LESSON 1: Surveying Fieldwork & Introduction to
Surveying Chief of Party
FIELD NOTES
 Constitute the only reliable and permanent record of
actual work done in the field.
 If notes are incorrect or incompletely done, time,
money and effort in data gathering are wasted.
 The quality of field work is reflected directly in the
manner he keeps his field record.
 Field notes become the official record of the survey.
TYPES OF FIELD NOTES
1. Sketches
2. Tabulations
3. Explanatory notes
4. Computations
5. Combination
INFORMATION FOUND IN FIELD BOOKS
1. Title or Name of the Project
2. Time of Day and Date
3. Weather Conditions
4. Names of Group Members and Their Designations
5. List of Equipment
RECORDING OBSERVED DATA
To eliminate common mistakes in note keeping, the
following guide points are given:
1. Follow a consistent simple style of writing.
2. Use of sharp pencil.
3. Record directly in the field book immediately following a
measurement, rather than on a sheet of scratch paper for
copying.
4. Do not erase recorded data. If a number has been
recorded incorrectly, a line is run through it without
destroying its legibility and the correct value is written
above the mistake. If entire page is to be deleted, diagonal
lines are drawn from opposite corners and “VOID” is
lettered prominently.
5. Avoid crowding observed data.
6. Always bring along a straight edge for ruling lines, and
a small protractor for laying off angles.
7. To avoid misinterpretation of data, use sketches other
than tabulations. Also use explanatory notes.
8. Indicate north at the top of the page of the field
notebook for all sketches shown in plan and draw a
meridian arrow.
9. Tabulated values should be kept inside the column
rulings, with the decimal point and digits aligned vertically.
Notes should not be made to appear either more precise
or less precise than they really are.
10. Computations made in the field should be recorded in
the field notebook in order that they can be checked later.
The checks are necessary to determine if there is a need
to repeat a particular observation or measurement.
11. Number every page of the field notebook. There
should be no doubt with regard to the correct sequence of
recorded field data.
SURVEY PARTY
Rear Tapeman
Assistant Chief of Party Flagman
Instrument man Rodman
Technician Pacer
Data processor Axeman or Lineman
Recorder Aidman
Head Tapeman Utilitymen
SURVEY HAND SIGNALS
 An arm and hand signal is any gesture or motion that
conveys information or gives a command, direction or
warning.
 Usually employed due to the difficulty to
communicate verbally in the field due to distance,
wind conditions, and surrounding noise.
CARE AND HANDLING OF INSTRUMENTS
1. Know how to use the instrument.
2. Always place them in stable grounds when in use.
3. Place them properly in their container.
4. Do not use them if weather does not permit.
5. Check their functionality before and after field work.
6. If wet, dry them by carefully wiping excess water and do
not put them immediately in their storage or container.
7. Carry the instrument properly
8. Be mindful of the surrounding when transporting any
equipment.
9. Avoid playing with the instrument.
10. Always make sure that the equipment is secure.
INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
GEOMATICS
 The science concerned with the measurement,
representation, analysis, management, retrieval and,
display of spatial information describing both the
Earth's physical features and the built-in environment.
 Includes disciplines such as:
Surveying Cartography
Geodesy Global Positioning Systems
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information
Photogrammetry Systems
 The art of making measurements of the relative
positions of natural and manmade features on the
earth's surface, and the presentation of this
information either graphically or numerically.
(Traditional Definition)
 The art and science of determining angular and linear
measurements to establish the form, extent, and
relative position of points, lines, and areas on or near
the surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial
bodies through applied mathematics and the use of
specialized equipment and techniques. (Modern
Definition)
IN 1990
 The military requirements of World Wars I and II
provided the motivation for vast improvements in the
design of surveying equipment and execution of
surveying operations.
USES OF SURVEY
1. Establishment of boundaries of land.
2. Fixing of national and state boundaries.
3. Charting of coastlines and navigable streams and lakes.
4. Precise location of definite reference points throughout
the country.
5. Collection of valuable facts concerning the earth’s
magnetism at widely scattered stations throughout the
country.
SURVEYING
 Plane Surveying - the type of surveying in which the
mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane,
or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected.
 Geodetic Surveying - takes into account the true
shape of the earth.
TYPES OF SURVEYS
 Control Survey - consists of establishment of the
horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary points.
 Property Survey - performed to determine the length
and direction of lot lines and to establish the position
of these lines on the ground.
 Topographic Survey - made to secure data from
which may be made a topographic map indicating the
configuration of the terrain and the location of natural
and human-made objects.
 Hydrographic Survey - refers to surveys of bodies of
water for the purposes of navigation, water supply, or
subaqueous construction.
 Mine Survey - utilizes the principles for land, geologic
and topographic surveying to control, locate and map
underground and surface works related to mining
operations.
 Route survey - refers to those control, topographic,
and construction surveys necessary for the location
and construction of lines of transportation, etc.
 Construction Survey - performed to lay out, locate
and, monitor public and private engineering works.
 Photogrammetric Survey - measurements made on
photographs are used to determine the positions of
photographed objects.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Total Station System
 Digital Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
 Satellite Positioning System
 Geographic and Land Information Systems
 Level surface - a curved surface every element of
which is normal to a line that is directed exactly
toward the Earth's center of gravity (plumb line).
 Zenith - direction away from the center of the Earth
and above the observer’s head.
 Nadir - direction towards the center of the Earth.
 Horizontal plane - plane tangent to a level surface at
a particular point.
 Horizontal line - a line tangent to a level surface. In
surveying, it is commonly understood that a
horizontal line of sight is straight.
 Horizontal angle - an angle formed by the intersection
of two lines in a horizontal plane.
 Vertical line - a line perpendicular to the horizontal
plane.
 Vertical plane - is a plane in which a vertical line isan
element.
 Vertical angle - angle between two intersecting lines
in a vertical plane.
 Zenith angle - angle between two lines in a vertical
plane where it is understood that one of the lines is
directed toward the zenith.
 Nadir angle - angle between two lines in a vertical
plane where it is understood that one of the lines is
directed toward the nadir.
 Horizontal distances - distances measured along a
level line.
 Elevation of a point - vertical distance above (or
below) some arbitrarily assumed level surface, or
datum.
 Contour - an imaginary line of constant elevation on
the ground surface.
 Difference in elevation - vertical distance between
two points.
 Leveling - operation of measuring difference in
elevation.
 Grade or Gradient of a line - slope of the line or rate
of ascent or descent.
LESSON 2: Errors and Statistics and Probable Errors
MEASUREMENT
 Process of determining the extent, size, or
dimensions of a particular quantity in comparison to a
given standard.
 Consists of several physical operations which renders
a numerical value.
 Maybe direct or indirect.
MEASUREMENT VS. OBSERVATION
 A measurement entails the entire process of
obtaining a desired quantity, including preparations
(instrument calibration and setup), pointing, matching,
and comparing.
 An observation is a single, unadjusted determination
of a linear or angular value.
VARIABILITY IN REPEATED MEASUREMENTS
 Measurements are numerical values for random
variables which are subject to statistical fluctuations.
 An inherent quality of physical properties.
 Statistical variations due to observational errors.
ERROR AND CORRECTION
Error - difference between the measured or calculated
value of a quantity and given or established (“true”) value
of that quantity.
Ɛ=� −Ƭ
Correction - the negative of error.
���������� = Ƭ − �
SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. Natural Errors - caused by variations in the phenomena
of nature such as changes in magnetic declination,
temperature, etc.
2. Instrumental Errors - due to imperfections in the
instruments used.
3. Personal Errors - arise principally from the limitations of
the senses of sight, touch, and hearing of the observer.
TYPES OF ERRORS
1. Mistake or Blunders
2. Systematic or Cumulative Errors
3. Random or Accidental Errors
MISTAKES OF BLUNDERS
 Actually not errors because they are usually so gross
in magnitude compared to the other types of errors.
 One of the most common reasons is simple
carelessness on the part of the observer.
 An observation with a mistake is not useful unless the
mistake is removed.
COMMON MISTAKES OF BLUNDERS
1. Reading the wrong graduation on the tape.
2. Omitting a whole length of tape.
3. Transposition of figures.
4. Misplacing a decimal point.
5. Incorrect recording of field notes.
6. Sighting the wrong target.
SYSTEMATIC OR CUMULATIVE ERRORS
 So called because they occur according to some
deterministic system which, when known, can be
expressed by some functional relationship.
 Caused by physical and natural conditions that vary
in accordance with known mathematical or physical
laws.
TYPES OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR
 Constant Error - if its magnitude and sign remains the
same throughout the measuring process or field
conditions are unchanged.
 Counteracting - if its sign changes while its
magnitude remains the same. Due to personal bias of
the observer.
COMMON SYSTEMATIC OR CUMULATIVE ERRORS
1. Equipment out of calibration.
2. Personal biases of the observer.
3. Use of incorrect units (feet instead of meters).
RANDOM OF ACCIDENTAL ERRORS
 Produced by irregular causes that are beyond the
control of the observer.
 This variation results from observational errors which
have no known functional relationship based upon a
deterministic system.
 Must use probability models.
STATISTICS
General Uses of Statistics:
 Statistics aids in decision making.
- Provides comparison.
- Explains action that has taken place.
- Justifies a claim or assertion.
- Predicts future outcome.
- Estimates unknown quantities.
 Statistics summarizes data for public use.
PRECISION VS. ACCURACY
 Precision - degree of refinement and measure of
uniformity of the result.
 Accuracy - degree of conformity with a standard or
accepted value. Denotes how close a given
measurement is to the absolute value of the quantity.
THE CONCEPT OF PROBABILITY
 Probability - is the likelihood associated with a
random event.
 Random Variable - a variable that takes on any of
several possible values.
 Random Event - is one whose relative frequency of
occurrence approaches a stable limit as the number
of observations is increased to infinity.
REPRESENTATIONS OF PROBABILITY DENSITY
Frequency Diagrams:
 Histogram – represents the probability density of a
single random variable.
 Stereogram - represents the probability density of two
random variables.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
 Sample Median - positional middle of the arrayed
data.
 Characteristics:
- Affected by the position of each item but not by the value
of each item.
- A stable measure of central tendency.
 Sample Mean - sum of all the values of the
observations divided by the number of observations.
(Most Probable Value)
 Characteristics:
- Most familiar measure of central tendency used.
- Affected by the value of every observation.
- In particular, it is strongly influenced by extreme values.
- Since it is a calculated number, it may not be an actual
number in the data set.
 Sample Mode - value that occurs most frequently in
the sample.
 Characteristics:
- Not always exist. If it does, it may not be unique (2 or
more sample modes).
- Not affected by extreme values.
- Easiest to compute.
 Midrange - value of observation that is midway along
the range. Arithmetic mean of the largest and
smallest observations.
SAMPLE STATISTICS FOR DISPERSION Probable error of any single measurement of a series:
1. Range - the total spread of the sample.
�2
��� =± 0.6745
����� = ������� ����� − �������� ����� �−1

2. Mean Deviation - arithmetic mean of the absolute Probable error of the mean:
values of the deviation from any measure of position.
�2
��� =± 0.6745
� �(� − 1)
1
�� = �� − X
�
�=1
RELATIVE ERROR OR PRECISION
 Expressed by a fraction having the magnitude of the
error in the numerator and the magnitude of a
3. Variance - parameter of dispersion or spread. measured quantity in the denominator.
�

(�� − X )2
 Example:
�=1
�2 = If PEm= 0.10 m and MPV = 235.50 m,
�−1 Relative Precision = 0.10/235.50 = 1/2355 or 1:2355.

 Example:
3. Standard Deviation - positive square root of the
The following values were determined in a series of tape
variance.
measurements of a line in meters: 1000.58, 1000.40,
1000.38 1000.48, 1000.40, 1000.46
�

(�� − X )2 Determine:
�=1 A. MPV of the measured length.
�= �
�−1 ��� �� X =
�

1000.58 + 1000.40 + 1000.38 + 1000.48 + 1000.40 + 1000.46

MEASURES OF QUALITY =
Weight - the quantity that is inversely proportional to 6
variance.
Relative Error or Precision - ratio of the error to the X = ����. �� �
measured or estimated quantity.
Ratio of Misclosure - ratio between the total error and the B. PEs and PEm.
total length of the survey. Measured Length Residual (v) Square of
(x) Residual (v2)
1000.58 -0.13 0.0169
PROBABLE ERRORS 1000.40 0.05 0.0025
1000.38 0.07 0.0049
RESIDUAL 1000.48 -0.03 0.0009
 Sometimes called the deviation. 1000.40 0.05 0.0025
 Defined as the difference between any measured 1000.46 -0.01 0.0001
quantity and its most probable value (MPV).
∑X = 6002.70 ∑v = 0 ∑v2 = 0.0278
Wherein;
v = residual
�=X −� X = an individual measurement �2 0.0278
��� =± 0.6745 =± 0.6745
X = MPV of thequantity �−1 6−1

��� =± �. �� �
PROBABLE ERROR
 A quantity which, when added to and subtracted from
the MPV, defines a range within which there is 50% �2 0.0278
��� =± 0.6745 =± 0.6745
chance that the true value lies inside (or outside) the �(� − 1) 6(6 − 1)
limits thus set.
��� =± �. �� �
X ± ��
C. Final expression for most probable length.  Product of errors:
��� =± �1 × ��2 2 + �2 × ��1 2
= 1000.45 ± 0.02
�����: ����. �� − ����. �� Where:
PEp= Probable error of the product
D. Relative Precision of the measurement. Q1 & Q2 = Measured quantities
PE1, PE2 = PE corresponding to each quantity
��� 0.05
��� = =
��� 1000.45  Example:
A rectangular lot has sides a = 51.17 m and b = 27.30 m
� each having probable errors 0.02, 0.05 meters
��� =
����� respectively. Compute for the probable error of the
calculated area.
��� 0.02
��� = =
��� 1000.45 ��� =± 51.17 × 0.05 2 + 27.30 × 0.02 2

�
��� = ��� =± �. �� ��
�����
Note: The MPV of the area is 1396.94 ± 2.62 m2.
WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS
 Degree of reliability.
 Usually based upon:
- Judgment of the surveyor. LESSON 3: Horizontal Distance Measurement
- Number of measurements taken for a particular quantity.
- The assumption that it is inversely proportional to the HORIZONTAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT I
square of the probable error.
SPATIAL AND HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
 Example:  Spatial Distance - distance between any two random
Measured Length Assigned Weight Weighted Length points in 3D space.
(X) (W) (X*W)  Horizontal Distance - linear distance between two
points on any surface. If points are at different
110.26 6 661.56
elevations, distance is the horizontal length between
110.13 2 220.26
plumb lines at the points.
110.20 3 330.60
110.31 1 110.31 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN CHOOSING
∑W = 12 ∑P = 1322.73 METHODS OF DETERMINING HORIZONTAL
DISTANCES
P 1322.73 1. Purpose of the Measurement
Weighted Mean = =
W 12 2. Required Accuracy
- Rough reconnaissance ( 1 part in 100 )
= ���. �� � - First-order surveys (1 part in 1,000,000)
3. Cost

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS USED TO DETERMINE

 Summation of errors: ����� =± ��21 + ��22 + . . . ��2� HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
1. Pacing
Where: 2. Tacheometry
PESUM = Probable error of the sum 3. Graphical and Mathematical Methods
PE1, PE2, etc. = PE of each measurement 4. Mechanical Devices
5. Photogrammetry
 Example: 6. Taping
A triangular-shaped tract of land has sides a = 35.02 m, b 7. EDM
= 22.15 m and c = 12.65 m, each having probable errors 8. Global Positioning Systems
of 0.05, 0.07 and 0.03 m, respectively. Compute for the
probable error of the perimeter. PACING
 consists of counting the number of steps or paces in
a required distance.
����� =± (0.05)2 + (0.07)2 + (0.03)2
 furnishes a rapid means of approximately checking
more precise measurements of distance.
=± �. �� �  used on:
 reconnaissance surveys
Note: The MPV of the perimeter is 69.82 ± 0.09m.
 small-scale mapping locating details
PACE
 defined as the length of a step in walking
 2 paces is equivalent to a stride or a double step
 Relative Precision: 1/200 to 1/100 seldom less than
1/300
A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an
instrument set up at A. The upper and lower stadia hair
readings were observed as 1.30m and 0.90m, respectively.
If the stadia interval factor is 100 and the instrument
constant is zero, determine the length of line AB.
� = �� + � = (100)(1.30 − 0.90) + 0

HOW TO CALIBRATE ONE’S PACE? � = �� �

 walk at a uniform step along a line of known length on
a level ground and count the number of paces to 2. Subtense Bar Method - a subtense bar is set up at a
cover the whole stretch distant station while a theodolite at the end of the line
 compute the pace factor (in m/pace) measures the horizontal angle subtended by the distance
between the two targets.
FACTORS AFFECTING LENGTH OF PACE:
 Speed of pacing � �
The formula for subtense bar method is: � = 2 ���
 Roughness of the ground 2
 Weight of clothing and shoes
 Fatigue on the part of the pacer Where:
 Slope of the terrain D = horizontal distance
 Age and sex of the individual s = length of the subtense bar
a = angle subtended by the targets
MECHANICAL PACE COUNTERS
1. Pedometer Relative Precision: 1/3000 with sights of about 150m or
- a pager-size device worn on the belt that simply records less using a 1” theodolite
the number of steps made based on the body’s movement
(hips). Example:
- old pedometers are hand carried. Using a theodolite, a subtended angle of 0º22’20” was
- registers number of paces and distances. read on a 2-m subtense bar. What is the horizontal
distance from the theodolite to the bar?
2. Passometer
- registers a pace by impact each time a foot touches the � � 2 0°22'20"
�= ��� = ���
ground 2 2 2 2
- about the size of a watch
� = ���. �� �
TACHEOMETRY
- an indirect method of measuring horizontal distances. GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS
- it is based on the optical geometry of the instruments  distances are determined geometrically.
used.
- uses subtended intervals and angles observed with a �= �2 − �1 2 + �2 − �1 2

transit or a theodolite on a graduated rod or scale.

- relative accuracy is 1 part in 300 to 400. Example:
Compute the distances of lines AB, BC and CA using the
METHODS IN TACHEOMETRY given coordinates of the three points
1. Stadia Method - uses a telescope with 2 horizontal Eastings (X) Northings (Y)
cross hairs called stadia hairs, and a graduated rod called A 20,000.00 20,000.00
stadia rod. B 20,050.00 18,900.00
C 20,650.00 19,000.00
Precision depends on the ff:
 Refinement with which instrument was manufactured 2 2
�= �2 − �1 + �2 − �1
 Skill of the observer
 Length of measurement
��� = 20,050 − 20,000 2 + 18,900 − 20,000 2
 Effects of refraction

Stadia Method formula: � = �� + � ��� = ����. ��

Where: ��� = 20,650 − 20,050 2 + 19,000 − 18,900 2

K = stadia interval factor
s = stadia interval ��� = ���. ��
C = distance from the center of instrument to principal
focus (instrument constant)
Example:
 ��� = 20,650 − 20,000 2 + 19,000 − 20,000 2 ADVANTAGES OF EDM
 speed and accuracy
��� = ����. ��  lightweight and portable
 low power requirement
MECHANICAL DEVICES  easy to operate
 Odometer - attached to a wheel for purposes of  ease in measurement over inaccessible terrain
roughly measuring surface distances (speed).  applicable to measurement of both short and long
lengths
 Relative Precision: 1/200 on fairly level ground  automatically measures, displays and records
 Uses: needed data
- Route Location Surveys  slope measurements are internally reduced to
- Preliminary Surveys horizontal and vertical components
- Small-scale Mapping  automatically accumulates and averages reading for
slope range, horizontal and vertical angles
 Measuring Wheel - very similar to odometer except
that it is a more portable and selfcontained device. TOTAL STATION
- a combination electronic transit and electronic distance
 Use: measuring device (EDM).
- Determining distance along irregular or curved lines and - angles and distances from the instrument to points to be
boundaries surveyed are determined.
- using trigonometry, angles and distances may be used to
 Optical Rangefinder - determines distances calculate the actual positions (x, y, and z or northing,
approximately by focusing. easting and elevation) of surveyed points in absolute
terms.
 Mileage Recorder - attached to ordinary automobile
speedometer. TAPING
- involves direct measurement of distances with steel
PHOTOGRAMMETRY tapes.
• Measuring of images on a photograph - most common method of measuring or laying out
• Uses scale to obtain ground distances horizontal distances.
- consists of stretching a calibrated tape between two
����� �������� points and reading the distance indicated on the tape.
����� =
������ ��������
GUNTER’S CHAIN
- by Sir Edmund Gunter (1620)
Example: - 66 ft with 100 links
A line connecting two electric posts and defining a lot - 1 link = 0.66ft = 7.92 inches
boundary is 2.6cm long on a photo. Determine its ground
distance in meters if the photo scale used is 1:500 TYPES OF MEASURING TAPES
1. Steel tape
1
1 2.6( ) - ribbon of steel
= 100
500 � - 0.5-1.0cm in width; weighs 0.8-1.5kg / 30 meters
- for most conventional measurements in surveying and
= �� � engineering works

2. Metallic tape
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT II - aka woven tapes
- made of water-proof linen fabric
ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT - woven longitudinally with small brass, copper or bronze
(EDM) - reduce stretching, increase strength
 Measurement of distance is based on the invariant - for short distances
speed of light or electromagnetic waves in a vacuum. - unsuitable for precise measurements and around
 Classification: electrical installations
 Electro-optical
- e.g. Geodimeter 3. Non-metallic tape
 Electromagnetic (microwave) - coated with plastic material
- e.g. Tellurometer - reduce effects of moisture, humidity and abrasion
 EDM formula: - safe to use when working around electrical installations
1
� = (�� + �) 4. Invar tape
2
- made of an alloy of nickel (35%) and steel (65%)
where l = v / f, n = integral # of wavelengths, d = phase diff - with a very low coefficient of thermal expansion
- (1/30 to 1/60 of steel tape)
- “Invariable”
- used for precise measurements
- 10 times as expensive as steel
- easily bent and damaged
5. Lovar tape
- properties and costs between steel and invar tapes
6. Fiberglass tape
- woven with fiberglass (longitudinal and transverse
pattern)
- strong and flexible
- best used in vicinity of electrical equipment
7. Wires
- used before thin flat steel tapes
- still practical in hydrographic surveys
 Third Rule: When a line is measured or laid out with a
tape that is “TOO SHORT”, corrections applied are
opposite of 1st and 2nd rules.
 GENERAL STATEMENT: “When measuring with
tape TOO LONG, ADD; TOO SHORT, SUBTRACT.
Do the reverse when laying out.”
CORRECTIONS TO TAPE
1. Tape Not of Standard Length
 Often due to imperfections in their manufacture,
stretching or wear.
 Also due to constant use of tapes becoming worn,
kinked, and improperly repaired when breaks
occurred.
 Corrections may vary from few millimeters or
centimeters.
���� = �� − ��

8. Builder’s tape Where:

- smaller cross sections and lighter than engineer’s tape Corr = correction per tape length
- graduated to suit commonly used dimensions in building TL = true length
constructions NL = measured length

9. Phosphor-bronze tape
- rust-proof tape ��
�� = �� ± ����
- used in vicinity of salt water ��

10. Nylon-coated steel tape Where:

- flexible and crack-resistant CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid
- steel core tape out
- with coating of permanently bonded non-conducting ML = length measured or laid out
nylon Corr = correction per tape length (TL - ML)
- designed to be resistant to corrosion and rust TL = true length
NL = nominal length of tape
TAPING ACCESSORIES
 Tension Handle  Example:
 Chaining Pins The length of line AB measured with a 50-m tape is
 Leather Thong 465.285 m. The tape used is found out to be 0.016 m too
 Range Pole long. Determine the correct length of AB.
 Clinometer
 Plump Bob �� 465.265
�� = �� ± ���� = 465.285 + 0.016( )
 Wooden Stake �� 50

OPERATIONS IN TAPING �� = ���. ��� �

 Breaking Tape - measurement of shorter distances
which are accumulated to total a full tape length.
 Slope Taping - taped measurements are made
directly along the slopes when the ground is of
uniform inclination and fairly smooth.
2. Due to Slope
When distances are measured along a slope, the
equivalent horizontal distance may correspondingly be
determined by applying an approximate or exact slope
correction.

� = � − �ℎ
LESSON 4: Tape Corrections

RULES IN TAPE CORRECTIONS ℎ2

Gentle Slopes (<20%): �ℎ = 2�
 First Rule: When a line is measured with a tape that
is “TOO LONG”, corrections are ADDED.
 Second Rule: When laying out a length with a tape ℎ2 ℎ4
Steep Slopes (Between 20%-30%): �ℎ = 2� + 8�3
that is “TOO LONG”, corrections are SUBTRACTED.
Very Steep Slopes (>30%): �ℎ =s(1-cosθ)
Where: 20.60
sinθBC = → θBC = 14.04°
Ch = slope correction = s-d 84.94
h = Delev between pts
s = measured slope distance
d = equivalent horizontal distance �ℎ�� = 76.52(1 − ���23.53) = 6.362
�ℎ�� = 84.94(1 − ���14.04) = 2.537
 Example: ���� = �. ��� �
Slope distances AB and BC are measured with lengths
76.52 m and 84.94 m, respectively. The differences in
elevation are 30.55 m for points A and B, and –20.60 m � = � − �ℎ
for points B and C. Determine the combined slope
correction for line AC assuming slopes are gentle, steep ��� = 76.52 − 6.362 = 70.158
and very steep. Finally, calculate the corrected horizontal ��� = 84.94 − 2.537 = 82.403
distance AC for each slope type. ��� = ���. ��� �

 Gentle Slope
ℎ2 3. Due to Alignment
�ℎ =
2�  Linear error due to inaccuracy in alignment of a tape.
 Similar to the effect of slope.
(30.55)2  Easier to control and smaller in magnitude.
�ℎ�� = = 6.098  Generally least important among different tape
2(76.52)
corrections.
( − 20.60)2
�ℎ�� = = 2.498 4. Due to Temperature
2(84.94)
 Change in the length of the tape due to variations in
temperature.
���� = �. ��� �  Occurs when measurements are taken at
temperatures above or below the standard
temperature of the tape.
� = � − �ℎ  Correction is usually small and negligible.
 Proportional to the number of tape lengths.
��� = 76.52 − 6.098 = 70.42
��� = 84.94 − 2.498 = 82.44 �� = ��(� − �� )
��� = ���. �� �
Where:
 Steep Slope Ct = Correction due to change in temperature
ℎ2 ℎ4 k = coefficient of linear expansion (steel = 0.0000116/°C)
�ℎ = +
2� 8�3 L = length of line measured
T = temperature of tape at time of measurements
(30.55)2 (30.55)4 Ts = standard temperature of tape (usually 20°C)
�ℎ�� = + = 6.341
2(76.52) 8(76.52)3
 Example:
( − 20.60) 2
( − 20.60) 4 A steel tape is known to be 50 m long at 20°C. The tape
�ℎ�� = + = 2.535 was used to measure a line 532.28 m long at 35°C.
2(84.94) 8(84.94)3
Determine:
���� = �. ��� � a) Whether the tape is “too short” or “too long”.

�� = ��(� − �� )
� = � − �ℎ �� = (0.0000116)(50)(35 − 20)
�� = 0.0087 �
��� = 76.52 − 6.341 = 70.179 ��� ����!
��� = 84.94 − 2.535 = 82.405
��� = ���. ��� � b) Ct per tape length

 Very Steep Slope �� = ��(� − �� )

�ℎ = �(1 − ����) �� = (0.0000116)(50)(35 − 20)
�� = �. ���� �
No angle:
30.55 c) Ct total
sinθAB = → θAB = 23.53°
76.52
�� = ��(� − �� )
 �� = (0.0000116)(532.28)(35 − 20) 3. Magnitude of the angle itself
�� = �. ���� �
ANGLES IN THE VERTICAL PLANE
d) Corrected length of line 1. Zenith Angle - angle measured in the vertical plane.
� = 532.28 + 0.0926 2. Vertical Angle - angle measured from the horizontal.
� = ���. �� �
MERIDIAN
5. Due to Tension  Fixed line of reference for determining direction of
 Arises whenever the pull applied is different from the lines.
standard tension used in calibration
 A function of: TYPES OF MERIDIAN
 Difference between applied and standard pulls  True Meridian - north-south line passing through the
 Measured length geographic poles of the earth.
 Cross-sectional area of the tape  Magnetic Meridian - lies parallel to the magnetic lines
 Modulus of elasticity of the tape material of force of the earth and is indicated by the direction
of the magnetized needle.
(�� − �� )�  Grid Meridian - line parallel to the central true
�� = meridian.
��
 Assumed Meridian - arbitrarily chosen for
Where: convenience.
CP = correction due to incorrect pull applied on the tape (m)
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material (kg/cm2) UNITS FOR MEASURING ANGLES
L = length of line measured (m) 1. Degree
PM = pull applied to the tape during measurement (kg) 2. Grad
PS = standard pull applied to the tape (kg) 3. Radians
A = cross-sectional area of the tape (cm2) 4. Mil

6. Due to Sag THE DEGREE (DMS)

 Occurs when tape supports are only at its ends or at  Sexagesimal system is used (circumference of a
the 2 points measured. circle is divided into 360 parts or degree)
 Will sag because of its own weight.  Basic unit is degree ( ° ) which is further subdivided
 Similar to electric or telephone wires which swings into minutes (’) and seconds (”): 1° = 60’ = 3600’’
loosely between two posts.
THE GRAD
�2 �3  Centesimal system is used (circumference of a circle
�� = is divided into 400 parts or grads).
24�2
 Basic unit is grad (g) subdivided into centesimal
Where: minutes (c) and centesimal seconds (cc).
CS = correction due to sag (m)
w = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m) 1g = 100c
L = interval between supports or unsupported length of 1c = 100cc
tape (m) Note: 200g = 180° & 400g = 360°
P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)
e.g. 235.2618g = 235g26c18cc
Note: The effect of sag always shortens the tape.
THE RADIANS
7. Due to Wind  1 radian is defined as the angle subtended at the
 Caused by wind blowing perpendicular to the center of a circle by an arc length exactly equal to the
direction of taping. radius of the circle.
 Wind moves the middle and unsupported portion of  Sometimes referred as the natural angle because
the tape to one side of the line measured. there is no arbitrary number in its definition.
 Similar to the effect of sag but is usually much less.
 Preferable not to undertake any taping work during 1 radian = 180/p ≈ 57.2958°
windy days.
THE MIL
 Circumference of circle is divided into 6400 parts
called mils.
LESSON 5: Angle and Direction Measurements  1600 mils = 90°
 Commonly used in military operations as in fire
COMPONENTS OF AN ANGLE direction of artillery units.
1. Reference line
2. Direction of the turn
 Example: INTERIOR ANGLE
What is the equivalent angular unit of 128°15’05” in:  angle between adjacent lines inside a polygon.

1° 1° DEFLECTION ANGLE
= 128 + 15' + 05"
60' 3600"  angle between the line and the prolongation of the
preceding line.
= ���. ����°
ANGLE TO THE RIGHT
a. Grad  measured clockwise from the preceding to the
400g following line.
= 128.2514°( )
360°
 Example:
= 142.5016 g Compute for the bearing and azimuth from South of lines
12 and 13.
= ���°��'��"

b. Radians
2π rad
= 128.2514°( )
360°

= �. ��� ����

c. Mil
6400 mil
= 128.2514°( )
360°

= ����. �� ���� β13 = 360° − 220°05' = 139°55'

BEARING β13 = 139°55' − 25°15' − 90°

 direction of any line with respect to a given meridian. ��� = � ��°��' �
 indicated by the quadrant in which the line falls and
the acute angle that the line makes with the meridian ��(�) = ��°��'
in that quadrant.
a. True bearing β12 = 90° − 25°15'
b. Magnetic bearing ��� = � ��°��' �
c. Assumed bearing
Az(S) = 270° − 25°15'
��(�) = ���°��'

INSTRUMENTS FOR ANGLE AND DIRECTION

MEASUREMENT
1. Tape
2. Magnetic Compass
3. Engineer’s Transit
4. Theodolite
AZIMUTH 5. Total Station
 direction as given by the angle between the meridian
& the line measured in a clockwise direction. MAGNETIC DECLINATION
 on any given survey the direction of zero azimuth is  The angle between the true meridian and the
either always South or always North. magnetic meridian.
a. True azimuth
b. Magnetic azimuth
c. Assumed azimuth
VARIATIONS IN MAGNETIC DECLINATION ADJUSTMENT OF BEARINGS
1. Secular Variation
- the magnetic meridian swings in one direction for
perhaps 150 yrs until it gradually comes to rest and then
swings in the other direction, due to an unexplainable
phenomenon.

2. Annual Variation
- small annual swing distinct from secular variation; the
value is less than a minute.

3. Daily Variation
- periodic swing of the magnetic needle occurring each
day.

4. Irregular Variation
- due to magnetic storms and disturbances caused by
solar flares.

 Example:
The magnetic declination in a locality is 2°30’E. Determine
the true bearing and true azimuths reckoned from north
and south of the following lines whose magnetic bearings
are given.

a. AB, N 25°40’ E
b. AC, S 50°12’ E
c. AD, S 62°18’ W

CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE ADJUSTMENTS

STEPS IN CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE

ADJUSTMENTS
1. Compute and Adjust interior angles
2. Select the best line (line in the traverse w/c is
unaffected by local attraction)
3. Adjust observed bearings of successive lines

 Example:
Adjust the closed compass traverse with the following
observed bearings:

ADJUSTMENT OF INTERIOR ANGLES