing vertebrate animal can be divided by several planes that can be used to as
references to describe locations of body parts or organs in relation to the whole body which
applies regardless of the position or direction of the animal. The four planes of reference are as
follows:
a. Sagittal Plane b. Median Plane (mid-sagittal plane)
 A plane that  A plane that

divides the divides the
body into left body into equal
and right parts left and right
that are not portions.
necessarily
equal halves.
c. Transverse Plane (also called d. Frontal Plane

cross- section)  A plane
 A plane that
across the divides the
body that body into
divides the dorsal
body into (back) and
cranial ventral
(upper) and (belly)
caudal parts that
(lower) are not
parts. necessarily equal.
Directional Terms
 Provide a common language for accurately and clearly describing body
structures, regardless of the position of the animal’s body. Terms generally occur
in pairs that have opposite meanings and are used to describe relative positions
of body parts.
a. Cranial (anterior) b. Caudal

 towards the head; (posterior)
e.g. the shoulder is  Towards the tail,
cranial to the hip, - e.g. the rump is
means that the caudal to the
shoulder is closer to loin, means the
the head than is the rump is nearer to
hip; or, the shoulder is the tail than the
found on the anterior
loin.
part of the animal while
the hip is located
posteriorly.
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c. Dorsal d. Ventral
 towards or beyond the backbone or  away from the vertebral column or,
vertebral column. referring to a plane toward the mid-
e.g. the kidneys are dorsal to the abdominal wall.
intestines, means that the kidneys are e.g. the udder is the most ventral part
nearer to the vertebral column than the of the cow’s body, meaning that it is
intestines the part that is farthest from the
vertebral column
e. Proximal and distal

 A structure closer to the
center of the body is
proximal than one
located further away,
distal. For instance, in
the forelimb, the
shoulder is proximal to
the body while the foot is
distal
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Topic 2. THE ANIMAL CELLS AND TISSUES

A. THE ANIMAL CELL
All living organisms are made up of cells. The cell is a structural and functional unit of any
living organism. Organisms may
be unicellular (single celled) or
multicellular. Animal cells
are eukaryotic cells, or cells with
a membrane-bound nucleus.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) in
animal cells is housed within the
nucleus. The functions of animal
cell are all carried out by the
different cell organelles. The
different cell organelles present in
an animal cell are:
a) Cell membrane - the thin
layer primarily consist of
phospholipids, proteins and cholesterol that surrounds the cell. It is semipermeable,
allowing some substances to pass into the cell and blocking others.
b) Nucleus - referred to as the heart of the cell. The nucleus contains the genetic material of
the organism which is the DNA. DNA replication and RNA synthesis occurs in the nucleus.
The cell nucleus is bound by a definite membrane called the nuclear membrane that
separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
 Nucleolus - structure within the nucleus that helps in the synthesis of ribosomes.
 Nucleopore - tiny hole within the nuclear membrane that allows nucleic acids and
proteins to move into and out of the nucleus.
c) Mitochondria - also referred to as the power house of the cell. It helps in energy
production for the cell, otherwise known as cellular respiration.
d) Endoplasmic Reticulum - is seen like a network of interconnecting pathways to enable

the transport of molecules. There are two kinds of ER namely Rough ER and Smooth ER.
Rough ER has ribosome molecules attached to its surface while the smooth ER does not
have ribosome molecules attached to its surface.
e) Ribosomes - The ribosome is involved in protein synthesis. Protein synthesis primarily
occurs in the ribosomes.
f) Golgi Apparatus - involved with processing and packaging of the molecules synthesized
by the cell mainly the proteins ready for secretion.
g) Lysosomes - referred to as suicide bags of the cell. They are involved in clearing the
unwanted and waste materials from the cell. It contains hydrolytic enzymes that kill the
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toxic materials and engulf materials like damaged organelles, virus, bacteria and food
particles.
h) Centrosome - also called the "microtubule organizing center", it is where microtubules
are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two parts move
to opposite sides of the dividing cell. Microtubules are hollow rods that function primarily
to help support and shape the cell.
i) Cytoplasm - The jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are
located.
j) Vacuole - is an empty storage organelle that stores excess water or food. It is present in
many numbers within the cell floating in the cytoplasm. Vacuole in plant cells are much
larger than in animal cells.
 The animal cell has differences from the plant cell and the reason for their difference in
structures is because they have to perform different functions. Specifically, the differences are
the following:
i. Cell wall. In plant cells, there is an additional structure surrounding the cell membrane,
called the cell wall. It is composed of cellulose which provides framework and rigidity to
the plant cell which allows the plant to remain rigid and upright even if it grows to great
heights.
ii. Chloroplasts. These contain the green pigment, chlorophyll, which in turn absorb radiant
energy from the sun necessary for the process of photosynthesis.
iii. Vacuoles. The vacuoles contain the liquid called cell sap, which help support the plant.
When the vacuoles are full, the whole plant will be firm and upright, but if the vacuoles
lose its water contents the plant will wilt.
Figure 2. The animal cell vs. plant cell
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There are over 200 different cell types in the animal’s body. Each type of cells is specialized
to carry out a particular function, either
solely, but usually by forming a
particular tissue. Different tissues then
combine and form specific organs,
organs form the system, then the
different systems of the body
comprises an individual.
Since every tissue has its own
function that contributes to the multi-
functionality of an organ, every type of
cell is equally important. The most
important types of cells are blood, skin,
cardiac muscle, bone, smooth
muscles.
Figure 3. Types of animal cells
2.2. ANIMAL TISSUES

The animal cells are grouped together to form animal tissues. These tissues vary in their
structure, function, and origin. The primary types of tissues include (1) epithelial tissues, which
cover the surface of the body, line body cavities, and form glands; (2) connective tissues, which
support and bind other tissues together and from which, in the case of bone marrow, the formed
elements of the blood are derived; (3) muscle tissues, which specialize in contracting; and (4)
nervous tissues, which conduct impulses from one part of the body to another.
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Figure 4. Types of animal tissues
The different systems of the body work together to keep the animal stable and healthy.
Homeostasis refers to the body’s ability to physiologically maintain a constant internal
environment to ensure its stability despite changes in the external or internal conditions.
All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components for
the variable being regulated:
i. A sensor or receptor that detects changes in the internal or external environment. An

example is peripheral chemoreceptors, which detect changes in blood pH.
ii. The control center receives information from the sensors and initiates the response to
maintain homeostasis. The most important example is the hypothalamus, a region of the
brain that controls everything from body temperature to heart rate, blood pressure, satiety
(fullness), and circadian rhythms (including, sleep and wake cycles).
iii. An effector is any organ or tissue that receives information from the control center and
acts to bring about the changes needed to maintain homeostasis.
The following diagrams illustrates the process of homeostasis:
Maintains
Body systems HOMEOSTASIS
Is essential
1 Make-up for the
survival of
CELLS
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Table 2. Nomenclature for systemic anatomy

System Name of Study Chief Structures
Skeletal system Osteology Bones
Muscular system Myology Muscles
Nervous system Neurology Brain, spinal cord and nerves
Endocrine system Endocrinology Ductless glands
Circulatory system Cardiology Heart and blood vessels
Respiratory system Pulmonology Lungs and airways
Reproductive system Splanchnology Ovaries and testes
Urinary system Splanchnology Kidneys and urinary bladder
Digestive system Splanchnology Stomach and intestines
Sensory system Esthesiology Eye and ear
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Topic 3. SKELETAL SYSTEM
Pre-test. Select the nearest correct answer to the following statements. Write the
correct letter of your answer on the space provided for.
1. Which of the following is an example of a flat bone?

a. femur c. teeth
b. scapula d. vertebra
2. This is the thigh bone.

a. humerus c. ulna
b. scapula d. femur
3. How many tail bones does a human has?

a. 0 c. 2
b. 5 d. 4
4. Where is red blood cells produced?

a. kidney c. joints
b. yellow bone marrow d. red bone marrow
5. This is the union of the teeth and its sockets in the jaw.
a. suture c. gomphosis
b. enamel d. tendon
All farm animals are vertebrate animals. The skeleton gives a basis for the external
structure and appearance of vertebrate animals. All mammals share a basic body plan with
striking similarities in skeletal structure. The skeleton of a living animal is made up of bones that
are themselves living structures that contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
3.1. FUNCTIONS:
1) Mechanical
 Protection — bones serve to protect internal organs, such as the skull and vertebral
column protecting the central nervous system and the rib cage protecting
the heart and lungs.
 Structure — bones provide rigidity and frame to the body. The skeleton gives a basis for
the external structure and appearance of animals.
 Movement — bones, skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints function together to
generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be
manipulated in three-dimensional space.
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2) Metabolic
 Mineral storage — bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most
notably calcium and phosphorus. Ninety-nine percent of body calcium is stored in the
bones and teeth.
 Fat storage — the yellow bone marrow acts as a storage reserve of fatty acids.
 Acid-base balance — bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing
or releasing alkaline salts.
3) Synthetic
 Blood production — the marrow, located within the medullary cavity of long bones and
interstices of cancellous bone, produces blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis.
Figure 5. The process of blood production in the red bone marrow of long bones
3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ACCORDING TO GROSS APPEARANCE
3.2.1. Long bones
 consists of a relatively cylindrical shaft

(central portion) called diaphysis and
two extremities called epiphysis.
 A long bone grows in length only at the

epiphyseal cartilage/ plate).
 Long bones function chiefly as levers

and aid in support, locomotion and
prehension.
 Examples are the femur, humerus,

radius and ulna.
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3.2.2. Short bones
 somewhat cuboid in shape

approximately equal in all dimensions.
 There is no marrow cavity. Examples,

carpals (hands) and tarsals (feet)
3.2.3. Flat bones

scapula
 are relatively thin and expanded in two
dimensions. They consist of two plates of
compact substance separated by diploe.
 Flat bones function chiefly for protection of vital
organs such as the brain, heart and lungs but
many provide large areas for muscle
attachment.
 Examples are the frontal base of skull, scapula
and pelvic bones.
3.2.4. Sesamoid bones
 Resembles a sesame seed and are found

along the course of tendons primarily to
reduce friction or change the angle of the
pull of muscles and thus give a greater
mechanical advantage.
 Patella (knee cap) is the largest sesamoid
in the body.
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3.2.5. Irregular bones
 are unpaired bones located on the

median plane.
 include the vertebrae and unpaired
bones of the skull.
 Functions for protection, support and
muscle attachment.
3.2.6. Pneumatic bones
 contain air spaces or sinuses

that communicate with the
exterior.
 Examples are the long bones of

bird, frontal bones and maxillary
bones of the skull.
3.3. DIVISION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
3.3.1. Axial skeleton

 The axial skeleton includes particularly all bones except those of the limbs or appendages.
It is made up of skull, vertebral column, sternum and ribs.
1) Skull
 Forms the basis of the head.
 Consists of cranial bones, which surround the brain and facial bones, which exhibits
observable variation among the animal species.
 Protection of brain, supports many sense organs and forms a passage for the beginning
of digestive and respiratory system.
2) Vertebral column
 Cervical vertebrae (C) - neck region

 Thoracic or dorsal (T) - chest region
 Lumbar (L) - loin region
 Sacral (S) - region of pelvis
 Fused Lumbar and Sacral (LS)- in
fowl
 Caudal or Coccygeal (Cd) - located
in tail
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Table 3. Vertebral formula of some animal specie

Animal
Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Sacral Coccygeal
species
Cattle C7 T13 L6 S5 Cy18-20
Sheep C7 T13 L6 S4 Cy16-18
Goat C7 T13 L7 S4 Cy12
Swine C7 T14-15 L6-7 S4 Cy20-23
Chicken C4 T7 L14 S4 Cy6
Human C7 T13 L5 S5 Cy4
Horse C7 T18 L6 S5 Cy15-20
3) Ribs
a) True ribs – forms the lateral walls of the bony thorax. The spaces between the adjacent
ribs are called the intercostal spaces and are numbered to correspond to the number
of the rib in front of the space.
b) Asternal or False ribs – extends from the thoracic vertebrae to the sternum where they
are connected by costal cartilages. Not directly connected with the sternum.
c) Floating ribs – last one or two pairs that have no connection with other ribs at the ventral
end. It is connected only with the vertebrae.
4) Sternum
 gives attachment to the costal cartilages of the ribs as well as providing a bony origin for
the pectoral muscles.
True ribs
False ribs
Figure 6. Ribs and sternum
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3.3.2. Appendicular Skeleton

 Appendicular skeleton is made up of the bones of the limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdles.
a. Forelimb
 Shoulder – scapula
 Arms – humerus
 Forearm – radius and ulna
 Wrist (knee) – carpals
 Manus (forefoot) – metacarpals and phalanges
b. Hindlimb
 Hip – composed of ilium, ischium and pubis)
 Thigh – femur
 Kneecap – patella
 Leg/Shank – tibia and fibula
 Ankle (hock) – tarsals
 Pes (hindfoot) – metatarsals and phalanges
3.3.3. Visceral bones

 Bones developed in soft tissues of certain organs or parts.
a) Os rostri – found in snout of pigs
b) Os cordis – in the heart of cattle and sheep
c) Os penis – in the penis of dogs
3.4. JOINTS
 Joints are articulations (unions) between bones.
Classifications:
 Based on the degree of movement they permit.
3.4.1. Synarthroses
 immovable joints which may be subdivided according to the uniting medium:
i. Suture – refers to the junction between bones of the skull that are united by fibrous
tissue early in life but may ossify at maturity.
ii. Gomphosis – refers to the articulation of teeth and their sockets in the mandible and
maxillae.
iii. Synchondrosis – an immovable joint in which the uniting medium is a bone.

 Example is the union between the diaphysis and the epiphysis.
iv. Synthosis – a joint in which the uniting medium is bone

 Example is the normal ossification of the epiphyseal cartilage of a long bone.
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3.4.2. Amphiarthroses
 slightly movable joints, which include:
i. Symphyses - cartilaginous joints in which the end of the articulating bones are covered
with hyaline cartilage. Example is the intervertebral joints.
ii. Syndesmosis – refers to joints with a fibrous tissue uniting medium that permit slight
movement. Example is the distal tibio-fibular joint.
3.4.3. Diarthroses
 are freely movable joints. They are also called synovial joints and are the most important
from the standpoint of movement.
 Example is the knee joint.
Figure 7. Types of joints
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Topic 4. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Pre-test. Select the nearest correct answer to the following statements. Write the
correct letter of your answer on the space provided for.
_____ 1. More movable attachment of a muscle.

a. Origin c. tendon
b. insertion d. ligament
_____ 2. Muscles that are attached to the skeleton.

a. smooth muscle c. involuntary striated muscle
b. voluntary striated muscle d. voluntary unstriated muscle
_____ 3. Muscles that oppose the desired action.

a. agonist c. antagonist
b. flexor d. extensor
_____ 4. Muscles that pulls a limb towards the median plane

a. flexor c. adductor
b. abductor d. extensor
_____ 5. Muscles are attached to the skin and are responsible for the movement of the
skin.
a. flexor c. sphincter
b. cutaneous muscle d. abductor
4.1. FUNCTIONS
1) It produces body movement
2) Maintains posture and stabilizes body positions
3) Stores and moves substances within the body; and,
4) Generates heat.
4.2. PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE
4.2.1. Excitability (irritability) 4.2.2. Contractility

 ability to receive and respond to stimuli  ability to shorten or produce tension
via generation of an electrical pulse which between its ends
causes contraction of the muscle cells.
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4.2.3. Extensibility 4.2.4. Elasticity

 ability to be stretched or extended  ability of a muscle fiber to recoil and
resume its resting length
4.3. TYPES OF MUSCLES

4.3.1. SMOOTH (Involuntary/ Visceral/ Unstriated muscle)
 Found in systems which are automatic or involuntary in function
 Major component of the wall of organs of the digestive and urogenital systems and most
blood vessels.
 This muscle helps regulate the flow of blood in the arteries and helps food through the
digestive system.
4.3.2. CARDIAC MUSCLE (Involuntary striated muscles)

 These are involuntary muscle found in the walls of the heart.
 Are meant for automatic rhythmic contractions for long period of time.
 The rate is regulated by the autonomic nervous system.
4.3.3 SKELETAL (Voluntary striated muscle)

 Comprise the bulk of the muscle in the body and sis referred to as the flesh (meat) and is
attached to the skeleton of domestic animals.
 Responsible for producing the voluntary movements of the limbs, trunk, and head, respond
quickly to stimuli and are capable of rapid contractions.
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Figure 8. Comparison of the different muscle tissue
4.4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF MUSCLES
4.4.1. Adductors vs. Abductors
 Muscles that tend to pull the limb toward the

median plane are called adductors while,
muscles that tend to pull the muscles away
from the median plane are called abductors.
4.4.2. Agonist vs. Antagonist

 The agonists (prime movers)
are the muscles directly
responsible for the desired
action. The antagonists are the
muscles that may oppose the
desired action of the agonist.
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4.4.3 Flexor vs. Extensor

 A flexor muscle is located
on the side of the limb
toward which the joint when
bent decreases the angle
between the segments. On
the other hand, an extensor
is a muscle located on the
opposite side of the flexor
and increases the angle of a
joint.
4.4.4. Sphincters
 muscles that surround an opening, whether
they are striated or smooth.
 E.g.
i. Pyloric sphincter, which control

the passage of food from the
stomach.
ii. Orbicularis oculi muscles of the

eyelid, which closes the eyelids
are example of striated muscle
sphincter.
4.4.5. Cutaneous muscles

 These muscles are attached
to the skin and are
responsible for the
movement of the skin.
Example is the Cutaneous
trunci muscle which enables
the horses to shake their
skin in the presence of
irritants.
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Attachment origin
 Most muscles have two ends attaching to two
different bones. The least movable attachment is
called the origin and the more movable end is the
insertion. Example is the Biceps brachii
originating from the scapula and inserting on the
radius.
 Hence, the scapula is less movable while the insertion
radius is the more movable bone.
Assignment 1 (Uploaded separately in the Google Classroom)
Direction: Please answer the following questions briefly and convincingly.

1. Differentiate a compact bone from spongy bone. Why do birds fly and pigs cannot?
2. Discuss the process of blood production in the red bone marrow.
 Activity No. 2. External Anatomy of Farm Animals and Body Measurements of

Farm Animals
 Activities and assignments are sent separately in the Google Classroom.
 Students opted for online delivery of modules as well as the submission of their
requirements.
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Topics 1-4. SKELETAL &amp; MUSCULAR SYSTEM

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Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

DEGREE PROGRAM BSABE COURSE NO. AS 1

I. CHAPTER TITLE: 2. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 At the end of this module, students should be able to:

VI. LESSON CONTENT

Topic 1. PLANES of REFERENCE in the ANIMAL’S BODY

a. Sagittal Plane b. Median Plane (mid-sagittal plane)

 A plane that  A plane that

c. Transverse Plane (also called d. Frontal Plane

a. Cranial (anterior) b. Caudal

e. Proximal and distal

Topic 2. THE ANIMAL CELLS AND TISSUES

d) Endoplasmic Reticulum - is seen like a network of interconnecting pathways to enable

Figure 2. The animal cell vs. plant cell

Figure 3. Types of animal cells

2.2. ANIMAL TISSUES

Figure 4. Types of animal tissues

i. A sensor or receptor that detects changes in the internal or external environment. An

The following diagrams illustrates the process of homeostasis:

Table 2. Nomenclature for systemic anatomy

Topic 3. SKELETAL SYSTEM

1. Which of the following is an example of a flat bone?

2. This is the thigh bone.

3. How many tail bones does a human has?

4. Where is red blood cells produced?

3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF BONES ACCORDING TO GROSS APPEARANCE

3.2.1. Long bones

 consists of a relatively cylindrical shaft

 A long bone grows in length only at the

 Long bones function chiefly as levers

 Examples are the femur, humerus,

3.2.2. Short bones

 somewhat cuboid in shape

 There is no marrow cavity. Examples,

3.2.3. Flat bones

3.2.4. Sesamoid bones

 Resembles a sesame seed and are found

3.2.5. Irregular bones

 are unpaired bones located on the

3.2.6. Pneumatic bones

 contain air spaces or sinuses

 Examples are the long bones of

3.3. DIVISION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

3.3.1. Axial skeleton

 Cervical vertebrae (C) - neck region

Table 3. Vertebral formula of some animal specie

3.3.2. Appendicular Skeleton

3.3.3. Visceral bones

iii. Synchondrosis – an immovable joint in which the uniting medium is a bone.

iv. Synthosis – a joint in which the uniting medium is bone

Figure 7. Types of joints

Topic 4. MUSCULAR SYSTEM

_____ 1. More movable attachment of a muscle.

_____ 2. Muscles that are attached to the skeleton.

_____ 3. Muscles that oppose the desired action.

_____ 4. Muscles that pulls a limb towards the median plane

4.2. PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE

4.2.1. Excitability (irritability) 4.2.2. Contractility

4.2.3. Extensibility 4.2.4. Elasticity

4.3. TYPES OF MUSCLES

4.3.2. CARDIAC MUSCLE (Involuntary striated muscles)

4.3.3 SKELETAL (Voluntary striated muscle)

Topics 1-4. SKELETAL & MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Topics 1-4. SKELETAL & MUSCULAR SYSTEM