Chapter 2: Methods of Research

Unit 2.1- Types of Data, Methods & Research Design

The differences between primary and secondary sources of data and between
quantitative and qualitative data

Key Words:

Terminology: Definitions:

Primary Data Information collected personally by a researcher

Secondary Data Data that has already exists, data not personally generated by the researcher

Quantitative Data Information expressed numerically that captures the ‘who, what, when, and where’ of a behaviour

Qualitative Data Non-numeric data that expresses the quality of the relationship

Correlation Statistical relationship between two or more variables that expresses a level of probability. A high (positive)
correlation suggests the strong probability of friendship. A low (negative) correlation suggest the probability of
little or no relationship

Hypothesis A statement put forward by the researcher which is then tested to see whether it is correct

Participant Observation A research method that involves the researcher participating, openly (overtly) or secretly (c0vertly), in the
behaviour they are studying

Description Methods Strengths Limitations

Primary Data Involves information - Control over how data is - Time consuming to design,
collected personally collected by whom and construct and carry out
by a researcher. what purpose - Difficult to gain access to
Uses a range of - Control over reliability and the target group
methods validity of the data as well - Research can be expensive
(questionnaires, as how representative it is to carry out
interviews and - There may be a lack of
observational studies) participants that refuse to
participate, or in the case
of historical research,
potential respondents may
no longer be alive.

Secondary Data that already
Data exists in some form
such as documents
(government reports
and statistics,
personal letters and
diaries) or previous
research completed
by other sociologists
- Online - Save time, money and - Data is not always
published effort by using existing produced with the needs of
reports data sociologist in mind
- Google scholars - Situation where it is the - The scope focused is wider
- Websites only available resource and broader on the
- Books - Historical and comparative internet, which makes it
process hard to narrow it down
- Official statistics is more into a specific issue to
reliable because the data is focus on
 collected consistently - Personal documents can
be unreliable
- Historical documents are
biassed towards a single
perspective on the
individual, rather than
representing wider
opinions

Quantitative Allows sociologists to - Surveys - Ability to express - Set by placing respondent

Data summarise sources of relationships statistics
information and (does not need to explore
make comparisons. the reasons for people’s
Statistical behaviour - compare
comparisons and numbers)
correlations are used - Summarise sources of
to test out informations and make
hypotheses. This can comparisons
also track changes in - Statistical comparisons
the behaviour of the and correlations can test
same group over time where a hypothesis is true
(longitudinal study) or false - track changes in
the behaviour of the same
They are usually group over a time
recorded by discrete (longitudinal study)
or continuous - More reliable - easier to
numerical data repeat
- Easier for researchers to
remain objective
in an ‘artificial social
setting’ in order to control
the responses and the data
collected
- Impossible to capture
people’s normal behaviour
to collect ‘real’ responses
- Only captures a relatively
low range of information
- Does not reveal the
reasons for behaviours
because it lacks depth ; the
more detailed the
behavioural data, the more
difficult it is to quantify
- Shows the surface level,
making it data and
superficial.

Qualitative Data collected - Participant - Understand people’s - Focuses on the intensive

Data through words and Observant - behaviour - act and talk study of relatively small
aims to capture the involves the freely. So, it is easier for groups, which may limit
quality of people’s researcher to researcher to capture the opportunities for
behaviour by establish a complex reasons for applying the data more
exploring the ‘why’ strong personal behaviour widely (eg: such groups
rather than the ‘what, relationship / - Participant observants may not be representative
when and where’ of rapport with involve the researchers to of anything but
people’s behaviour respondents in have greater freedom to themselves)
order to study people in their - Difficult to compare data
CASE STUDIES: experience ‘normal settings. across time and location
● USA their lives - Results show that they because no two groups will
Vakentash - Interviews armoire likely to show how ever be qualitatively the
(2009) people really behave and same
studied a what they really believe - Reliability is generally
young gang lower than compared to
from the quantitative data, due to
viewpoint of its depth and detail which
its members makes research difficult to
● Goffman replicate.
(1961)
examined
the
experiences
of patients in
a mental
institutions
 Both were trying to
capture the quality of
people’s behaviour:
what the subjects
understand, how they
feel and why they
behave in particular
ways in different
ways

The strengths and limitations of different secondary sources of data, including

official statistics, personal documents, digital content and media sources.

Key Words:

Terminology: Definitions:

Official Statistics A government-generated secondary source of data on areas such as crime, marriage and employment

Comparative Analysis Collecting data on one group or society and then comparing them with others to identify conditions that may be
causing social events

Representativeness Extent to which the characteristics of a sample population accurately reflect those of the target population

Personal Documents Secondary sources of data covering areas such as personal letters, diaries, oral (verbal) histories, websites, social
networking sites and photographs

1. Secondary Data - Official Statistics

Definition Strengths Limitations

Practical issue Ethical Issue Theoretical Issue

A form of quantitative
data that has been
compiled from other
research methods
EXAMPLE:
- Questionnaires
- Opinion polls
- Civil service
- Other
departmental
data
It demonstrates trends in:
crime, household,
education, social care,
health, and demographics
Only available source
covering a particular area of
study, such as suicide
Readily available and cover a
range of different topics
Representativeness because
they are often based on
carefully chosen large
samples
Provide trends over time
between different social
groups, genders, beliefs,
sexuality, etc.
High in reliability as repeated
Time-consuming Can be manipulated by Validity: Interpretivists
government to prove - statistics are social
Access - unavailable for political points (ie, construction made by
period of time and might healthcare, education, those in power
not match definition for benefits)
researchers EXAMPLES
Poverty indicators of - Dark figures
Operationalizing change - if society becomes - Crime
variables - statistical rich, poverty will decrease - Education
measurements have - Health
finite criteria for what -
defines ethnicity, social
class, gender, etc. - less
fluid in contemporary
society
CASE STUDY
Durkheim (1897) -
identified distinct patterns
for suicide behavioural
based on comparative
analysis of official suicide
statistics across a range of
different societies
Can also be used for
comparisons within
groups such as difference
in middle-working class
family size, and between
societies
2. Secondary Data - Personal Documents
Definition
They are secondary
sources of data covering
areas such as personal
letters, diaries, medical
files, school reports,
websites, social
networking sites and
photographs.
CASE STUDY
Pearson (1983) used
media accounts going
back over 100 years to
demonstrate that violent
‘hooligan’ or ‘yobbish’
behaviour is not a recent
phenomenon in the UK
through comparison
accounts.
often
Recorded by law
Hard statistics - high level of
accuracy and cannot be
doubted.
- Legally registered, so
clear and accurate
records are available
Soft statistics - less accurate
- Ie: unemployment is
hard to define
- Results may vary
greatly depending on
definition used
Strengths
Unique method of researching
those that have not been
researched before or have not
been considered worthy of
research. This allows for
providing greater validity in
studying the worldview of
specific individuals and
groups.
Gives researcher access to
data that would cost a lot of
money, time and effort to
collect personally.
Can provide secondary data in
situations where it is not
possible to collect primary
data (eg: about things that
happened in the past.)
Can be used for comparative
purposes; (eg: contrasting how
people once lived and how we
live now) is useful for tracking
and understanding social
change.
Can provide qualitative data
of great depth and detail into
understanding the lives of
people (eg: diaries such as
Limitations
Practical issue Ethical Issue
They are difficult to find They may be inaccurate in
and to gain access. providing information as
Historical these paper documents
documents/records may may be faked and the
be kept away from the researcher needs to know
public or require special whether they are originals
permissions. or copies that may have
been changed by other
Finding documents that authors.
fit the purposes of the
research and are Digital sources can also be
specific to a researcher’s subject to change (eg: old
needs can be time websites become
consuming and costly. inaccessible while others
may be updated so that
Historical or foreign the original content is lost.
documents may require
experts to understand Certain sources can be
language or context used for fuelling certain
behind it. They also agendas or vested
need to be translated interests, which makes it
from different languages hard to trust the source’s
which is time credibility. Researchers
consuming and difficult have to find out why or
to execute research. whom the document was
created for and if they had
first hand experience of
the accounts they
describe.
Theoretical Issue
They offer reliability
problems in that they
may be
unrepresentative of a
specific community (eg:
as diaries may simply be
one’s individual view).
Some information may
be incomplete or left out
from the document, as a
result of some sources
being lost over time or
may become harder to
access as technologies
become no longer used
(eg: floppy disks). This
offers an impartial view
towards the specific
group of society.
They can be subjective
as often interpretations
from documents will be
taken by researchers,
which means they are
less objective
viewpoints, and may be
used in a way they were
not intended.
 Anne Frank’s, who recorded
her life in hiding from the Nazis
in Amsterdam during WW2.)

Able to compare accounts

across time to test the validity
of current accounts of social
behaviour (eg: past and
present accounts of family and
working lives can help us
understand the similarities
and changes in individual and
institutional behaviour.)

The strengths and limitations of different quantitative research methods, including

questionnaires, structured interviews, experiments and content analysis

Key Words:

Terminology: Definitions:

Questionnaires Research method consisting of a list of written questions

Structured interview Set of standard questions asked by the researcher of the respondent. It is similar to a questionnaire, but is delivered
by the researcher rather than completed by a respondent.

Method Description Strengths Limitations

Postal Easier to quantify data
Questionnaire
Easy to count
Quick and easy to code (this can be a simple
count of the number of responses)
Researchers can contact large numbers of
people quickly and efficiently
Low response rates -> small number of respondents ->
unrepresentative; because it effectively selects itself
Format makes it difficult to examine complex issues
and opinions
Decide on a fixed variable (determining its
significance / relevance) with no opportunity to
change afterwards

Highly reliable data -> easy to replicate the The questions can be received by the respondents
research differently -> understanding of the question

Respondent is anonymous means that validity
is improved, given personal questions
Low risk on biases from respondents
Anonymity affects the validity and representativeness
of the research
PILOT STUDIES (SOLUTIONS)
Involves unintentional biases
1. If a question has more than one meaning, people
will be answering different questions
2. Leading questions suggest a required answer (ie,
“Why do you think it is important to study
Sociology?” ) does not question whether it is
important or not
3. Definition can vary (ie, ‘occasionally’ or ‘often’)
Laboratory Take place in a closed environment where
experiments conditions can be precisely monitored and
controlled.
No outside/uncontrolled variables affect
relationship between independent and
dependent variables
Involve an artificially created situation —> unlikely
that the findings will apply to the real world
Raise ethical issues (consent) of participants ->
aware that research is taking place -> affect on how
they behave

Field Easier to replicate than field experiments ->
experiments researcher has more control over both
research conditions and variables being
tested
Standardised research conditions give
experiments high level of reliability
Create powerful, high valid statements about
behaviour cause and effect relationships
Can be used to manipulate situations in the
real world —> understand underlying reasons
for human behaviour.
Difficult to control all possible variables/influences on
behaviour
CASE STUDY
The Hawthorne effect - Mayo (1933)
Hawthorne (or observer) effect: changes in people's
behaviour that result from their knowledge of being
observed
Location: Hawthorne factory, Chicago
Study: changes in people's behaviour directly resulting
from their knowledge of being studied
Variables in working conditions:
● IV - changing the brightness of lighting
● IV - changing the temperature
Result: same : the work rate of the workers increased,
because they knew they were being studied.

The strengths and limitations of different qualitative research methods, including

structured interviews, unstructured interviews, semi-structured interviews, group
interviews, overt and covert participant and non-participant observation.
Reference links: Interviews in Social Research: Advantages and Disadvantages - ReviseSociology
Practical, Ethical and Theoretical Issues
Key Words:

Terminology: Definitions:

PET ISSUES
Practical - Time, Research Opportunity, Money, Access to Participants, Personal Characteristics of
researcher
Ethical- Deception, Right to Withdraw, Informed Consent, Social Sensitivity, Protection from Harm
Theoretical - Positivist or Interpretivist Quantitative or Qualitative Reliable or Valid Generalisability

Types of data: Description: Strengths: Limitations:

Practical Issues: Ethical Issues: Theoretical Issues:

Content Include both quantitative It Identifies underlying Resource Privacy and It can be very
Analysis and qualitative data themes and patterns of constraints: Data confidentiality: subjective and the
behaviour that may not
 Studies text including
written documents, t.v
and other media texts
Structured Where the researcher asks
Interviews questions to respondents
in person
To achieve consistent and
comparable results, the
same questions are asked
in the same order each
time; there is no flexibility
to change the order or the
questions
be apparent on the content analysis can Researchers need researcher has a lot
surface be a time-consuming to take steps to of power over what
and labour-intensive protect the privacy should and should
process, especially and confidentiality not be included in the
when dealing with
of the people study
large datasets.
Researchers need to
whose data they
have access to are analysing. This Choice of coding
adequate resources, may involve scheme: The coding
such as time, anonymizing the scheme used in a
funding, and data or obtaining content analysis
software, to conduct informed consent study will determine
a thorough analysis. from participants. the types of patterns
Fairness and and relationships
Data quality: The transparency: that can be identified
quality of the data
Researchers need in the data.
being analysed is
crucial to the
to be fair and Researchers need to
success of the study. transparent in carefully select a
Researchers need to their analysis and coding scheme that is
carefully select their reporting of the appropriate for their
data sources and results. This means research questions.
assess the quality of avoiding bias and
the data before disclosing any Validity and
beginning their potential conflicts reliability: As with
analysis. of interest. any research method,
Harm to it is important to
Coding reliability:
When coding data, it
participants: ensure that the
is important to Researchers need content analysis
ensure that the to be mindful of study is valid and
coding is reliable and the potential for reliable. This means
consistent. This harm to that the study should
means that different participants, both produce accurate
coders should direct and indirect. and consistent
produce similar For example, results. Researchers
results when coding participants may can achieve this by
the same data.
be harmed if their using a rigorous
Researchers can
achieve this by
data is used to methodology and by
developing a coding discriminate triangulating their
manual and training against them or if data with other
coders on how to use their privacy is sources of evidence.
it. breached.
Potential reliability Same questions Involves Aggressive interviews
problems can be fixed asked in the same assumptions (pre —> introduce bias by
by the researcher (ie, order each time —> judgements) -> forcing respondents
when misunderstanding no flexibility to biassed question into giving answers
the questions) change the order or they do not believe
the questions Lack of anonymity
Avoids the problem of -> interview effect Status considerations
unrepresentative where respondent —> factors like gender,
samples - response rates tries to provide age, class, ethnicity —>
is 100% answers that would bias the data —>
please the female respondent may
 interviewer -> feel embarrassed about
reduces validity -> answering personal
respondents questions posed by
answers that they male interviewer, and
think will make a vice versa
good impression

Lack of anonymity
-> researcher effect
when relationship
between researcher
and respondents
may bias responses:

Semi Attempts to combine No specific questions Demands certain

structured strengths of unstructured prepared, less risk of skills from
Interviews and structured interviews. researcher researcher (eg: ask
(predetermining) what right questions,
Researchers are free to will be discussed. think relevant
ask questions in any order question
to phrase the questions Respondents are opportunities
about what they think . allowed to speak freely
on things that interest Time consuming ->
The interview follows a them, it is possible to data must be
structure or ‘interview pick up ideas and analysed
schedule’ - areas the information that may
interviewer wants to focus not have occurred to the Lack
on. interviewer or of which standardisation ->
they had no previous same questions not
Questions are based on a knowledge. necessarily out to all
topic and developed from respondents and
the interviewer. This new knowledge can similar questions
be used to inform later may be phrased
Aim is to understand interviews with differently -> hard to
things from the different respondents analyse data
respondents’s viewpoint, and to suggest further
rather than to make questions
generalisation about
behaviour Allows respondent to
develop their ideas ->
Uses open-ended researcher able to
questions. discover what someone
really means, thinks or
believes.

Increases validity of the

data -> research moire
likely will achieve its
aims

Unstructured Enable researchers to Limited input -> data Liable to influence,

Interviews acquire an understanding reflects the interest of encouraged and
of how people think and the respondent, interrupt the
feel. Respondents are highlighting an accurate interview
encouraged to talk freely and detailed expression
about the things they feel of their beliefs. Researcher have
are important. little control over

Group Involve respondents
Interviews gathering to discuss topics
that are set up in advance
by the researcher.
The selected group are a
representative sample - a
cross-section of society / a
group of people that the
researcher would like to
explore in detail.
Controlled variables
includes groups are
usually same-sex and
similar background
Success:
- Clear structure
and guideline to
prevent any
arguments
- Advances
predetermined
questions
- Interaction
within the group
Gibbs (1997)
“unique insights
into people’s
shared
understandings
Talk freely - Avoids the direction of the
problem of the interview and the
researcher prejudging conversation would
what makes important led to a different
or irrelevant data irrelevant direction
Establish strong Time consuming -
understanding with analysing and
respondents -> opening interpreting data
up to sensitive issues to (listening to a
be explored in depth. recording and
They feel at ease, like transcribing it)
their homes.
Biassed by interview
effect - respondents
will try to please the
researcher by telling
them what they
believe the
researcher wants to
hear - Influenced
from what they
know of the
interviewer.
Researchers can… Researcher must
->Control pace and control group
extent (scope) of the behaviour while
discussion maintaining the
-> plan a schedule that focus of research
allows them to focus (challenge skills)
and refocus discussion
-> ask questions, stop or Representativeness:
change the focus if one of your
discussion selected group is
-> create a situation absent, the sample
that reflects how people becomes
naturally share and unrepresentative
discuss ideas
At risk for
People in group ‘interviewer effect’
interviews are more which has been
realistic. We decide how called ‘Groupthink’
we think and feel about (people who fell to
things (not individually) arrive at ‘desired
but by talking to and outcomes’)
listening to others
Risk to reflect a
‘group consensus’
rather than
revealing
individual’s beliefs -
not their own
opinion
 of everyday life”
- Skill of the
researcher to
ensure that the
discussion is not
dominated by
one or two
individuals

Observation
http://www.sociology.org.uk/notes/methods_in_education.pdf
Observational methods are based on the idea that data are more valid if they are gathered by seeing how people
behave, rather than taking on trust that people do what they say they do. There are two main observational
techniques: non-participant and participant observation
- Covert
- Overt
Case Study:
1. Keddie (1971) - Non-participant
Topic: Unequal Access to Classroom Knowledge (Status as knowledge)
Results: Keddie found that teachers do not distribute knowledge evenly within the classroom but are
more likely to give high ability students ‘High Status Knowledge’ whilst lower ability students are more
likely to be given ‘Low Status Knowledge’ – this information was gathered through non-participant
observations of staff meetings and classes
2. Winlow - Covert observation
Topic: Bouncers in clubs and pubs in Sunderland.
Method of research: He used ethnographic research methods, such as participant observation and
unstructured taped interviews.
Key Finding: For working-class young men with a willingness to use violence, becoming a bouncer
provided an income as well as an opportunity to make more money from entrepreneurial crime.
Strengths:
1) Ethnographic research allowed him to gain insight into a specific area and cultural setting.
2) The research provided first hand accounts of something the public is unable to fully observe.
Weaknesses: 1) The results are hard to generalise as the study was only based in the north-east.
2) There are ethical issues such as deception as Winlow was covert and was observing illegal activities.

3. Sudhir Vakentash - Overt observation

Topic: Gang leader for a Day
Setting/ variables: Eight years with an african-american gang in housing development in Chicago
where he was a sociology student
Finding: he explains how he became interested in the gang and how he was accepted by them (thanks
to the leader JT) and how for one day, JT let him experience what the role of the leader was. Vakentash
was an overt observer, participating only to a limited extent because his Indian background prevented
his full acceptance and because he wanted to avoid involvement in the gag’s illegal activities. He shows
how the gang played and because he wanted to avoid involvement in the gang’s illegal activities. He
shows how the gang played an important social support role for many residents in the tower block,
where the police and social workers rarely ventured.

Observational Participation

4. Ball, Stephen (1981) “Beachside Comprehensive”: Cambridge University Press. The first case study of a
comprehensive school based on (overt) participant observation.
5. Brimi, Hunter (2005) “The Influence of Cultural Capital on Twenty-First Century Secondary School
Literature Curricula”: Electronic Journal of Sociology Ad-hoc observations / interviews with American
teachers.
 6. Willis, Paul (1977) “Learning To Labour: How Working class kids get working class jobs”: Saxon House.
Study of 12 working class boys in a Midlands school (and subsequent workplaces).
7. Wright, Cecile (1992)“Race Relations in the Primary School”: David Fulton Publishers. A three year
ethnographic study in four inner-city primary schools in one LEA.

Limitations
Types of Description Strengths
observational Practical Ethical Theoretical
methods:

Overt-participant Involves Relatively easy to If the group refuses to Ethical concerns may be If people know they are
participating in conduct because the be observed the raised if the group is being watched, they
the behaviour of group knows and research cannot take involved in illegal may change their
people who understands the role of place activities etc - does the behaviour - it may
know they are the researcher. observer also become ‘unnatural’’
being studied. It takes a lot of time, participate?
Researchers can effort and money to Venkateshs’ study
Researcher joins request to gain access organise The researcher may be confirmed that people
the group openly to all levels (eg: given special treatment can change their
and conducts hierarchical structures) The researcher can’t and not get a true behaviour when they
the research of groups being studied be everywhere when picture of the normal know they are being
with the doing this observation group behaviour observed
permission and CASE STUDY - so this limits ts scope
cooperation of Venkatesh (2009) -
the members. Study of Black It is impossible to
American gangs proved replicate and
that a researcher is therefore we are
govern more freedom forces to trust what
than if the study was the researcher
being studied in secret - experienced as being
covert observation true

Trust is established
with overt
participation

Illegal involvement is
unlikely if it is known
that the participant is
the observer

His research proved

that a researcher is
given more freedom
than if the study was
studied secretly.

His study was only

made possible through
the aid of
‘sponsorships’ by a
gang leader - JT that
protected Venkatesh
while he observed the
gang and gained access
to some of its more
powerful members.
 Sponsorship makes it
easier to separate the
roles of participant and
observer. It reduces the
chances of researchers
becoming so involved
in a group that they
stop observing and
simply become
“participants” (natives).

Validity of the data

Covert
participation

Stages of research design, including deciding on research strategy, formulating

research questions and hypotheses, sampling frames, sampling techniques, pilot
studies, operationalisation, conducting research and interpreting results.

Research Design
Overlooks the generic design of sociological research.

What are the four linked stages of Research Design based on Oberg (1999) ?
1. Planning
a. Deciding what to research and how to research it
b. Formulating hypothesis or questions
2. Evaluation
a. Internal analysis about how the research method was conducted (eg, was it
appropriate?)
b. External analysis - conclusions reported to the wider public for analysis and criticism
3. Information Gathering
a. Identifying a sample to study
4. Information Processing
a. Once data has been gathered, it must be analysed and interpreted

The Research problem

The initial stage when the sociologist decides things such as the general topic to study and then
develops more specific ideas about what aspects to study.

Task:

1) Which factors need to be considered when choosing a research question?

- Personal interests of the researcher
- Current interest in the topic, among sociologist or society in general
- Whether money (funding) can be obtained
- Practical factors such as whether it will be possible to contact respondents easily
2) What is the difference between a research hypothesis and research question?

Research hypothesis Research Question

 Must be tested using research methods suitable Must be capable of generating high level of
for this purpose descriptive data

Methods producing quantitative data Methods producing qualitative data

CASE STUDY - Ginn and Arber (2002) CASE STUDY - Conway (1997)

Study: Analysis of how motherhood affects the Study: examination of parental choice in
lives of graduate women secondary education

Hypothesis: The effect of motherhood on Question: Does parental choice help to

full-time employment is minimal for graduate strengthen the advantage of the middle class
women over the working class?

3) What is sampling?
A sample is a relatively small number of people who belong to the target population.
Sampling only works if the sample is representative.
Representativeness is significant than sample size because it relates to whether the characteristics of
the sample accurately reflect those of the target population .
[Key tag: Collecting Data, sampling]

4) What are the strengths and weaknesses of sampling?

Strengths Weaknesses

Small number of people Representativeness limits the ‘generalised’

overview of the target population
Able to study behaviour and draw conclusions *refer to sampling frame
about a larger representative of the target
population - generalised

can can make statements about the larger group

they have not studied (target population) based
on the behaviour of the smaller group they have
studied (the sample)

Sampling frame
Representative sample often requires a sampling frame. This includes a list of everyone in a target
population (ie, a voting or school register)
1. Unless everyone i the target population can be identified, the sample drawn may bot
accurately reflect the characteristics of the population
2. for a researcher to contract people in their sample to interview

A sampling frame does not give the researcher the liberty to access it whenever they want to
because…
1. Legality: names cannot be revealed by law
2. Confidentiality: a business may deny access to its payment records
3. Privacy: they don’t want to be studied.
 Case Study
Sampling Techniques | Psychology | tutor2u
Sampling Techniques in Social Research - ReviseSociology
Sampling in Sociology: Definition & Methods | StudySmarter
https://www.studywithmehar.com/as-sociology-research-methods/
Types of sampling Description
Random sampling Based on the probability that the
random selection of names from a
(Involuntary participant) sampling frame will produce a
representative sample
(Eg: lottery number and picking names
from a hat)
Systematic sampling Used when the population is very large
that involves taking a sample directly
(Involuntary participant) from a sampling frame.
For a 25% sample of a target population
containing 100 names, every fourth
name would be chosen.
Stratified random sampling Stratified random sampling is a method
of sampling that involves the division of a
population into smaller subgroups
known as strata.
The strata are formed based on
characteristics that they share (e.g., race,
gender, educational attainment). Once
divided, each subgroup is randomly
sampled using another probability
sampling method.
(Involuntary sampling)
Stratified quota sampling A quota sample is a type of
non-probability sample in which the
(Voluntary sampling) researcher selects people according to
the same fixed strata (eg ., race, gender,
educational attainment)
Non representative A non representative sample is useful
sampling when the sociologist might not want to
make generalisations about a certain
topic
Strengths
For the sample to be truly random,
everyone in the target population has an
equal chance of being chosen.
Unbiased chance of gaining a
representative sample
Avoids problems of biassed samples
occurring by chance, with some groups
unrepresented and over represented
They achieve this by stratifying the
target population into groups whose
characteristics are known to the
researcher (eg: gender and age groups)
These groups are treated as a separate
random sample of its own right
The selection is done on an opportunity
basis as for example if the researcher
needs 20 males for the sample; they then
ask men to be part of the sample and
once 20 males have agreed, the quota
(allowed amount) is complete and no
further males can be selected.
● Convenience:
Non-representative sampling
methods can be very
convenient and easy to use. For
example, it is often easier to
survey people who are readily
available, such as students in a
classroom or employees in a
Limitations
Small minority groups within target
groups will distort result even with a
sampling technique
Impractical (or not possible) to use a
completely random technique (eg, the
target group may be too large to assign
to)
The sample is not truly random (eg: the
nth name on the list could never be
included in the sample so not everyone
has an equal chance of being included.
Takes more time and resources to plan
Care must be taken to ensure each key
characteristic is present in the
population is selected across strata,
otherwise it will be al biassed sample
sample has its own bias - people who
take the survey has their own motive
● Bias: Non-representative
sampling methods are more
likely to introduce bias into the
study. This is because the
sample may not accurately
reflect the target population,
and the results of the study
may not be generalizable to the

Opportunity sampling Used when it is impossible to achieve a
representative sample
1. Best opportunity sampling-
deliberately choosing a sample
that gives the best possible
opportunity to test a
hypothesis
CASE STUDY - Goldthorpe et al (1968)
Study: to claim that the working class in
the UK was becoming harder to tell from
the middle class.
Variable:
CV: sample of highly paid car-assembly
workers in Luton
IV: Lifestyle
2. Snowball sample - ‘rolling up’
or including more people in the
sample over time, like a
snowball
company, than it is to survey a
random sample of the
population.
● Cost-effectiveness:
Non-representative sampling
methods can also be very
cost-effective. For example, it is
often cheaper to survey people
who are already in a database,
such as customers or
subscribers, than it is to recruit
a new sample of people.
● Speed: Non-representative
sampling methods can also be
very quick. For example, it is
often possible to survey a
convenience sample of people
in a short amount of time, such
as during a lunch break or at
the end of a class.
● populations.
Best opportunity
● Convenience: Best opportunity
sampling is a very convenient
and easy-to-use method. It is
often used when it is not
possible or feasible to use a
random sampling method.
● Cost-effectiveness: Best
opportunity sampling is also a
very cost-effective method. It is
often cheaper than other
sampling methods, such as
random sampling.
● Speed: Best opportunity
sampling can also be a very
quick method. It is often
possible to recruit a sample of
people in a short amount of
time.
Snowball samples
● Reach: Snowball sampling can
be used to reach populations
that are difficult to access, such
as marginalised or hidden
populations.
● Richness: Snowball sampling
can yield rich data, as
participants are often able to
provide insights into their own
experiences and those of their
peers.
● Efficiency: Snowball sampling
can be an efficient way to
recruit participants, as it relies
on referrals from existing
participants.
target population.
● Lack of generalizability: The
results of studies that use
non-representative sampling
methods may not be
generalizable to the target
population. This is because the
sample may not be
representative of the target
population, and the results of
the study may not apply to the
target population as a whole.
● Limited external validity:
Studies that use
non-representative sampling
methods may have limited
external validity. This means
that the results of the study
may not be able to be applied
to other settings or
●
Best opportunity
● Bias: Best opportunity
sampling is more likely to
introduce bias into the study.
This is because the sample may
not accurately reflect the
target population.
● Lack of generalizability: The
results of studies that use best
opportunity sampling may not
be generalizable to the target
population. This is because the
sample may not be
representative of the target
population.
● Limited external validity:
Studies that use best
opportunity sampling may
have limited external validity.
This means that the results of
the study may not be able to be
applied to other settings or
populations.
Snowball samples -Unrepresentative
● Bias: Snowball sampling can
introduce bias into the study,
as the sample may not be
representative of the target
population.
● Limited generalizability: The
results of studies that use
snowball sampling may not be
generalizable to the target
population.
● Limited external validity:
Studies that use snowball
sampling may have limited
 external validity. This means
that the results of the study
may not be able to be applied
to other settings or
populations.

Pilot Studies
[Key tags: Pilot study, operationalisation, interpreting results, hypothesis]
1. What is a pilot study?
A ‘mini version’ of a full-scale study designed to test its feasibility. It usually takes place before
conducting the ‘official’ study.
2. List the reasons why pilot studies are conducted?
a. Saves time, money and effort
b. Able to identify any problems (ie, access to respondents that may occur in larger
studies)
c. Working out the resources (eg staffing and fiance needed for a study)
d. result can be used to demonstrate to the funding bodies that a full study would be
feasible and worthwhile (layman terms: it is not a bullshit test)
3. What is operationalisation?
Operationalisation is when you are converting a concept (eg, social class or cultural capital)
into something that can be researched and measured due to the different understandings of
terms. It puts ideas and concepts to practise.
4. How can operationalisation help to avoid mistakes when conducting research?
It reduces subjectivity, and minimises the potential for research bias, increasing the reliability
of your research.
5. Why does a researcher analyse the data?
They need to analyse them to work out what they mean.
6. How can the data be presented after it has been analysed and interpreted?
By looking for common themes, and trends in the data, it reflects how it can be supporting the
hypothesis.
a. Findings
b. Conclusions about the hypothesis or a research question
c. Limitations, which might include discussion of various research problems that may
have affected the study, such as sample, response rate or questions about validity
d. Suggestions for future research
e. Improvements to research design.

Unit 2.2 - Approaches to sociological research

2.2.1 - Approaches that draw on different ‘research methods’
(I) Case studies
(II) Social surveys
(III) Ethnography
(IV) Longitudinal studies

(I) Case studies

A case study is an in-depth, qualitative, study of a particular group or ‘case’.
Usually based on qualitative research methods

Strengths Limitations Examples

● Provides great depth of
research and detail of
information —> greater
validity than simple
quantitative studies
Depends on their size and scope:
● Large scale cases studies
—> time consuming,
requires large efforts and
are costly
Westwood (1984)
● 12-month participant
observation study of female
workers in a ‘Stitchco’ factory,

● Where case studies are small ● Intensive and detailed

and self-contained —> large
amounts of data collected in
a relatively cost effective way
● Helps to uncover the
meanings that people give to
everyday behaviour —>
participant observational
studies
nature —> higher
demands of skilled
researchers who has to
live and work with their
subjects for a long period
of time —> respondents
subject to extensive,
detailed questioning and
observation

● Small case studies can be ● Small groups —> difficult

used as pilot studies to allow
a researcher to develop
hypotheses, test data
collection methods and
identify potential problems
in preparation for a larger
study
to generalise since they
are only a representative
of themselves —> only
able to make comparisons
between similar groups

(II) Social surveys

Cross sectional survey is a research method focused on identifying groups that share broad
similarities.
Their data is represented in 2 ways:
● Qualitative cross sectional survey
● Quantitative cross sectional survey

Qualitative data of cross sectional surveys are:

● Usually descriptive
● Focus on a particular type of behaviour which affects a wider community.
● Examples of looking at certain population characteristics include - suicide, income, poverty,
applied to a single country, a large area within a country or specific features of different
countries.

Quantitative data are:

● Highly more common within cross sectional surveys.
● This is because their focus is more analytical: that aims to analyse both correlations and
causations between different phenomena.
● Key sociologist - Durkheim did a comparative analysis on the suicide rates in different
countries to draw wider conclusions about those societies (eg, alienation and marginalization
etc).
Uses:
● Cross-sectional surveys use sampling to draw general conclusions about society.
● They try to identify groups which have a common identity (eg, income and education).
 ● We can then compare with a cross-section of other groups and draw conclusions (eg, are
educated people less likely to commit suicide?)

(III) Ethnography
Ethnography (also known as fieldwork) is a way of researching which tries to achieve a detailed, in
depth understanding of a group of people or of a situation.

● This is often referred to as fieldwork and achieves a high level of detailed information.
● The sociologists get actively involved in the groups daily lives they are studying and are
therefore classed as ‘participant observation’ (covert and overt).
● They also use a range of other research methods such as unstructured interviews and
qualitative documents.
● It is called ‘ethnography’ because it originally started as anthropology (the study of traditional
cultures) before becoming a part of modern day sociology.

(IV) Longitudinal studies

A form of comparative analysis that involves tracking changes among a representative sample over a
long period of time (from months to years).

● The same group is analysed at different stages of their lives, using methods such as
questionnaires to non participant observation.
● Longitudinal surveys are carried out in intervals (‘waves’) over a significant period of time.
● The researcher remains removed from the focus group, having contact with the participants
only on a limited basis at set intervals.

Description Strengths Limitation

Types: ● Identify and track Factors leading to ‘sample

● Cohort studies personal and social attrition’ - (the number of
● Household panel changes over long people who drop out from the
studies period —> revealing original sample)
● Record linkage studies trends that would
● Prospective studies otherwise be hidden ● Lost of interest
● Retrospective studies ● Move away without
● Cross-sectional studies ● Large representative leaving contact details
● Interview new people samples —> used to ● Past away
each time suggest correlations
Methods: and causal relationship ● High levels of attrition
● Questionnaires —> reduce
● Assessment representativeness of
● Participant’s health the sample over time
assessments (physical)
● Mental health ● Only ever a glimpse
● Sinal studies- look at the behaviour
biomarkers at any given moment
—> lacking depth and
validity
2.2.2 - Mixed methods approach to research
(I) Methodological pluralism
(II) Triangulation

(I) Methodological pluralism

Methodological pluralism is combining research methodologies in ways that allow each to
complement the other to improve research reliability and validity.

● A research project that involve more than one research method

● Represents the theoretical argument for using mixed methods
● Combining methods that produce quantitative and qualitative data
● This is often used because different methods have different strengths and weaknesses.
● Examples include -questionnaires proving to produce reliable data, but may be low in validity,
which is the reverse for covert participant observation, thus using both improves validity and
reliability

Types of research methodology:

● Methodological perspective involves considering how to collect data with the highest possible
levels of reliability and validity, regardless of the methods or data types used.
● Positivism approach from the perspective of a ‘design problem’ - how to test a hypothesis
through a scientific approach
● Interpretivism also approach from the perspective of a ‘design problem’ - through answering a
research question

(II) Triangulation
The use of two or more research methods where the weaknesses of one method, (eg: quantitative
interview) can be balanced (offset) by the strengths of another, (eg: qualitative participant
observation) to improve overall research reliability and validity

● Triangulation is the means through which this theory is put to practise, referring to the ways
in which a researcher can improve research reliability and validity
● Usually involves the use of two or more research methods
● Triangulation is used when studies rely heavily on a researcher's interpretations to generate
data. (hypothesis)
● To confirm reliability of a different researchers use the same research method arrive at the
same results (Repeated to reach at same conclusion)

🗝 | Key Sociologist (on why triangulation is used)

Denzin (1970) - Suggests that triangulation allows for the researcher to offset the weaknesses of one
method with the strengths of another and is done so:

● To ensure that the respondents is telling the truth (they actually do what they say they do)
from questionnaires through observational methods (ie, participation observation)
● To confirm reliability and validity of data by comparing the results from two different methods
used on the same people (semi-structured interview and focus group)

🗝 | Key Sociologists (that used triangulation to ‘good effect’)

Barker (1984) - Research on the Unification Church (‘Moonies).
● Used overt participant observation, questionnaires and semi structured interviews

Hey (1997) - Studied girls’ friendship in two London schools

● Used a combination of participant observation and personal documentation
 ● Some of the girls allowed her to read their diaries and was also given access to the notes the
girls passed between the classroom

How is data triangulation carried out?

1) Gathered through different sampling strategies:

● Collecting data at different times
● Collecting data in different contexts
● Collecting data from different people

🗝
2) Gathering data of the individuals involved and the researcher's experience:
| Key Sociologist (that applied this theory)
Venkatesh - Studied gang members in Chicago
● Gathered data from both those involved in the particular situation and the researcher’s own
experiences in a particular situation
● Able to make sense of certain forms of behaviour —> drug dealing, experiences of being black
and poor —> not possible if he had not had been involved in the social world he was studying

Disadvantages to triangulation:
● Longer time needed —> analyse different data types, created from a number of different
methods
● Costly —> employ more researchers to carry out a large scale research
● Large effort —> to the general coordination of a much larger project
● Difficult to compare different types of data —> researcher gets contradicting data from
different sources —> validity is overlooked as they cannot tell which account is true

2.2.3 - Positivist approach - scientific methods, objectivity, reliability and

value freedom
Positivism in Sociology: Definition, Theory & Examples
Positivism in the Study of Sociology

Terminology: Definitions:

Positivism The approach which sociology promotes (advocates) scientific methods to discover facts about the social
world

Value free The ability of researchers to prevent their own values (such as personal, political or religious values) from
influencing their research.

Inductive reasoning A study method that involves accumulating data about the world through

Positivism
● A theoretical approach to research and to understanding the social world

● Studies social behaviours at the macro (very large scale) level of society
● Believes that individuals are governed by social structures that pushes us to behave in certain
ways and shape our behavioural choices
○ Identify the structural forces that make people choose one action over another —>
studies the causes of such behaviours
 ● Believes that social behaviour can use the same research methods when studying the natural
world - sociology can be like a science
● Adopt similar techniques to those of the natural sciences such as:
○ Systematic observation
○ Accurate testing
○ Quantitative measurements that create reliable knowledge
● This systematic technique results in the development of theories that explain the initial
observations and predict future behaviours

● Prefers quantitative methods of research

○ Ability to quantify and measure behaviour —> primary research goal is to explain
social phenomena (not describe)
○ Allows the researcher to discover the general rules (or structures) that decide
individual behaviour
○ High levels of reliability -
■ Essential that others can replicate the research and compare the results
○ High levels of objectivity -
■ Personal values and beliefs should not influence the research (value free
approach)
■ Research methods should not depend on the subjective interpretations of a
researcher
■ Do not participate in the behaviour being studied —> prevent biases and
influence data collection process

2.2.4 - Interpretivist approach - ‘Verstehen’, meaning, subjectivity, and validity

Interpretivism - A methodological approach based on understanding the interpretations and

meanings people give to action

● Studies social behaviours at the micro (very small scale) level of society - people recreate and
create a ‘sense of the social system’ on a daily basis
● Prefers qualitative methods of research
● Believes that social reality is formed through the people who have consciousness -
○ People are able to exercise free will over the choices they make about how to behave
in different situations, rather than simply react to outside (structural) stimulation
○ Arises in ‘unpredictability’ —> impossible to establish causal relationships either in
theory or in practice - behaviour unable to be studied and understood like the natural
sciences
● Society does not exist in an objective form -
○ It is created by the way people interact with each other and experienced subjectively
because we give it meaning through behaviour
○ Society is not something out there to be ‘objectively observed’ but something in here
to be ‘experienced’ and ‘understood’
○ Social contexts changes behaviours - thus focuses on trying to gain insight into the
experiences of individuals and groups
○ They believe that seeing the social world through the eyes of others involves
‘empathy’ which is referred to as ‘verstehen’.
● Prefers participant observation - researchers must gain a good understanding of the context
within ‘why’ such behavioural rules are created
● Believes that sociologists should not be objective and should acknowledge their values rather
than try to be value free (purely objective) in their research
 ● Place greater emphasis on ‘validity’ as they uncover meanings and motivations of people’s
actions

Task
1. For interpretivists, why is society different from physical nature?
The difference between society and physical nature is that social reality is formed through the
interaction of people who have consciousness. Society does not exist in physical form

2. How do interpretivists explain society?

The awareness of ourselves and our relationship to others gives us the ability to act. This
allows us to exercise free will.
Intepretivist look at society in a micro scale
3. Explain Weber’s concept of ‘verstehen’?
Verstechen is a way of seeing the social world through the eyes of others that involves
empathy
4. Summarise the interpretivists approach to research methodology?
● The primary aim is to describe social behaviour in terms of the meanings and
interpretations of those involved
● Behavioural result are context bound; they change in subtle ways, depending on the
situation
● Uncovering and describing behavioural rules involves the close study of people’s
behaviour; the researcher must gain a good understanding of the context within
which such rules are created. Therefore, researchers in this methodology often use
participant observation.
● Participation can be desirable because this gives the research a deeper insight into
behaviour, the kind of ‘objective detachment’. Sociologists should not be objective and
should acknowledge their their values rather than try to value-free their research
● Interpretivists place greater emphasis on validity

2.2.5 - The debates about whether sociology can/should be based on the methods
and procedures of the natural sciences and the role of values in sociological research

Social knowledge: Can sociological research be based on scientific methods?

1. Defining science
2. Procedural rules
Task
1. What are the two qualities of using scientific methodology?
a. Reliability - possible to check the accuracy of a piece of research by replicating /
repeating it to observe the the result: same, different or similar
b. Validity - data is measurable. However, validity is questioned if they are measuring
statistics that are reported (ie, there are crimes that go unreported)

2. What are procedural rules? and why are they important when conducting research?
Procedural rules are scientific knowledge following a set of procedures, agreed by the scientific
community, that control how data can be controlled and analysed. An example would be the
hypothetico-deductive method. It follows where a hypothesis is tested or answered by the
collection, presentation and analysis of data.
It is important to follow procedural rules to prove whether the scientific research is shown to
be evidently proven true or false. It opens up a greater knowledge of plausibility because it is
 based on tested facts. Besides that, it gives knowledge a crucial quality - predicting
statements that will happen

3. According to Merton, which ethical rules allow sociology research to be conducted

scientifically?
A scientific ethos is required.

4. List the main differences between the positivist and interpretivist approaches to sociological
research.

Positivists Interpretivists

● The social world and human behaviour can be
explored scientifically
● There are laws to human behaviour the same as
natural laws elsewhere
● Sociologists should use scientific method when
conducting research
● Sociologists should be objective
● They argue that scientific methods are not appropriate
for sociology
● There are no definite laws governing human behaviour
● We must try to see the world through human eyes and
uncover meanings via empathy eyes etc
● They use qualitative rather than quantitative data
● They accept subjectivity
● Reliability is less important than validity

Unit 2.3 - Research Issues

2.3.2 - Factors influencing the choice of topic, choice of method(s) and conduct of
research
(I) Theoretical Considerations
(II) Practical Considerations
(III) Ethical Considerations

(I) Theoretical Research Considerations:

Before sociological research is undertaken there has to be certain considerations taken into account.
The following considerations are the most common -
Topic choice:
The sociologist needs to consider who the target audience is. For example, is it an academic audience
or the general public? The chosen topic will be based upon the target audience’s interests. The
purpose of the study will also determine the topic choice. The topic choice is likely to reflect the
researcher’s own interests and also those of any institution which may be funding the study.

Choice of methods:
The research method chosen will reflect the sociologist's general standpoint on the subject, for
example, an interactionist will focus upon qualitative data whilst a positivists will seek quantitative
data. Also, ethical considerations may influence choice of method with some sociologists feeling
uncomfortable about doing covert participation methods.

Topic choice
● Affected by: Costs = duration/time
○ They need to consider the scale of the research carried out over a specific duration of
time (large scale research and long periods of time may be costly)
● Affected by: The people who funds the research
○ They need to know who funds, commissions, and pays for it may have an important
say in the choice of topic, method and overall conduct of the research
● Affected by: Accessibility
○ They need to consider their access to research subjects (individuals) and their
cooperation in the research process.

What happens if these factors are denied:

○ A researcher might choose to continue by carrying out covert research. However,
some argue that such research is ethically questionable. An example of a case study
is - Goffman (1961), who studied the patients and medical staff in a US mental
institution while pretending to be a member of the cleaning staff.
○ The problem of cooperation can be solved by sponsorship: a member of the group
being studied back and ‘protects’ the researcher.
○ Research can be focused more on the activities of the powerless (people who cannot
say no), rather than the powerful, which can and often do resist being studied in order
to fix problems of access and cooperation.

Choice of method
● They need to deal with a range of practical issues in assessing how and why various methods
are ‘fit for the purpose’ of testing a hypothesis or answering a research question.
○ Duncan (2005) says that it ‘reflects how well the chosen research method is suited to
the context of study. This is measured in terms of how well it is suited to answering
the issues posed in the research question (example Vakentash’s study took 8 years!)
● Affected by: practical considerations (ie, the topic being studied)
○ Quantitative methods are useful and reliable to establish statistical relationships
○ Case study- Kessler’s (2000), a study on the relationship between sponsorship and
small business performance where the main aim was to test ‘those who are sponsored
are more likely to succeed compared to those who are not sponsored’
● Affected by: Time because some methods are time-consuming than others
● Affected by: Funding
○ influence a researcher’s choice of method. This depends on the size and scope of the
study
○ Influence the size of any research team
● Important in the conduct of sociological research.
 ○ If a researcher cannot gain access to research subjects, then other considerations are
irrelevant
○ If a researcher has neither the time nor funding to support themselves, then the
research avenue is closed

(II) Ethical Research Considerations

Ethical issues - ‘ethics’ refers to the moral conflict of interests.

Ethical questions relating to sociological research involve beliefs about what a researcher should or
should not do before, during and after their research.

Before carrying out sociological research, these quotes need to be considered:

● Is it ethical to study people without their knowledge?
● How do we persuade people to take part in research?
● How do we ensure their physical and psychological protection?

(III) Legal Considerations -

Refers to a particularly significant factor when research involves observing or participating in illegal
behaviour.

Case study - Ditton (1977) study of work theft

● Is it ethical to study criminal behaviour?
○ Choice of method research should consider the researcher’s involvement. To avoid
predicament, researchers choose to use participation observation
● How far should the researcher get involved in ‘criminal behaviour’?
● Has the researcher been given consent from the ‘criminals’ to study them?

Safety
Refers to the physical and psychological safety of everyone involved in a project

● Will everyone (researcher/s and participants) be saved during the study?

● Will the participants be cared for after the study ends?

Ethical Practice

Video
Practical issue
1. Funding body
2. Access to participant - affect the scale of research
3. impact of research - understanding of society and replication
4. Opportunity to conduct the research - feasibility
5. Time - how long? Skills needed?
6. Cost - number of researchers. type of research (ie, interviews)
7. Participants - sampling

Ethical issues
1. Security - data is valuable to identity
2. Confidentiality - anonymity that could not be easily identify, honest with their answers
3. Deception - honesty with research interest
4. Sociologist values - Evaluating Sociological Research
 5. Methodological preferences - positivist or interpretivism
6. Type of data collected
7. Reliability - Positive vs interpretivism
8. Representativeness - positivism vs interpretivism

Concern: funding bodies .

Questions

1) Identify and explain the three ethical questions researchers must ask themselves

1. Validity. Is it true? There may be activity of unethical behaviours such as researchers

fabricating data or falsifying their results
2. Judgement. Is it fair? Unethical behaviour can be treated through the rights of
ownership and plagiarism.
3. Prudence. Is it wise? Refers to the wider questions about research in a moral
perspective.

2) Why have these sociologists been accused of acting “unethically”

i) Wallis (1977) - Studied people who didn't want to be studied. He wanted to

research Scientology but the Church leaders refused him access to current
members. This was partly due to the fact that these members left the Church
and were seen to have rejected the religion. He contacted former members
and based his research on their opinions and experiences.

ii) Rosenhan (1973) - Tricked people into cooperating. He suspected that

doctors could not accurately diagnose schizophrenia and sent students
displaying false symptoms into hospitals to test his hypothesis.

iii) Milligram (1974) - Experimented on people who did not know they were
being studied. His study of authority caused the respondents distress as they
were convinced they were giving electric shocks to ‘learners’ whenever the
learners gave an incorrect answer to a question. While no shocks were given
and the ‘victims’ were pretending to react, some respondents broke down in
the face of pain they believed they were causing.

How research findings may be biassed by the actions and values of the sociologist,
and by choices made in designing and conducting the research

Sociologists have to make certain practical choices. Researchers are influenced by their personal
values and what they consider to be important. These values will also decide whether a researcher
studies the activities of the powerful. Pearce (1998) study of corporate criminality in the chemical
industry - or the relatively powerless. In addition, these choices are influenced by personal views
about danger and difficulty. For example, powerful people tend to value their privacy, so gaining
access to their work may not be easy.

Topic choice is also influenced by funding considerations. Those paying for the research may not only
influence what is studied but also how it is studied.

Methods of research used are influenced by values because they inform a researcher’s beliefs about
how best to achieve reliability an d validity in sociological research. Positivists may prefer to limit
respondent choice by giving them a list of answers from which to choose - perhaps closed questions,
where the answers are easy to quantify. Interpretevists may encourage respondents to answer in their
own words by asking open-ended questions.

Research needs to be funded. The research will have to convince the finding boy that the research is
worthwhile. This is likely to mean that the proposed research fits in with the priorities of the finding
body at that time. Where governments directly or indirectly control the finding bodies, research that
may prove embarrassing or inconvenient to the government or may suggest that its policies are wrong
is unlikely to be funded.

2.3.3 - Important concepts in assessing the value of different research methods

GROVER
G (generalisability) R (Representativeness) O (objectivity) V (validity) E (Ethics) R (reliability)
(I) Validity
(II) Reliability
(III) Objectivity
(IV) Representativeness
(V) Ethics

(I) Validity
The extent to which a research method describes or measures what it claims to describe or measure

● Qualitative methods of research produce higher validity than quantitative methods of

research —> gets closer to the experience and perceptions of those being studied
● Surveys and quantitative research are low in validity —> respondents may give wrong answers
(reasons being such as being pressured, making a good impression on the researcher by giving
a socially approved answer etc) —> findings are invalid (though they may be reliable, as the
same answerss
● Laboratory experiments have low validity —> laboratories are artificial experiments in which
people do not behave as they would in other situations
● Covert participation observation have higher validity —> people are observed acting in real
life

(II) Reliability
Reliability can mean: trustworthy, predictable, dependable, and consistent
Reliability means we have confidence in the accuracy/usefulness of our knowledge
Consistency
The more we test something over and over, and get the same result (consistent), the more we can rely
on the same predictable results.
Context is important for reliability.
(III) Objectivity
Refers to a freedom of bias in a sociological research
Positivists: scientific method - objective and based on empirical factors
Positivist research aims to achieve objectivity by using quantitative data
Adopt scientific methods of studying human behaviour, predictions can be made from the data
collected.
Human behaviour in a subjective manner - people are not predictable

What influence objectivity:

● Sociologist’s values
● Career trajectory
 ● Demons of funding bodies
● Methodological preference (ie, questionnaire)

(IV) Representativeness
(Something positivists usually prefer. )
Does the sampling frame represent the target population?
Factors to consider / making it representative:
● Age range
● Ethnicities
● Genders
● Classes (upper class, middle class, or lower class)
Reflects diversity
Generalisability refers to the fact that the data of our findings can be applied beyond the target
population.
Large representative sample = data that are generalisable

How to evaluate the generalizability and representation of research:

1. Quantitative (more representative, quick to conduct, faster to analyse, larger sample) or
quantitativeness?
2. Sample - size and location of the research
○ CASTLE:
● Class
● Age
● Sex / gender
● Time
● Location
● Ethnicity
○ Size
i. Quantitative: 50 samples is too little
ii. Qualitative: 50 samples is enough because it can be time consuming
○ Availability of suitable participants
3. Sampling method
○ Random
○ Systematic
○ Stratified (most reliable)
○ Snowball (least reliable)
(V) Ethics

Sociology Questions: CA3- Methods of research

2.(a) Explain two reasons why… (8 marks)
- Make a point
- Explain that point
- Give an example using sociological material
- How does this example/material support the point
(repeat for second reason
(b) Explain one strength and one limitation of… (6 marks)
- Identify a strength/limitation
- Why is it considered a strength /limitation (3 reasons each)
5. Evaluate the view that ______ [26 marks]
Introduction - define sociological research
Body- Point + sociologist + relevant concepts
1. Support the view
 2. Against the view

Example Questions
2021
9699/o/n/11
Evaluate the view that sociological research should be based on the methods of natural sciences
9699/o/n/12
Evaluate the use of secondary data in sociological research
https://pastpapers.papacambridge.com/directories/CAIE/CAIE-pastpapers/upload/9699_w21_ms_1
2.pdf#view=FitH
For Against

Quantitative forms Quantitative forms

● Cost/time effective.
● Access to information from the past.
● Sometimes the only available source of
data in a particular area.
● Adds depth and support to primary
data.
● In the case of official statistics they are
often comprehensive and therefore
more likely to be representative.
● Can be used to examine trends over
time – historical.
● Can be used as a source of investigation,
e.g. content analysis.
● Theoretical angle
Qualitative forms
● Authentic accounts providing detailed
in depth material
● High in validity
● Survey design is not by researcher
Concepts used not operationalised by
the researcher, e.g. poverty.
● Researchers have to decide what the
data means.
● Official statistics may be prone to
government manipulation, especially in
areas such as crime or employment.
● Partial picture because they only
provided data on recorded events, i.e.
they don’t show unrecorded crime.
● Interpretivist critique of validity – don’t
reveal much of the reasons why
behaviour takes place
● General point: as compared to primary
data, research based on secondary
sources may assessed from a range of
angles Qualitative forms
● Positivist critique: unreliable,
unrepresentative
● Highly subjective

Revision Post Mocks

Key terms
● Primary data
● Secondary data
● Quantitative data
● Qualitative nada
● Objectivity
● Subjectivity
● Reliability
● Bias
● Ethical
● Research
● Hypothesis
● Sampling
 ● Sampling frame
● Pilot study
● Operationalisation
● Case study
● Ethnography
● Longitudinal studies
● Triangulation
● Methodological pluralism

Types of data, methods and research

Quantitative
Primary or or
Type of Data General Description Secondary Data Qualitative Strengths Weaknesses

1. Ability to contact large numbers of

people quickly and efficiently.
1. Difficulty in examining complex issues.
2. Limited depth of answers. 3. Uncertainty
2. Quick and easy to create, code, and
Research method Quantitative about respondent comprehension. 4.
interpret.
Questionnaires consisting of a list of Primary and Interpretation depends on uniform
written questions Qualitative understanding of questions. 5. Low response
3. Standardisation ensures reliability.
rates may lead to unrepresentative samples.
6. Self-selecting samples may skew results.
4. Can explore potentially embarrassing
topics.

1. Potential bias due to lack of anonymity.

Set of standard
questions asked by the 1. Potential reliability through researcher 2. Respondents may alter responses to please
Structured
researcher, similar to a Primary Qualitative intervention. 2. 100% response rate. 3. the interviewer.
Interviews
questionnaire, delivered Standardization ensures consistency.
by the researcher 3. Bias introduced by interviewer's
characteristics.

1. Vulnerable to interviewer influence. 2. Lack

Encourages
1. Allows detailed expression of beliefs. 2. of control over conversation direction. 3.
Unstructured respondents to freely
Primary Qualitative Avoids researcher bias. 3. Establishes Time-consuming data analysis. 4. Subject to
Interviews express thoughts and
rapport for in-depth exploration. bias from respondent desire to please
feelings
interviewer.

Combines strengths of 1. Allows for flexibility and spontaneity. 1. Requires skilled interviewer. 2.
Semi-Structured Quantitative
structured and Primary 2. Enables discovery of new insights. 3. Time-consuming data analysis. 3. Lack of
Interviews / Qualitative
unstructured interviews Facilitates in-depth understanding. standardization may complicate analysis.

1. Risk of unrepresentative samples if

Involves respondents 1. Controlled discussion pace and
members are absent. 2. Vulnerable to
Group Interviews gathering to discuss Primary Qualitative direction. 2. Reflects natural sharing of
interviewer effect. 3. Potential for group
pre-set topics ideas. 3. Realistic interactions.
consensus to overshadow individual opinions.

Conducted in controlled 1. Findings may not apply to real-world

1. Precise control over variables. 2.
Lab Experiments environments to test Primary Quantitative scenarios. 2. Ethical concerns about
Reduced influence of outside factors.
hypotheses participant awareness.
 1. Time and resource-intensive. 2. Subjective
interpretation by researchers. 3. Dependence
Analyses media content Quantitative 1. Identifies hidden themes and patterns.
on coding schemes. 4. Need for validity and
Content Analysis to discover underlying Primary and 2. Can be used with large datasets. 3.
reliability checks.
themes and patterns Qualitative Provides insights into media portrayal.

Methods of research

General description Primary or Quantitative Strengths Weakness

Secondary data? or
Qualitative?

Overt observation

Covert
observation

Participant
observation

Non-participant
observation

Official statistics

Personal
documents (ie,
diary)