Natl. Acad. Sci. Lett.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40009-023-01312-0
SHORT COMMUNICATION
On 3D Printing of PVDF Composite‑ Based Sensors
for Biomedical Applications
Minhaz Husain1 · Rupinder Singh1 · B. S. Pabla1
Received: 17 February 2023 / Revised: 3 May 2023 / Accepted: 30 May 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to The National Academy of Sciences, India 2023
Abstract Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) composites are
commercially used in numerous engineering applications
due to their exceptional sensing capabilities. But less has
been testified to using such sensors for monitoring bone
healing as a typical internet of bodies (IoB) solution. In
this study, PVDF composite comprising of 90%PVDF-
8% hydroxyapatite (Hap) − 2% chitosan (CS) having melt
flow index (MFI) 1.224 g/(10 min), Young’s modulus (E)
889 MPa, modulus of toughness (MoT) 2 MPa was 3D
printed by fused filament fabrication (FFF) for possible sens-
ing applications in veterinary patients (VP) after implanta-
tion. The PVDF composite sensor was tuned for a resonant
frequency (RF) of 2.45 GHz as a typical IoB-based solution
for the health monitoring of VP. The acceptable return loss
­(S11) was found to be − 22.12 dB for PVDF composite-
based sensors. Also, the specific absorption rate (SAR) of
0.188 W/kg for the proposed sensors aligns with the medical
standard.
Keywords 3D printing · PVDF composite · HAp · CS ·
Ring resonator · FFF
The 3D printing process allows for the direct crea-
tion of items with complicated geometrical attributes
Significance Statement: In this study, PVDF composite sensor
was tuned for a resonant frequency (RF) of 2.45 GHz as a typical
IoB-based solution for the health monitoring of VP.
* Rupinder Singh
rupindersingh@nitttrchd.ac.in
1 The ring resonator design (as per standard ring resonator
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National
Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research,
Chandigarh 160019, India
cost-effectively [1], in a concise amount of time. Among
the different 3D printing procedures, FFF is the most widely
used process because of its simplicity and low-cost equip-
ment accessibility [2]. The PVDF is among the most signifi-
cant classes of commercial flexible polymer materials, with
acceptable features for orthopedic needs in the case of VP
[3]. Because of its robust chemical resistance to corrosion,
heat resistance, and unique features such as piezoelectric
and dielectric properties, PVDF is an excellent choice as
an implant material [4], and numerous studies have been
reported in biomedicine, sensors, catalysis, energy conver-
sion, and storage applications [5]. But less has been testi-
fied on using such sensors for monitoring bone healing as
a typical IoB-based solution. Figure 1 shows the adopted
methodology in this study.
The detailed experimentation procedure along with oper-
ating conditions and observations for this study is shown
in Fig. 2a–e. After fabrication of the functional prototype
on FFF (ɸ10mm, thickness 1.5 mm), an impedance ana-
lyzer set up (Fig. 2d) was used to measure εr, tan δ, and
capacitance (pF) of samples. Based on Figs. 2e, 3a shows
the stress–strain curve for in-house prepared PVDF compos-
ite. For online health monitoring of the bone, the proposed
bone healing model (Fig. 3b) shows the growth of osteoblast
cells through the implant surface. It may be noticed that this
growth of osteoblast cells through the perforated section of a
ground plane and patch will change the εr, tan δ, and capaci-
tance (pF) of samples, which may be interpreted to ascertain
the bone growth without the use of any sophisticated medi-
cal device. Figure 3c–e respectively shows the observed εr,
tan δ, and capacitance on the impedance analyzer setup to
20 MHz, which was extrapolated for 2.45 GHz RF (Table 1).
test [6]) (Fig. 3f), scattering (­ S21) parameters at 2.45 GHz
(Fig. 3g), design of patch antenna (Fig. 3h), ­S11 parameters
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 M. Husain et al.

Fig. 1  Methodology adopted

as per VNA (Fig. 3i), 2D radiation pattern (Fig. 3j), 3D far- w

Outer radiusR0 = R + (5)
field radiation pattern (Fig. 3k), SAR model (Fig. 3l) with 2
the ring resonator (for RF of 2.45 GHz) was simulated in
HFSS. The design consideration for the SAR model was the Inner radiusRi = R −
w
(6)
skin thickness (1.7 mm), fat tissue thickness (8 mm), and 2
muscle tissue thickness (10 mm) in this study. (w
The ring resonator design was based on Eqs. (1–8) [6].
{( )}
𝜀eff + 0.30
)
h
+ 0.262
Cg = (0.411 × h) × × w
( ) {( ) ( ) } 𝜀eff − 0.258 + 0.818
𝜀r + 1 𝜀r − 1 h −0.5 h
𝜀eff = + × 1 + 12 (1) (7)
2 2 w
Total length of substrate(L) = 2 × l + 2 × Cg + Do (8)
where εeff denotes the effective dielectric constant, h denotes
substrate height, and w represents the width of the feed line. where ­Cg is the coupling gap and h = height of a substrate.
Equation (2) was used to calculate the guided wavelength. The PVDF composite sensor as a patch antenna for RF of
2.45 GHz was suitably tuned as a typical IoB-based solution
c 1
𝜆g = √ × (2) for the health monitoring of the VP. The S ­ 11 of the PVDF
𝜀eff f
composite-based sensor was found to be − 22.12 dB. The
outcomes are in line with other investigators [6]. The nov-
where λg is the guided wavelength, and c and f are the veloc-
elty of the work is that the proposed PVDF composite-based
ity of light and resonating frequency. The following relation
functional prototype as a partially absorbable implant may
(3) calculates the ring’s mean radius.
be directly employed for monitoring bone healing in VP
2𝜋R = n𝜆g (3) (especially in remote rural locations, which may be at a far
distance from some veterinary hospitals for better under-
R is the ring’s mean radius, and n seems to be the harmonic standing/decision making of the owner (like for large sheds
order of resonance (n = 1, 2, 3). The length of a transmission of milking cows/buffaloes (bovines) about the emergency
line or feed line is computed using Eq. (4) below. medical need if any). As there will be healing of bone in VP,
𝜆g its εr will change (because osteoblast cells will grow and fill
Length of feed line (l) = (4) the space of bone implant, which will dissolve over time).
4
Hence the 3D printed implant of PVDF composite will pro-
The following expression is used to compute the ring’s vide information via Bluetooth device on a smartphone in
outer radius Eq. (5) and inner radius Eq. (6). industry scientific medicine (ISM) band (without requiring
any special hardware/ software) about the health of VP. The
ring resonator’s SAR value (0.188 W/kg) is in the range.

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On 3D Printing of PVDF Composite‑ Based Sensors for Biomedical Applications

Fig. 2  a MFI setup, b Single

screw extruder (SSE), c FFF, Load
Operating conditions as per
d Sample holder for dielectric ASTM-D-1238:
constant, e Universal tensile 230°C cylinder temperature
testing machine (UTM) 3.8 kg load at the plunger
(a) 10 min Time duration Output:
MFI = 1.224 g/(10 min)
Display Heating chamber
panel
Extrudate coming out
from die

SSE

Output:
(b) Filament diameter:
1.72 ± 0.05 mm

Air cooler Diameter

controller

Operating conditions: Barrel temperature 230°C, Screw speed 7 rpm

Operating conditions:
230°C nozzle temperature
50 mm/s printing speed
90° Raster angle
(c) Filament 100% infill density
Line infill pattern
Exploded view of 3D 80°C bed temperature
Nozzle
printed substrate
Control panel

Sample holder
Sample
Operating conditions:
10 kV voltage, 25°C
temperature
(d) 10 mm sample diameter
1.5 mm sample thickness
20 Hz to 20 MHz
Exploded view of frequency
sample holder

Upper jaw Operating conditions as per

Output:
modified ASTM D-638:
889±4.90 MPa E
5 mm/s strain rate
(e) 100 mm sample length
2.00±0.08MPa
MoT
60 mm gauge length

Lower jaw

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 M. Husain et al.

Fig. 3  Stress vs strain plot (a), Proposed bone healing model (b), patch antenna (h), ­S11 parameters as per VNA (i), 2D radiation pat-
Observed εr (c), tan δ (d), capacitance (e) on impedance analyzer, tern (j), 3D far-field radiation pattern (k), SAR model (l)
ring resonator design (f), ­S21 parameters at 2.45 GHz (g), design of

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On 3D Printing of PVDF Composite‑ Based Sensors for Biomedical Applications
Fig. 3  (continued)
Table 1  Observations for measured/ calculated properties (at the dif-
ferent RF) for PVDF composite
Parameter(s) Observed at Calculated
20 MHz at 2.45 GHz
εr 9.6 7.357
tan δ 0.208 0.173
Capacitance (pF) 1.11 0.53
Effective dielectric constant (εeff) – 6.659
The mean radius of the ring (R) (mm) – 7.55
Width of the ring (w) (mm) – 2.08
The extent of feed line (l) (mm) – 11.86
Outside radius ­(Ro) (mm) – 8.59
Inside radius ­(Ri) (mm) – 6.51
The total length of a substrate (L) (mm) – 41.94
Coupling gap ­(Cg) (mm) – 0.52
The substrates thickness (h) (mm) – 1.6
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the research support
provided by the National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and
Research Chandigarh, and Prof. Ashwani Kumar from Guru Angad
Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University Ludhiana.
Funding The authors are thankful to the Department of Science and
Technology for funding under FIST Level-0, Project No. SR/FST/
College-/2020/997.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors don’t have any conflict of interests.
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