KB5020

Engineering Geology and

Geotechnics

Lecture 2
• Planning a Site Investigation
 Lectures
• Site Investigation Lecture series:

1. Eurocode 7
2. Planning investigations: Desk Studies
3. Soil and rock sampling and groundwater measurements
4. Field tests in soil and rock

Reading:
• Bond, A. J., and Harris, A. J. (2008). Decoding Eurocode 7, London: Taylor & Francis, 598 pp.
• BS EN 1997: Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design (EC7)
– Part 2: Ground investigation and testing (EC7 Part 2)
 Lecture outline:
• Site investigation
– Desk study and walk-over survey
• Preliminary investigation
• Design investigation
 EC7: Limit state design
Unlike working stress design where the designer is concerned with what is expected to happen, limit state
design directs the designer to the unexpected (i.e. what might go wrong) by means of factoring actions
and strengths to guard against the limit state being exceeded.
Two categories of limit state are of concern here :

• the serviceability limit state (SLS)

SLS design “design values shall be the most unfavourable values which could occur in
normal circumstances”.

• the ultimate limit state (ULS)

ULS design: “design values shall represent the most unfavourable values that could
occur during the design lifetime of the structure.”
DbC: Actions and Geometrical data
An action ‘F’ is a force or imposed deformation applied to a structure and is
classified primarily by its variation in time as follows:
• Permanent (Persistent) ‘FG’: once applied the action remains unchanged.
• Variable (Transient) ‘FQ’: can be applied and removed and reapplied.
• Accidental ‘A’: an extreme and unusual, but imaginable, event.
 Design by Calculation: overview
Weight of soil and rock

Stresses in Ground

Earth Pressures Analytical

Calculation
Free water pressures Semi-empirical
Actions models
Ground water pressures Numerical
Seepage forces
Design by
Dead and imposed loads calculation
Surcharges Soils
Mooring forces Geometrical Ground Rocks
data properties Other
Removal of load or
excavation of ground materials
Traffic loads Limiting values for
movements After Bond and Harris, 2008
Indirect actions

Geometrical data include the level and slope of the ground surface, water levels,
levels of interfaces between strata, excavation levels, the shape of the foundation, etc.
 Design by Calculation and Limit States

Calculation
Actions models

Design by Ultimate limit states

calculation

Limit states
Geometrical Ground
data properties
Serviceability limit states

Limiting values for

movements
After Bond and Harris, 2008
 Site Investigation (SI)
• Ground investigation (GI) is the process of exploring the geotechnical and
geo-environmental properties of the ground, including groundwater.
• Site investigation (SI) includes legal and environmental aspects in addition
to the ground investigation.

Desk Study Walkover Survey

Preliminary
Investigation
Client Geotechnical
requirements Design
Design
Investigation SI Report

Site Investigation within the design process

 The significance of SI
• It is estimated that in Britain, 30% of construction projects are delayed by
ground problems.
• 50% of over-tender costs on road projects are due to inadequate ground
investigation or data interpretation.
• The client will eventually pay for deficiencies in
ground investigation through conservative or
inappropriate design assumptions, additional costs
arising from problems encountered on site, delays
in completion, and expensive remedial action at a
later date.
 ‘You pay for a GI, whether you have one or not’

• The Chicago flood occurred on April 13, 1992,

when the wall of a utility tunnel beneath the
Chicago River was breached by piles for the
Kinzie Street Bridge. Basements and
underground facilities throughout Chicago were
flooded with an estimated 950,000 m3 of water.
 EC7: Site Investigations
• The main purpose of SI is to reduce and control ground related risks in
construction.
• Information from a properly conducted investigation will provide the basis
for economic and safe design, and for meeting tender and construction
requirements; it will also save money by avoiding:
– redesign during construction;
– over-conservative design;
– delays and litigation costs due to unforeseen ground conditions;
– foundation problems post-construction.
 EC7: Site Investigations
• Geotechnical investigations shall be planned in such a way as to ensure that
relevant geotechnical information and data are available at the various stages
of the project.
 Desk Study
• The desk study and walk-over survey are essential components of ground investigation.
Other parts (e.g. boring, drilling and testing) may sometimes be omitted, but these parts
of the SI process must always be carried out.
• The desk study should be carried out at the start of site investigation. Its purpose is to
provide as much information as is available without commissioning new ground
investigation work.
• The role of the desk study is much wider than simply the determination of likely soil and
rock conditions (e.g. it also aims to determine the position of services and structures and
identify potential hazards).
 Desk Study
• Examples of information and documents that can be used are:
Rock and groundwater properties
– (hydro-) geological maps and descriptions;

http://mapapps.bgs.ac.uk/geologyofbritain/home.html http://mapapps2.bgs.ac.uk/geoindex/home.html?layer=BGSHydroMap
 Desk Study
• Examples of information and documents that can be used are:
Soil properties
– previous investigations at the site and in the surroundings;
– Geotechnical memoires and handbooks
 Desk Study

Methodology for mining investigations proposed by Healy and Head (1984)

• Examples of information and documents that can be
used are: Previous land uses
– Historical maps and local records of the site

1926

1990
 Desk Study
• Examples of information and documents that can be used are:
Legislation
– Restrictions and status of the area;

• Tier 1 has the strongest protection for

wildlife – Sites of Special Scientific Interest,
Special Areas of Conservation, Special
Protection Areas, Ramsar sites, national and
local nature reserves
• Tier 2 includes local wildlife sites and
ancient woodland
• Tier 3 has the weakest protection for
wildlife but can have development
restrictions such as national parks and areas
of outstanding natural beauty
 Desk Study
• Examples of information and documents that can be used are:
– aerial photos and previous photo interpretations;
Species Normal Mature Safe Distance
Height (m) (m)
Apple/pear 12 10
Ash 23 21
Beech 20 15
Cypress 25 20
Cherry 17 11
Elm 25 30
Hawthorn 10 12
Holly 14 6
Horse Chestnut 20 23
Laurel 8 6
Magnolia 9 5
Oak 24 30
Pine 29 8
Plum 12 11
Poplar 28 35
Sycamore 24 17
Spruce 18 7
Willow 24 40
Yew 12 5
 Desk Study
• Examples of information and documents that can be used are:
Topography
– topographical maps;
– Digital elevation models

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0XdqGNu9bhk Crow et al., 2007

 Desk Study
• Examples of information and documents that can be used are:
Weather and climate variations
– Flood maps and records

http://watermaps.environment-agency.gov.uk/wiyby/wiyby.aspx?lang=_e&topic=ufmfsw&layer=default&scale=11&x=424996&y=563371#x=426083&y=563786&scale=11
 From desk study to walk-over survey
• The information gathered during the desk study
can have significant limitations:
– Resolution (the scale in most topographic/geological and
hydrological maps is to small for most construction projects)
– Frequency of revision (maps might not be up-to-date)
– Purpose of the information
– Reliability of the data sources
– Availability of the information

• Thus, when a substantial part of desk study is

completed you should do a walk-over survey.
 Walk-over survey
• Purpose of the walk-over survey:
– Confirm information collected during the desk study
– Collect additional information about the site
– Assist in planning subsequent phases of the investigation
– Identify possible health & safety issues

• Walk-over surveys may be divided into two

operations:
– Site inspection
– Local enquiries
 Walk-over Survey
• Purpose of the walk-over survey:
– Confirm information collected during the desk study
– Collect additional information about the site
– Assist in planning subsequent phases of the investigation
– Identify possible health & safety issues
• What to look for:
 Walk-over Survey
• Purpose of the walk over survey:
– Confirm information collected during the desk study
– Collect additional information about the site
– Assist in planning subsequent phases of the investigation
– Identify possible health & safety issues
• What to look for:
Walk-over survey – Site inspection
• Thorough visual examination of the site and its
surroundings making full use of maps and aerial
photographs.

• Features to look at:

– Geomorphology
– Solid and drift geology
– Ground water conditions
– Surface water and erosion
– Site access
– Damage of existing structures
– Potential risks and hazards for health and safety
Walk-over survey – Site inspection
• Geomorphology:
– General features (e.g. slope angles, changes in slope
angles)
– Glacial features (e.g. 'U'-shaped valleys)
– Mass movement (e.g. landslips)

• Solid and drift geology:

– Exposures
– Solid geology
– Superficial geology
– Construction materials
Walk-over survey – Site inspection
• Groundwater conditions:
– Presence of springs and seepages
– Wet ground
– Information of groundwater level (e.g. shallow wells)

• Surface water and erosion:

– Ponds and streams
– Likelihood of flooding
– Evidence of soil erosion
Walk-over survey – Site inspection
• Site access:
– Site accessibility
– Verify the potential location for boreholes

• Damage of existing structures:

– Thorough assessment of damage in neighbouring
structures
Walk-over survey – Site inspection
• Potential risks and hazards for health and safety:
– Site security
– Identify potential locations of contaminants
– Identify the location of services and utilities
Walk-over survey – Local enquiries
• Getting local knowledge on the site can prove
invaluable.

• Who to enquire:
– Local builders and civil engineering contractors
– Local authority engineers and surveyors
– Local statutory undertakers
– Local archives
– Local inhabitants
– Local clubs and societies
– Schools, colleges and universities
 Walk-over Survey
• The walk-over survey is carried out after the desk study has been substantially
completed, and once preliminary plans have been made for any ground
investigation site work, in order to glean extra information on the geology and on
likely construction problems.
• Both the desk study and walk-over survey provide large quantities of invaluable
information at negligible cost. They are by far the most cost-effective parts of the
site investigation process. They should not only include the site (which will often
be in the ownership of the client) but also at its surrounds (which perhaps cannot
be the subject of direct methods of ground investigation).
 Summary: Desk Study and walk-over survey
• The desk study and walk-over survey are essential components of ground investigation. Other parts
(e.g. boring, drilling and testing) may sometimes be omitted, but these parts of the SI process must
always be carried out.

• The information collected from the desk study and walk-over survey should be included in the SI
report, where the following details should be formally presented:
– site topography;
– geology;
– geotechnical problems and parameters;
– groundwater conditions;
– existing construction and services;
– previous land use;
– expected construction risks;
– proposed ground investigation methods.

• You are looking for information on the condition of the site to be used in the design but also on
identifying potential risks and hazards that might be encountered during the planned works
(including the walk-over survey).
 Site Investigation (SI)
• Ground investigation (GI) is the process of exploring the geotechnical and
geo-environmental properties of the ground, including groundwater.
• Site investigation (SI) includes legal and environmental aspects in addition
to the ground investigation.

Desk Study Walkover Survey

Preliminary
Investigation
Client Geotechnical
requirements Design
Design
Investigation SI Report

Site Investigation within the design process

 Preliminary and Design Investigations
• The findings of the desk study and site walk over inspection inform the choice
of test methods and sample collection to be carried out in the ground
investigation.
• Site investigation points shall be marked on the site before the investigation
process commences. Their location and elevation shall be surveyed and
entered in a site plan on completion of the investigation.
• The ground investigation is carried out in two phases: preliminary and design.
Often both are carried out together.
 Preliminary and Design Investigations

• Five key questions should be answered before a ground investigation

commences in order to provide direction to the process.
1. What is the purpose of the investigation?
2. What information is required and when?
3. What areas and depth of the ground are to be investigated?
4. What is the time required for the investigation?
5. What is the estimated cost?
 Preliminary investigations
Preliminary ground investigations shall provide a description of ground
conditions relevant to the proposed works and establish a basis for the
assessment of the geotechnical parameters relevant for all construction
stages.

The objective is to obtain sufficient data to:

• Assess site stability
• Evaluate the impacts of the proposed works on the site (environment and existing
structures)
• Identify the potential for fill materials to be sequestered
• Consider potential foundation types and ground improvement methods
• Provide an initial ground model: identify rock/soil type and structure, groundwater
and pore pressure profiles
• to compare alternative sites, if relevant
• to identify borrow areas, if relevant
• Plan the design investigation
 Design investigations
A more comprehensive investigation than the preliminary investigations,
involves the use of:

Field investigations
Laboratory tests

To assess:

Ground conditions
Groundwater conditions
Contamination
 Ground Investigation
Ground Investigations shall provide a description of ground conditions
relevant to the proposed works and establish a basis for the assessment of
the geotechnical parameters relevant to all construction stages:

The information obtained should be sufficient to assess the following aspects,

if possible:
• The suitability of the site with respect to the proposed construction and
the level of accepted risks;
• The deformation of the ground caused by the structure or resulting from
construction works, its special distribution and behaviour over time;
• The safety with respect to limit states (e.g. subsidence, heave, uplift, etc.);
• The loads transmitted from the ground to the structure and the extent to
which they depend on its design and construction;
 Ground Investigation
Ground Investigations shall provide a description of ground conditions
relevant to the proposed works and establish a basis for the assessment of
the geotechnical parameters relevant to all construction stages:

The information obtained should be sufficient to assess the following aspects,

if possible:
• The foundation methods (e.g. ground improvements, whether it is
possible to excavate, drainage, etc.);
• The sequence of foundation works;
• The effects of the structure and its use on the surroundings;
• Any additional structural measures required (e.g. support for excavation,
removal of obstructions, etc.) including the effects of construction work on
the surroundings
 Groundwater Investigation
The information obtained should be sufficient to assess the following aspects,
where relevant:
• the scope for and nature of groundwater-lowering work;
• possible harmful effects of the groundwater on excavations or on slopes
• any measures necessary to protect the structure;
• the effects of groundwater lowering, desiccation, impounding etc. on the
surroundings (Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems - GDEs);
• the capacity of the ground to absorb water injected during construction
work;
• whether it is possible to use local groundwater, given its chemical
constitution, for construction purposes.
 Contaminated Site Investigation
The information obtained should be sufficient to assess the following aspects,
where relevant:

• The type and extent of ground contamination on, and in the vicinity of,
the site;
• The effectiveness of measures taken to contain or remedy contamination.
 Contaminated Sites
• Around 70% of ground investigations are carried out on previously-used,
or brownfield, sites and more than 50% of all sites investigated are
contaminated in some way, giving rise to geoenvironmental and
geotechnical issues.
• Some investigation methods and techniques are common, and many
commercial laboratories offer testing services to cover all requirements.
Recent moves to promote an integrated strategy for the redevelopment of
brownfield sites will make combined investigations more likely.
 Possible contaminants in sites
Industry Examples of sites Likely contaminants
Acid/Alkali works; Dyeworks; Fertilizers and pesticides;
Chemicals Acids; alkalis; metals; solvents; phenols
Pharmaceuticals; Paint works; Wood treatment plants
Oil refineries; Tank farms; Fuel storage depots; Tar Hydrocarbons; phenols; acids; alkalis and
Petrochemicals
industry asbestos
Iron and steel works; Foundries and smelters;
Electroplating, anodizing and galvanizing works;
Metals Heavy metals and asbestos
Engineering works; Shipbuilding/shipbreaking; Scrap
reduction plants
Combustible substances; phenols;
Energy Gasworks; PowerStations
cyanides; sulphur compounds; asbestos
Garages, vehicle builders and maintenance Combustible substances; hydrocarbons;
Transport
workshops; Railway depots asbestos
Mineral extraction
Land restoration Mines and spoil heaps; Pits and quarries; Filled sites Heavy metals; gases (methane); leachates
Waste disposal sites
Water supply
Waterworks; Sewage treatment plants Metals; microorganisms
Sewage treatment
Metals; organic compounds; methane;
Docks, wharfs and quays; Tanneries; Rubber works;
Other toxic, flammable or explosive substances;
Military land
microorganisms

(from DD175: 1988)

 Design investigations
A more comprehensive investigation than the preliminary investigations,
involves the use of:

Field investigations
Laboratory tests

To assess:

Ground conditions
Groundwater conditions
Contamination
Design Investigations – Field investigations
• If relevant, field investigations in the design phase should comprise:
– drilling and/or excavations (test pits including shafts and headings) for sampling;
– groundwater measurements;
– field tests.
 Summary
• Site investigation – applying EC7
• Desk study – Datasets, benefits and limitations
• Walkover Survey – verifying Desk Study analysis
• Preliminary Investigation – initial findings
• Design Investigation