Composite Structures 280 (2022) 114921

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Reconfigurable magneto-mechanical metamaterials guided by magnetic

fields
Russell Galea a , Krzysztof K. Dudek b ,∗, Pierre-Sandre Farrugia a,c , Louis Zammit Mangion d ,
Joseph N. Grima a,e , Ruben Gatt a,f ,∗∗
a
Metamaterials Unit, Faculty of Science, University of Malta, Msida MSD 2080, Malta
b Institute of Physics, University of Zielona Gora, ul. Szafrana 4a, Zielona Gora 65-069, Poland
c Department of Geosciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malta, Msida MSD 2080, Malta
d Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Malta, Msida MSD 2080, Malta
e
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malta, Msida MSD 2080, Malta
f
Centre for Molecular Medicine and Biobanking, University of Malta, Msida, MSD 2080, Malta

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In this work, we show through the use of experiments validated by computer simulations the potential of
Mechanical metamaterials a novel accordion-like magneto-mechanical metamaterial to change its linear dimensions in a controllable
Auxetic manner upon being subjected to a uniform external magnetic field, a system which essentially acts as an
Magnetic inclusions
actuator guided by a magnetic field. We also show that irrespective of the magnitude of the external magnetic
field, this system can return to its initial shape due to the appropriate distribution of magnetic inclusions within
the system. Finally, it is also shown that the proposed accordion-like system can be considered as a building
block for a larger three-dimensional system where its properties may undergo a transition from positive to
negative Poisson’s ratio, depending solely on the magnitude and the orientation of the external magnetic field.
This concept is very interesting from the point of view of numerous applications such as protective materials or
vibration dampers where the mechanical properties of the material could be fine-tuned to increase its efficiency
without the need of reconstructing the system.

1. Introduction responsive and adaptable materials with mechanical functionalities

The demand for novel materials with unique properties has given
rise to a range of mechanical metamaterials (materials exhibiting un-
usual mechanical properties typically corresponding to a negative me-
chanical index) [1–6]. One of the most studied classes of these struc-
tures are auxetic metamaterials [7–11], i.e. materials which are char-
acterised by a Negative Poisson’s Ratio (NPR). This subgroup of me-
chanical metamaterials has a number of unique properties which can
be used to produce superior products in a broad range of industries
including the medical [12,13], textile [14,15] and military indus-
tries [16–18]. However, despite the numerous applications that have
been proposed for auxetic metamaterials and the continuously growing
interest of the research community, auxetic mechanical metamaterials
still have a number of limitations. For instance, once manufactured,
the mechanical properties of the auxetic metamaterials show a lack
of tunability [19]. This limits the use of these materials, where more
beyond those offered by the traditional machines are needed [20–23].
To this end, a number of researchers started to investigate shape-
programmable metamaterials [24–26], i.e. a type of active materials
whose geometry can be controlled through specific stimuli such as
heat [27], electric [28,29] and magnetic fields [30], chemicals [31–
33] and light [34]. These materials are capable of providing the more
precise control needed in a plethora of applications [19,20,35]. One
promising class of shape-programmable materials is that of magneti-
cally actuated materials, as their shape can be manipulated not only
through the magnitude of the external stimulus, but also through
its direction and spatial gradient [36–41] as well as by the internal
interactions between magnetic inclusions.
Over the years, the demand for shape-programmable materials
has led to a variety of novel mechanical metamaterials ranging from
magneto-elastic lattices to magneto-mechanical foams [42,43]. For

∗ Corresponding author.
∗∗ Correspondence to: Room 104a, Chemistry and Pharmacology building, Faculty of Science, University of Malta, Msida MSD 2080, Malta.
E-mail addresses: russell.galea.15@um.edu.mt (R. Galea), k.dudek@if.uz.zgora.pl (K.K. Dudek), pierre-sandre.farrugia@um.edu.mt (P.-S. Farrugia),
louis.zammit-mangion@um.edu.mt (L. Zammit Mangion), joseph.grima@um.edu.mt (J.N. Grima), ruben.gatt@um.edu.mt (R. Gatt).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2021.114921
Received 2 July 2021; Received in revised form 19 October 2021; Accepted 28 October 2021
Available online 11 November 2021
0263-8223/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
R. Galea et al.
instance, Scarpa et al. [42,43], showed that a magneto-mechanical
auxetic polyurethane foam can have its acoustic absorption coefficient
changed when subjected to a magnetic field of constant magnitude.
Other studies have focused on magneto-mechanical metamaterials able
to undergo a reconfiguration under an external magnetic field [19,
38,44–46], with one of the more notable examples being the work
by Kim et al. [47] where 3D-printed soft structures were built using
composite ink with ferromagnetic particles. In this work, magnetisable
inclusions were embedded in a rubber matrix to create printed auxetic
structures which were shown to shrink in response to an external
magnetic field. A different approach was taken in the work by Tipton
et al. [48], where rare-earth magnets were embedded into elastomers.
The composite structures proposed in their work were designed to
exhibit a coupled twist-buckle behaviour when subjected to large
magnetic fields. Other studies investigated structures composed of
rigid constituents. For example, Grima et al. [38] showed that the
auxetic behaviour of the rotating squares system can be controlled
via an external magnetic field when magnets are placed in the rigid
squares themselves. The control over the deformation of different rigid
and semi-rigid mechanical lattices with magnetic inclusions was also
demonstrated in other studies [37–39,49,50].
Magneto-mechanical metamaterials can also produce unusual me-
chanical and other types of behaviour that would usually not be pos-
sible for similar structures without magnetic inclusions. A very inter-
esting example of this concept is described in the work by Hewage
et al. [51], where it was shown that a specific quasi two-dimensional
mechanical metamaterial composed of hexagonal subunits with mag-
netic inclusions can exhibit auxetic behaviour and negative stiffness at
the same time. This concept was also observed for other quasi two-
dimensional magneto-mechanical metamaterials [37,49] and extended
to three-dimensional structures [50], something that is particularly
important from the point of view of potential applications. It was also
reported that auxetic magneto-mechanical metamaterials can exhibit
enhanced wave attenuation [36,52] as well as impact resistance [18]
in the case of a collision with an external body, where these results
may lead to the design of superior damping and protective devices. It
is also worth noting that magneto-mechanical metamaterials have also
a lot of potential at the nano-scale where they can be used to control
the magnetic domain evolution [53,54]. This in turn can result in a
strong magneto-caloric effect which may prove useful in the case of
refrigeration technologies.
Shape-programmable materials have been shown to excel in minia-
ture devices, up to a few centimetres in size, as it was demonstrated that
the locomotion and manipulation capability exceeded their machined
counterparts [55–57]. The concept of functionalised miniature devices
has a lot of potential amongst others in bioengineering, microfactories
and healthcare. However, despite its potential, it is still at its infancy
and researchers must better understand the physics governing the
evolution of such systems in order to discover their full potential.
In view of the above, a novel magneto-mechanical metamaterials
that can easily be miniaturised will be proposed. It will be shown that
the proposed system can exhibit shape recovery and its evolution can be
controlled through the use of an external magnetic field. In addition,
the current study will investigate different ways how the mechanical
properties of the proposed system may be changed and/or fine tuned,
without the need to re-construct the system. Most importantly, the
system under consideration will be analysed to determine how it can
be engineered to switch between positive and negative Poisson’s ratios
through changes in the external magnetic field.
2. Concept
In this paper, an accordion-like foldable non-magnetic structure
with magnetic inclusions is proposed and its response to an external
uniform magnetic field is investigated. The magnetic inclusions in this
structure assume the form of permanent magnets (see Fig. 1(a)) and
2
Composite Structures 280 (2022) 114921
Fig. 1. Panels show: (a) the graphical representation of the considered magneto-
mechanical system, (b) the deformation of the structure induced by the external
magnetic field, (c) the non-auxetic system formed by structural elements presented
on panel (a) and (d) the auxetic configuration of the extended model.
can be oriented in a way leading to their mutual repulsion. As shown
in Fig. 1(b), in the presence of an external magnetic field, the system
may act as an actuator as it causes the mechanical folding of the entire
structure along the 𝑥-direction. This stems from the fact that the mag-
netic inclusions tend to align with the external magnetic field, and since
they are fixed on the nonmagnetic elements their rotation, induced by
the external magnetic field, must result in the rotation of nonmagnetic
rigid bars constituting the system. Once the external magnetic field is
switched off, if the magnetic inclusions are oriented in such a way that
they repel each other, it is expected that the internal repulsion between
the respective magnetic inclusions will make it possible for the system
to return to the initial configuration.
In addition to the possibility of utilising the considered system to
act as an actuator guided by the external magnetic field, it can also
be used to design three-dimensional structures which (1) are capable
of acting as actuators in multiple directions and (2) whose mechanical
properties can be fine tuned to the desired properties. Such systems
could be designed in such a way that they can undergo a transition from
a conventional (positive Poisson’s ratio) to the auxetic configuration
and vice versa depending on the external stimulus (see Fig. 1(c–d)).
Furthermore, the considered structures could be designed to exhibit
zero Poisson’s ratio, independently of the external magnetic field (see
Supplementary Information). In other words, as analysed in the further
part of this work, it is expected that one can use the external magnetic
field in order to fine-tune the mechanical properties of the analysed
system which is very important from the point of view of potential
applications. This stems from the fact that normally, in the case of stan-
dard non-magnetic mechanical metamaterials, to achieve such effect,
it is necessary to reconstruct the system which significantly reduces its
applicability.
3. Analysed system
As briefly discussed in the Concept section, the considered system
corresponds to a nonmagnetic foldable lattice composed of rigid bar-
like elements connected to each other by hinges (see Fig. 1(a)). Some
of the nonmagnetic structural elements have magnetic inclusions in the
form of neodymium magnets located at their centres with their orien-
tation being such that their magnetic moments are always collinear
with nonmagnetic bars to which they are attached. The geometric
dimensions of specific parts of the analysed model are defined in
Fig. 2(b) and their respective values are provided in the Methodology
section.
R. Galea et al.
Fig. 2. Panels show: (a) the setup of the experiment as well as pictures of the experimental prototype taken from different perspectives and (b) the visualisation of the theoretical
model used in the simulations together with the definition of geometric variables.
In order to analyse the potential of the considered system to act as
an actuator that is able to return to its initial shape after switching
off the external magnetic field, an experimental prototype was con-
structed. In the case of the experiment, the non-magnetic structure
was prepared by means of an SLA 3D printer. Magnetic inclusions
in the form of permanent magnets were embedded into the system
(see Fig. 1(a)) and oriented in such a way that they primarily repel
each other. The composite magneto-mechanical metamaterial was then
placed between the poles of a laboratory electromagnet where it could
be deformed under the influence of a uniform external magnetic field
(all details related to the materials used, magnetic inclusions and the
equipment utilised in the experiment are provided in the Methodology
section). To minimise the effect of friction on the deformation process,
the entire structure was suspended in the air between the poles of
the electromagnet (see Fig. 2(a)) by means of auxiliary nonmagnetic
threads. Thus, the evolution of the system was primarily dependent on
the interaction of the magnetic inclusions with the external magnetic
field and with each other. In addition, as shown in Fig. 2(a), the
spatial orientation of the system was very specific in order to ensure
that the gravity would not affect the deformation process since the
structure can only fold along the 𝑥-direction. Furthermore, to ensure
the validity of experimental results, the evolution of the considered
system was also analysed by means of computer simulations utilising
a Molecular Dynamics approach (see the Methodology section). In this
case, the magnetic inclusions were represented by means of individual
magnetic moments having the same magnitude 𝜇 as that of the magnets
used in the experiment. The non-magnetic foldable lattice used in the
simulations (see Fig. 2(b)) had the same dimensions as the experimental
prototype and it was assumed that rigid bar-like elements constituting
the system were connected to each other by means of frictionless
hinges.
4. Materials and methods
4.1. Experimental procedure
The in-silico version of the accordion-like system was build using
Autodesk Inventor Professional 2019 and printed using an SLA 3D
printer (Titan 2, Kudo3D) employing a resolution of 50 μm in the
𝑥𝑦 plane and layer height of 5 μm. ‘Engineering Hard Resin’ (Kudos
3D) having a reported Young’s modulus of 1896 MPa was used. After
printing, the structure was cleaned from excess resin by sonication in
propanol for 30 min. The cleaned structure was then further cured
in a UV chamber (Kudo 3D) for 60 min. The different printed parts
were then assembled together using copper wire having a diameter of
0.2 mm (see Supplementary Information). Five cylindrical neodymium
magnets, each having a diameter of 1 mm, and a length of 1 mm were
inserted in each of the magnet holder ensuring they were oriented in
the proper direction as shown in Fig. 1(a).
The assembled accordion-like system was then placed between two
duly calibrated electromagnets which were able to generate a uniform
3
Composite Structures 280 (2022) 114921
magnetic field between them. The structure was then fixed between
these electromagnets in such a way that the hinging of the structure is
independent of the gravitational force and the constraints used to hold
the structure in place (see Supplementary Information).
The extension/contraction of the accordion-like system was then
studied at different external magnetic fields. The deformation of the
structure was recorded through a camera situated above the structure.
A frame was recorded every 0.033 of a second. In a typical experiment,
the electromagnets were switched on and the accordion-like system was
left to deform. When the system reached its equilibrium configuration,
the electromagnets were switched off and any changes in the structure
were also recorded. This was repeated for ten times for each external
magnetic field tested. The changes in the parameters examined in the
study i.e. 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 and 𝑙𝑥 were then measured using the software ImageJ.
The percentage shape restoration (𝑅𝑠 ) for the accordion like system
investigated in this study was calculated as follows:
𝑙𝑥,𝑓
𝑅𝑠 = × 100% (1)
𝑙𝑥,𝑖
where, 𝑙𝑥,𝑓 is the length of the accordion like system after the external
magnetic field was switched off and 𝑙𝑥,𝑖 is the length of the accordion
like system before the magnetic field was switched on.
4.2. Theoretical
In this work, a theoretical model was also designed which was used
to validate the results obtained by means of the experimental approach.
In this case, the evolution of the system was analysed through the
used of the Molecular Dynamics simulations utilising the fourth-order
Runge–Kutta method for a constant time step 𝛥𝑡 = 10−6 s. Furthermore,
in the simulations, the analysed structure was represented by a set of
point masses connected to each other by means of very stiff two-body
bonded interactions which made it possible to represent the behaviour
of rigid nonmagnetic rod-like elements constituting the system. In
addition, the magnetic inclusions present in the experimental prototype
were represented by individual magnetic moments having a magnitude
of 𝜇 = 0.0045 A m−2 and the same orientation as shown schematically
for the magnets depicted in Fig. 1. Finally, it should be noted that a de-
tailed description of the theoretical model and the interactions present
within the system can be found in the Supplementary Information.
4.3. Parameters
In the experimental and theoretical studies related to the accordion-
like system, the structure with the following initial geometrical param-
eters was analysed: 𝜃1 (𝑡 = 0) = 65.12◦ , 𝜃2 (𝑡 = 0) = 84.77◦ , 𝑙1 = 2 mm,
𝑙2 = 3.5 mm and 𝑑 = 11 mm. In addition, for the multi-layer structure,
the geometric parameters assumed the following values: ℎ = 21 mm, 𝑑𝑤
= 11 mm. Further structures having different geometric parameters are
presented in the Supplementary Information. The magnetic dipole mo-
ment of the magnetic inclusions was the same for all results presented
in the main text and was equal to 0.00455 Am−2 . On the other hand,
R. Galea et al.
the external magnetic fields used in the experimental study were 4.5,
5.5, 6.5, 7.4, 8.5, 9.5, 11.5, 13.75, 15.7, 17.65, 19.9, 21.5, 25.75 mT
(see Supplementary Information).
The Poisson’s ratio of the 3D accordion like system was calculated
as follows: The initial 3D accordion like system was set to have an angle
𝛼 equal to 0◦ , while all other parameters retained the values described
above. An external magnetic field in the range between −15 mT and 15
mT (in 5 mT increments) was then applied and the final parameters of
the system subjected to this external magnetic field were recorded. The
Poisson’s ratio for the accordion like system at a particular magnetic
field could then be calculated by using the equations developed by
Masters et al. [58] for a hexagonal honeycomb system deforming
through hinging, given below:
( )
ℎ
+ sin 𝛼 sin 𝛼
−1 𝑑𝑤
𝜈𝑧𝑥 = 𝜈𝑥𝑧 = (2)
cos2 𝛼
where, the angle 𝛼 corresponding to the 3D system is portrayed in
Fig. 5.
5. Results and discussion
The ability of the accordion-like foldable system to act as a shape-
programmable material will be assessed in this study. This will be done
in three parts. Firstly, the relation between the external magnetic field,
the choice of geometric parameters and the magnitude of magnetic
moments corresponding to the magnetic inclusions will be investigated
and discussed from the point of view of the behaviour of the system
using both an experimental and theoretical approach. This will be
followed by an experimental study on the ability of this system to
return to its initial shape after switching off the external magnetic
field. Finally, the possibility of extending the considered system to a
three-dimensional model will be investigated to assess the ability of
such a system to undergo a transition from one mechanical property to
another.
5.1. The ability of the accordion-like foldable system to act as a linear
actuator
In this study, the extent of contraction of the proposed accordion-
like system due to changes in the external magnetic field was investi-
gated. This was done by monitoring the values of angles 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 (see
Fig. 3). These angles represent the amount of contraction experienced
by the structure at different magnetic fields, where the larger the extent
of the contraction the smaller the values of 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 assumed by the
equilibrium configuration of these structures.
To understand the behaviour of the proposed system when subjected
to an external magnetic field, the experimental results obtained for a
magnetic field of magnitude 𝐵 = 28 mT were analysed first. Based
on Fig. 3(a), one can note that in response to the external magnetic
field, the structure shrinks along the 𝑥-axis which leads to a decrease
in the value of angles 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 . The observed deformation stems from
the fact that magnetic moments corresponding to respective magnetic
inclusions tend to align with the external magnetic field, something
that induces the folding (and thus contraction) of the structure. As
the accordion-like system starts to close, the interactions between the
magnetic inclusions become stronger as the magnetic inclusions are
now approaching each other. However, unlike the external magnetic
field, these interactions oppose the folding mechanism. Thus, as shown
in Fig. 3(a), the folding of the accordion-like structure continues until
the point where the system assumes the equilibrium configuration for
the applied external magnetic field. Similar behaviour can be observed
in the case of the computer simulations conducted for the system
with the same initial parameters as shown in Fig. 3(b). Particularly
interesting in this regard is the evolution of the structure portrayed in
the 𝑥𝑧 plane (see Fig. 3(c)) as it clearly showcases the decrease in the
value of angles 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 .
4
Composite Structures 280 (2022) 114921
Once the possibility of altering the dimensions of the system by
subjecting it to an external magnetic field is established, it is impor-
tant to analyse the general effect that the magnitude of the external
magnetic field has on the evolution of the structure. According to
Fig. 3(d), in the case of both experimental and computational studies,
the extent of contraction of the system changes with the magnitude of
the external magnetic field. More specifically, the stronger the magnetic
field, the smaller the values of angles 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 (which indicate that
the accordion-like system is closing up). It is worth noting that for
all of the results, the initial values of these angles were the same (see
Methodology section). In the case of the experiment, the values of 𝜃1
and 𝜃2 changed from 48.3±3.0◦ and 61.0±0.6◦ to 27.4±1.4◦ and 25.0±1.3◦
respectively for the range of magnetic fields investigated in this study
(between 4.5 mT and 30 mT). A similar analysis conducted through
the use of computer simulations showed that angles 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 change
from 60.0◦ and 71.0◦ to 32.2◦ and 35.2◦ for the range of magnetic fields
between 10 mT and 30 mT. Also, referring to Fig. 3(d), it is evident that
the ten experimental repeats (see Methodology section) are concordant
with each other, particularly for 𝜃2 . The larger (but still relatively small)
error found for 𝜃1 was expected as a result of the increased degrees of
freedom due to the presence of the elements having a length 𝑙1 . Hence,
the results further indicate that the dimensions of the system can be
accurately manipulated by changing the magnitude of the magnetic
field. Thus the proposed system can act as a linear actuator by precisely
and reliably controlling its extension.
Based on the above, it is clear that all trends observed for the
analysed system are qualitatively the same for both the experimental
and computational studies. Some discrepancies between the two sets of
results arise amongst others from the fact that in the theoretical model
there is no friction affecting the motion of hinges which is certainly
present in the experiment. Also, in the experimental prototype, it is
possible that despite our efforts there is some misalignment between
the magnetic inclusions which may, up to some extent, affect the
result. Another factor was the use of joints which, while necessary to
introduce some degrees of freedom in the experimental prototype, were
not present in the theoretical design. Finally, it is important to highlight
that analytical expressions describing the interactions between mag-
netic inclusions serve only as an approximation of the real behaviour
and, especially for small separation between the magnets, are expected
to deviate from the experiment.
As discussed above, the evolution of the system and hence the
folding of the entire structure depends on the magnitude of the external
magnetic field. However, the extent of contraction also depends on
the geometrical parameters. As discussed in the Supplementary In-
formation, this stems from the fact that the change in the geometric
parameters alters the spatial orientation and the separation between the
magnetic inclusions which affects their interactions. Furthermore, the
amount of contraction for a system having the same initial geometrical
parameters may also be changed by altering the magnetic moments
corresponding to the magnetic inclusions. More specifically, the larger
the magnitude of magnetic moments of the inclusions the lower the
contraction of the accordion-like system for the same external magnetic
field (see Supplementary Information). Such variation in the magnitude
of the magnetic moments corresponding to magnetic inclusions could
be achieved in situ by using electromagnets instead of permanent
magnets.
At this point, it is worth noting that even though the following
topic does belong to the scope of this work, it is expected that the
external magnetic field can also be used to change the stiffness of the
system. This stems from the fact that the application of an external
magnetic field would result in the change in net forces acting on the
respective structural elements constituting the system. Thus, should one
consider deforming the analysed structure through the direct applica-
tion of tensile forces, the variation in the magnitude of the external
magnetic field could either accelerate or decelerate this process by fine-
tuning its stiffness. Of course, a similar effect could also be achieved
R. Galea et al.
Fig. 3. Panels show: (a) the evolution of the experimental prototype subjected to the uniform external magnetic field of magnitude 28 mT, (b) visualisation of the evolution of
the system corresponding to the computational simulations of the structure closely resembling the experimental prototype, (c) the evolution corresponding to computer simulations
portrayed in the 𝑥𝑧 plane and (d) equilibrium values of angles 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 for the system subjected to the external magnetic field of different magnitudes.
through the use of magnetic inclusions in the form of electromagnets as
opposed to standard permanent magnets where the magnetic moment
corresponding to magnetic inclusions could be conveniently adjusted
by altering the magnitude of the supplied current.
5.2. Shape restoration
An important property of the accordion-like systems proposed in
this study is its ability to return to its initial shape after switching
off the external magnetic field. This property arises from the fact that
the structure adopts a preferred configuration when no external forces
are applied as a consequence of the internal repulsions between the
magnetic inclusions. For example, referring to Fig. 4(a), the proposed
system (having an initial length of 𝑙𝑥,𝑖 ) contracts along the 𝑥-axis
when an external magnetic field (𝐵𝑐 = 26 mT in this case) is applied.
However, upon switching off the external magnetic field, the system
opens up again along the 𝑥-axis until the point where it assumes the
equilibrium configuration corresponding to the dimension 𝑙𝑥,𝑓 . This
means that the potential of the proposed system to return to its initial
configurations can be assessed upon analysing the value of 𝑙𝑥,𝑓 .
According to Fig. 4(b), the accordion-like system exhibits a rel-
atively good shape restoration irrespective of the magnitude of the
external magnetic field. However, it can be noted that for relatively
strong external magnetic fields, the difference in the linear dimension
between the initial and the final configuration of the system is slightly
larger than in the case of a relatively weak magnetic field. In fact, for
small external magnetic fields (lower than 5 mT) the accordion-like
system considered in this study nearly returned to its initial confor-
mation (circa 99%) when the external magnetic field was switched
off. The shape restoration of the system was slightly lower for larger
external magnetic fields, for example in the range from 14 to 25 mT,
a 95% shape restoration was observed. This can be attributed to the
system’s degrees of freedom arising from the joints (see Supplementary
Information) which after numerous compressions and extensions, result
in the structure adopting a more favourable configuration at rest.
5.3. Extrapolating to a three-dimensional system
Once both experimental and computational studies confirmed that
the deformation of the proposed accordion-like system can be con-
trolled via changes in the external magnetic field, it is interesting
5
Composite Structures 280 (2022) 114921
to investigate the behaviour of three dimensional configurations con-
structed from several layers of the accordion-like structure. As detailed
in the Supplementary Information, the way that consecutive layers are
aligned and the way that they are connected together by means of
non-magnetic structural elements can give rise to systems that can
show positive, negative or zero Poisson’s ratio in a particular plane.
One such system that can be described as a hexagonal honeycomb
in the 𝑥𝑧 plane is shown in Fig. 5(a), where this geometry is known
to exhibit a positive Poisson’s ratio [59]. Similar to the accordion-
like system discussed above, one would expect that the shape and
the linear dimension of the this three-dimensional structure can be
modified through the application of a uniform external magnetic field
(see Fig. 5(b)). In order to investigate this, computer simulations were
performed with specific details related to the model definition being
provided in the Methodology section and Supplementary Information.
As shown schematically in Fig. 5(b), on application of an external
magnetic field, the system deforms in such a way that the equilibrium
conformation can now be described as a re-entrant hexagonal honey-
comb where the external magnetic field has a magnitude of 𝐵 = 10 mT.
In fact, this configuration is known to exhibit a negative Poisson’s ratio
which indicates that for this system, the external magnetic field changes
the geometry from a conventional to an auxetic configuration (see Sup-
plementary Information for the quantitative description of a change in
the Poisson’s ratio of the multi-layer structure). Furthermore, Fig. 5(c)
clearly shows how this change in configuration of the analysed system
from a conventional arrangement to the re-entrant one is achieved by
‘flipping’ the accordion-like system discussed above. Such opening of
the accordion-like system was also achieved experimentally, as shown
in the Supplementary Information, indicating that the theoretical be-
haviour obtained can also be observed experimentally. This in turn is
of great significance as it indicates that mechanical properties of the
analysed structure can be controlled via an external magnetic field and
significantly changed without the need of reconstructing the system.
It is also interesting to point out that whilst this system is deforming,
an increase in the magnetic field initially results in an increase in the
linear dimension 𝑙𝑥 and a decrease in linear dimension 𝑙𝑧 . This changes
when the geometry ‘flips’ to its re-entrant configuration, in which case,
a decrease in the linear dimensions 𝑙𝑥 is accompanied by a decrease
in the linear dimension 𝑙𝑧 (see Supplementary Information). This is
particularly relevant if this system is being employed as an actuator
R. Galea et al. Composite Structures 280 (2022) 114921

Fig. 4. Panel (a) shows an example of the evolution of the system where after it was initially subjected to a specific magnetic field of magnitude 𝐵𝑐 , the magnetic field was
switched off so that the structure could assume the equilibrium configuration. Panel (b) describes the percentage change in the dimension of the structure subjected to the magnetic
field of different magnitudes. The percentage change in the dimension for each of the analysed cases is measured along the 𝑥-axis upon comparing the initial configuration (𝑙𝑥 = 𝑙𝑥,𝑖 )
corresponding to the situation before the magnetic field of magnitude 𝐵𝑐 was switched on and the final equilibrium configuration (𝑙𝑥 = 𝑙𝑥,𝑓 ) assumed by the system once the
magnetic field was switched off.

Fig. 5. Panels show: (a) the initial configuration of the three-dimensional system, (b) the deformed system subjected to the uniform external magnetic field and (c) the variation
in the linear dimension of the analysed system measured during the deformation process induced by the application of the external magnetic field.

Table 1 One could also consider the construction of mechanical metamteri-

Mechanical properties and geometric parameters corresponding to a single unit-cell of
als similar to that proposed in this study at the microscale if magnetic
the 3D structure presented in Fig. 5. In this case, all of the results were generated for
the same initial configuration corresponding to 𝛼 = 0◦ . All of the angles 𝛼 provided in inclusions were to assume the form of magnetic nanoparticles. This in
the table are also defined in accordance to the sign convention proposed by Masters turn would make it possible to construct smart actuators suitable to be
et al. [58], i.e. 𝛼 assumes positive and negative values for conventional and re- used in micro-robotics which is still a relatively unexplored direction
entrant hexagonal honeycomb cells respectively. The external magnetic field applied of studies. Magneto-mechanical actuators could also prove useful in
to analysed structures can be expressed as 𝐵⃗ = [0, 0, 𝐵].
the deployment of medical devices such as stents and catheters, where
𝐵 [mT] 𝛼 [◦ ] 𝐿𝑥 [cm] 𝐿𝑧 [cm] 𝜈𝑧𝑥 𝜈𝑥𝑧
they could significantly improve their efficiency and enable them to
−15 −56.61 1.211 2.358 −2.96 −0.34
fine-tune the local mechanical properties.
−10 −44.47 1.570 2.647 −1.66 −0.60
−5 −24.82 1.997 3.260 −0.76 −1.32 In addition to being used as programmable actuators, materials
5 23.75 2.014 5.097 1.11 0.90 based on the considered concept could be used in several other applica-
10 43.12 1.606 5.710 3.33 0.30 tions including smart filters that could adjust the size of their apertures
15 55.56 1.244 6.016 7.05 0.14
depending on the external magnetic field. Furthermore, it should be
highlighted that the programmable control over the mechanical be-
haviour of the analysed system does not have to be achieved solely
which can move loads in a two-dimensional plane. At this point, it via the external magnetic field. In fact, one can consider the use of
is also important to emphasise the fact that as shown in Table 1, electromagnets as opposed to the permanent magnetic inclusions in
the Poisson’s ratio of the system can be controlled by adjusting the the design of the structure which would make it possible to fine-tune
magnitude and the orientation of the external magnetic field. In fact, the extent of the mechanical deformation of the considered system
depending on the applied external magnetic field, one can attain a by adjusting the current provided to the device (see Supplementary
Information). This approach would also make it possible to deform
desired magnitude of the Poisson’s ratio (either positive, negative or
specific parts of the structure to different extents which could allow it to
near zero).
easily assume a desired shape. An example of the industry where such
It is also important to emphasise the fact that the results reported versatility could prove to be useful is the aerospace industry where the
in this work are very significant from the point of view of applications. considered magneto-mechanical metamaterial could serve as a scaffold
First of all, the presented concept could be employed in the design of a for the solar wings in satellites. In this case, the structure would be
miniaturised programmable actuator that could be used to deform other compressed during transport and unfurled upon exiting the Earth’s
materials if for example they were attached to its outmost vertices. atmosphere. This could allow for remote and precise adjustments to

6
R. Galea et al.
the solar wings. Finally, it is worth emphasising that the possibility of
changing the Poisson’s ratio of the system from positive to negative
and vice versa could enable the structure to adjust its Poisson’s ratio
in accordance with the wavelength of a wave propagating through it.
This concept could also be utilised in the design of efficient damping
devices which could allow for controllable sound absorption.
6. Conclusion
In this study, it is shown that the proposed magneto-mechanical
metamaterial can have its dimensions controlled via an external mag-
netic field. It is also shown that it can return to its initial shape
upon switching off the external magnetic field which indicates that
the considered system can be redeployed multiple times. This in turn
significantly increases its appeal from the practical point of view.
Finally, it is shown that depending on the direction and magnitude
of the external magnetic field, the analysed structure can undergo a
transition from a positive to a negative Poisson’s ratio. All of these
results indicate that the proposed concept can be used in a number of
applications including programmable actuators at different scales and
smart filters. It is also very promising from the point of view of novel
devices used in medicine and robotics, i.e. fields where the possibility of
having a remote control over the deformation pattern and the resulting
mechanical properties of functional materials is of great significance.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Russell Galea: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Visualiza-
tion, Data curation, Writing – review & editing. Krzysztof K. Dudek:
Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Investigation,
Software, Writing – review & editing. Pierre-Sandre Farrugia: In-
vestigation, Writing – review & editing. Louis Zammit Mangion:
Investigation, Writing – review & editing. Joseph N. Grima: Vali-
dation, Writing – review & editing. Ruben Gatt: Conceptualization,
Supervision, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Writing – review
& editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
K.K.D. acknowledges the support of the Polish National Science
Centre (NCN) in the form of the grant awarded as a part of the
SONATINA 5 programme, project No. 2021/40/C/ST5/00007 under
the name ‘‘Programmable magneto-mechanical metamaterials guided
by the magnetic field’’.
The research work disclosed in this publication is fully funded by
the Tertiary Education Scholarship Scheme (Malta).
K.K.D. acknowledges the financial support from the program of the
Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education under the name ‘‘Re-
gional Initiative of Excellence’’ in 2019–2022, project no.
003/RID/2018/19, funding amount 11 936 596.10 PLN.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found online
at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2021.114921.
7
Composite Structures 280 (2022) 114921
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