P RO C E E DI N G S OF T H E X I

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS
OF EGYPTOLOGISTS
F l o r e n c e , I t a l y 23 - 30 A u g u s t 2 0 1 5
MUSEO EGIZIO FIRENZE
Florence Egyptian Museum
fields.

edited by
Gloria Rosati and Maria Cristina Guidotti

Archaeopress Egyptology 19
CAMNES
Center for Ancient Mediterranean
and Near Eastern Studies
Proceedings of the XI International
Congress of Egyptologists

Florence Egyptian Museum

Florence, 23-30 August 2015

edited by

Gloria Rosati and Maria Cristina Guidotti

Archaeopress Egyptology 19
 Archaeopress Publishing Ltd
Gordon House
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 Contents

XI International Congress of Egyptologists ......................................................................................................................... x

Preface .............................................................................................................................................................................. xiii

Papers
Development of Old Kingdom pottery: three cases studies (‘Cemetery of the Workers’, Heit el-Ghurab
and the Khentkawes Town)...................................................................................................................................................1
Sherif M. Abdelmoniem
Of Min and moon – cosmological concepts in the Temple of Athribis (Upper Egypt) .........................................................7
Victoria Altmann-Wendling
Les relations entre l’horloge stellaire diagonale et le corpus des Textes des Sarcophages
dans le sarcophage intérieur de Mésehti : le temps et les décans .....................................................................................14
Bernard Arquier
The Qubbet el-Hawa casting moulds – Late Period bronze working at the First Cataract ................................................19
Johannes Auenmüller
Overlapping and contradictory narratives in Ancient Egyptian visual programs ............................................................26
Jennifer Miyuki Babcock
Sāmānu as a human disease in Mesopotamia and Egypt ...................................................................................................29
Susanne Beck
The pyramid as a journey – cultic encounters between father and son in the Pyramid of Pepy I ....................................35
Nils Billing
The Ancient Egyptian dialects in light of the Greek transcriptions of Egyptian anthroponyms ......................................41
Ana Isabel Blasco Torres
Dalla sabbia alla teca: esempi di interventi conservativi eseguiti su alcuni papiri del Museo Egizio di Firenze.............46
Paola Boffula Alimeni
New evidence on the king’s son Intefmose from Dra Abu el-Naga: a preliminary report .................................................53
Francisco L. Borrego Gallardo
The Merenptah Sarcophagi restoration project.................................................................................................................59
Edwin C. Brock and Lyla Pinch Brock
Egyptian names and networks in Trismegistos (800 BC – AD 800).......................................................................................64
Yanne Broux
The Ptolemaic dedication of Archepolis in the Bibliotheca Alexandrina: materiality and text .......................................69
Patricia A. Butz
Bernard V. Bothmer and Ptolemaic sculpture: papers on Ptolemaic art from his archives held at the
Università degli Studi di Milano .........................................................................................................................................75
Giorgia Cafici
The Tell el-Maskhuta Project .............................................................................................................................................81
Giuseppina Capriotti Vittozzi and Andrea Angelini
Silence in the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant: themes and problems ......................................................................................87
Ilaria Cariddi
Progetto Butehamon. Prospettive e ricerche nella necropoli tebana ................................................................................92
Giacomo Cavillier
Notes on the inscribed Old and Middle Kingdom coffins in the Egyptian Turin Museum .............................................. 103
Emanuele M. Ciampini

i
Rethinking Egyptian animal worship (c. 3000 BC – c. 300 AD): towards a historical-religious perspective.................... 107
Angelo Colonna
Before and after the Temple: the long-lived necropolis in the area of the Temple of Millions of Years
of Amenhotep II – Western Thebes ...................................................................................................................................112
Anna Consonni, Tommaso Quirino and Angelo Sesana
Papyri with the Ritual of the Opening of the Mouth in the Egyptian Museum in Turin ................................................. 120
Federico Contardi
Notes for a building history of the temple of Ramesses II at Antinoe. The architectural investigation ......................... 124
Michele Coppola
Animal mummies in South African collections ................................................................................................................ 131
Izak Cornelius, Salima Ikram, Ruhan Slabbert, Liani C. Swanepoel, Frank Teichert and Tiffany van Zyl
Nouvelle lecture d’une scène de la théogamie d’Hatshepsout ......................................................................................... 137
Alice Coyette
Worship and places of worship in the Greco-Roman town at Marina El-Alamein........................................................... 140
Grażyna Bąkowska-Czerner and Rafał Czerner
Middle Kingdom coffin of Khnum from the National Museum of Warsaw ...................................................................... 148
Dorota Czerwik
Non-destructive analysis on 11 Egyptian blue faience tiles from the 2nd and 3rd Dynasties ........................................ 154
Joseph Davidovits and Frédéric Davidovits
Scenes from the Amduat on the funerary coffins and sarcophagi of the 21st Dynasty.................................................. 159
Cássio de Araújo Duarte
Votive pottery deposits found by the Spanish Mission at Dra Abu el-Naga .................................................................... 166
Elena de Gregorio
The building activity of Pinudjem I at Thebes ................................................................................................................. 172
Gabriella Dembitz
The ‘Book of Going Forth by Day’ in the funerary chamber of Djehuty (TT 11): past, present, and future .................... 177
Lucía Díaz-Iglesias Llanos
The pre-Egyptological concept of Egypt as a challenge for Egyptology and the efforts to establish a research
community .......................................................................................................................................................................184
Florian Ebeling
The Gebelein Archaeological Project, 2013–2016 ............................................................................................................. 188
Wojciech Ejsmond
Trois nouvelles harpes découvertes à Thèbes ouest: Quel apport pour l’égyptologie ? .................................................. 192
Sibylle Emerit
The ‘pantheistic’ deities. Report from research on iconography and role of polymorphic deities ................................ 198
Grzegorz First
Études sur le cadre de vie d’une association religieuse dans l’Égypte gréco-romaine : l’exemple de Touna el-Gebel ... 203
Mélanie C. Flossmann-Schütze
Forme di imitazione egizia nella decorazione architettonica di Nea Paphos .................................................................. 209
Leonardo Fuduli
Ahmose-Sapair in Dra Abu el-Naga: old and new evidence ............................................................................................. 215
José M. Galán
The Moon god Iah in ancient Egyptian religion ............................................................................................................... 222
Gudelia García-Fernández
Expression of loyalty to the king – A socio-cultural analysis of basilophoric personal names dating to the Old and
Middle Kingdoms .............................................................................................................................................................228
Christina Geisen

ii
Love and gold in cross-cultural discourse in the Amarna letters .................................................................................... 233
Graciela Gestoso Singer
Some unpublished inscriptions from Quarry P at Hatnub ............................................................................................... 237
Yannis Gourdon and Roland Enmarch
Names of eye parts in different text genres: a contribution to technical language in ancient Egypt............................. 242
Nadine Gräßler
The transformation of Theban Tomb 39 (TT39). A contribution from a conservation viewpoint in terms
of its history after dynastic occupation .......................................................................................................................... 247
Dulce María Grimaldi and Patricia Meehan
The complete corpus of viticulture and winemaking scenes from the ancient Egyptian private tombs ........................ 254
Maria Rosa Guasch-Jané, Sofia Fonseca and Mahmoud Ibrahim
Des étoiles et des hommes : peurs, désirs, offrandes et prières ...................................................................................... 260
Nadine Guilhou
Cracking a code: deciphering the marks of the royal necropolis workmen of the New Kingdom .................................. 266
Ben Haring
The Egyptian Dionysus: Osiris and the development of theater in Ancient Egypt .......................................................... 271
Allison Hedges
The Abydos Dynasty: an osteoarchaeological examination of human remains from the SIP royal cemetery ................ 276
Jane A. Hill, Maria A. Rosado and Joseph Wegner
You up – I down: orientational metaphors concerning ancient Egyptian Kingship in royal iconography
and inscriptions ................................................................................................................................................................283
Shih-Wei Hsu
Image processing. Elaboration and manipulation of the human figure in the Pyramid Texts................................................ 287
Francesca Iannarilli
Hieroglyphic inscriptions on precious objects: some notes on the correlation between text and support .................... 291
Agnese Iob
Predynastic precursors to the Festival of Drunkenness: beer, climate change, cow-goddesses, and the ideology of
kingship ............................................................................................................................................................................296
Victoria Jensen
Crowdsourcing in Egyptology – images and annotations of Middle Kingdom private tombs ........................................... 303
Peter Kalchgruber and Lubica Hudáková
‘To build a temple in the beautiful white stone of Anu’. The use of Tura limestone in Theban architecture ........................ 308
Christina Karlshausen and Thierry De Putter
The motif of the kiosk during the first half of the 18th dynasty ..................................................................................... 313
Edyta Kopp
A heritage in peril: the threat to Egypt’s urban archaeological sites .............................................................................. 318
Peter Lacovara
Le sḏm.f circonstanciel. Une forme verbale rare en néo-égyptien littéraire ................................................................... 320
Vincent Pierre-Michel Laisney
Amduat type papyri in the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow ....................................................................... 325
Nika Lavrentyeva
Carving out identities in the Egyptian desert: self-presentation styles adopted by the ancient
travelers of Kharga Oasis ..................................................................................................................................................328
Nikolaos Lazaridis
Ya-t-il une « fabrique d’albâtre » et un atelier de tissage au Ramesseum ? .................................................................... 333
Guy Lecuyot

iii
Deux nouvelles ‘Recommandations aux prêtresʼ datées de Ptolémée X Alexandre Ier .................................................... 339
Nicolas Leroux
Scenes representing temple rituals on some 21st Dynasty coffins .................................................................................. 345
Éva Liptay
Building B, a domestic construction at Tell el-Ghaba, North Sinai ................................................................................. 351
Silvia Lupo, Eduardo Crivelli Montero, Claudia Kohen and Eva Calomino
The Montecelio Obelisk in Rome ......................................................................................................................................357
Lise Manniche
The role of e-learning in Egyptology: ‘Hieroglyphs: Step-by-Step’ website as a case study............................................ 362
Ahmed Mansour and Azza Ezzat
The function and importance of some special categories of stars in the Ancient Egyptian funerary texts,
1: AxAx- and iAd-stars .........................................................................................................................................................368
Alicia Maravelia
Chapel of the tomb belonging to Amenhotep III’s Vizier, Amenhotep Huy. Asasif Tomb No. 28, Luxor-West Bank.
Excavation results: ‘Vizier Amenhotep Huy Project’ (2009–2014) .................................................................................. 377
Francisco J. Martín-Valentín and Teresa Bedman
Objets découverts dans des tombes thébaines situées sous le Temple de Millions d’Années de Thoutmosis III
à l’ouest de Louxor ............................................................................................................................................................384
Javier Martínez Babón
Fish offerings found in Area 32 of the archaeological site of Oxyrhynchus (El-Bahnasa, Egypt).................................... 389
Maite Mascort Roca and Esther Pons Mellado
The Akh-menu of Thutmosis III at Karnak. The Sokarian Rooms ..................................................................................... 394
Julie Masquelier-Loorius
The 13th Dynasty at Abydos: a royal tomb and its context .............................................................................................. 399
Dawn McCormack
The transmission of the Book of the Twelve Caverns .......................................................................................................... 405
Daniel M. Méndez Rodríguez
A new reading of Problem No. 53 in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus. The limits of proportionality .......................... 410
Marianne Michel
The ang-morphs in Coptic and their grammaticalization in Later Egyptian .................................................................. 416
So Miyagawa
‘Augmented Reality’ technology and the dissemination of historical graffiti in the Temple of Debod .......................... 422
Miguel Ángel Molinero Polo, Alfonso Martín Flores, Jorge Martín Gutiérrez, Cristóbal Ruiz Medina,
Lucía Díaz-Iglesias Llanos, Fernando Guerra-Librero Fernández, Daniel Miguel Méndez Rodríguez,
Luis Navarrete Ruiz, Manuel Rivas Fernández and Ovidia Soto Martín
The Min Project. First working seasons on the unpublished Tomb of Min (TT109) and Tomb Kampp -327-:
the Tomb of May and a replica of the Tomb of Osiris ...................................................................................................... 427
Irene Morfini and Milagros Álvarez Sosa
Figurative vase painting from the First Intermediate Period through to the Fatimid Dynasty: a continuity? .............. 433
Maya Müller
Basic considerations on the construction of pyramids in the Old Kingdom ................................................................... 437
Frank Müller-Römer
Die Verwendung von Münzen in pharaonischer Zeit ....................................................................................................... 441
Renate Müller-Wollermann
In the footsteps of Ricardo Caminos: rediscovering the ‘Speos of Gebel el Silsila’.......................................................... 445
Maria Nilsson and Philippe Martinez
The folding cubit rod of Kha in Museo Egizio di Torino, S.8391 ...................................................................................... 450
Naoko Nishimoto

iv
The mystery of the ‘high place’ from the Abbott Papyrus revealed? The results of the works of the
Polish Cliff Mission at Deir el-Bahari 1999–2014.............................................................................................................. 457
Andrzej Niwiński
The mummies of the ‘Three Sisters’ in the Museo Egizio: a case study. Conservation and studies of textiles and
bandages ...........................................................................................................................................................................462
Cinzia Oliva and Matilde Borla
Technical aspects of faience from Hierakonpolis, Egypt – a preliminary report ........................................................... 468
Marina Panagiotaki, Elizabeth Walters, Yannis Maniatis and Anna Tsoupra
Horus Seneferou ka-s : quand le dernier souverain de la Ire dynastie devint la première femme pharaon de
l’Histoire à porter un nom d’Horus ..................................................................................................................................472
Jean-Pierre Pätznick
The Herakleopolis Magna Project: seasons 2012–2015..................................................................................................... 480
M. Carmen Pérez-Die
The Stelae Ridge cairns: a reassessment of the archaeological evidence ........................................................................ 485
Hannah Pethen
The Italian-Egyptian Mission at the Monastery of Abba Nefer at Manqabad: results of the first four
seasons’ work ....................................................................................................................................................................491
Rosanna Pirelli, Ilaria Incordino, Paola Buzi and Anna Salsano
Wedjat-eyes as a dating criterion for false doors and stelae to the early Middle Kingdom.............................................. 499
Melanie Pitkin
La collection égyptienne du Musée Sandelin à Saint-Omer (France) ............................................................................... 506
Jean-Louis Podvin
Some remarks on the Egyptian reception of foreign military technology during the 18th Dynasty:
a brief survey of the armour.............................................................................................................................................513
Alberto Maria Pollastrini
Medical re-enactments: Ancient Egyptian prescriptions from an emic viewpoint ......................................................... 519
Tanja Pommerening
Textual layers in Coffin Texts spells 154–160 .................................................................................................................... 527
Gyula Priskin
The cat mummies of the Società Africana d’Italia: an archaeological, cultural and religious perspective ...................... 532
Maria Diletta Pubblico
Khnum the Creator: a puzzling case of the transfer of an iconographic motif ............................................................... 538
Maarten J. Raven
Temple ranks in the Fayyum during the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods: documentary sources and
archaeological data ...........................................................................................................................................................543
Ilaria Rossetti
Le musée de Mallawi: état des lieux après les destructions et projets pour l’avenir ...................................................... 549
Ashraf Alexandre Sadek
A new light on Coptic afterlife (O.4550 from the Coptic Museum in Cairo) ..................................................................... 553
Hind Salah El-Din Somida Awad
The lost chapels of Elephantine. Preliminary results of a reconstruction study through archival documents ............. 556
Daniele Salvoldi and Simon Delvaux
Doors to the past. Rediscovering fragments in the new blockyard at Medinet Habu ..................................................... 563
Julia Schmied
Les dépôts de fondation de la Vallée des Rois : nouvelles perspectives de recherche sur l’histoire de la nécropole
royale du Nouvel Empire ..................................................................................................................................................568
François C. A. Schmitt

v
Economic mentalities and Ancient Egyptian legal documents ........................................................................................576
Alexander Schütze
Excavations in the ‘Temple of Millions of Years’ of Thutmosis III ................................................................................... 581
Myriam Seco Álvarez
Rituels funéraires au temps de Hatchepsout : le sanctuaire de la tombe de Djehouty et ses parallèles ........................ 587
José M. Serrano
The so-called Book of Two Ways on a Middle Kingdom religious leather roll ................................................................... 594
Wael Sherbiny
Ibyc. PMGF 287 and Ancient Egyptian love songs ............................................................................................................. 597
Anna Sofia
The Physiologus in Egypt ....................................................................................................................................................603
Marco Stroppa
A survey of astronomical tables on Middle Kingdom coffin lids ..................................................................................... 608
Sarah L. Symons
Blue painted pottery from a mid-18th Dynasty royal mud-brick structure in northwest Saqqara ................................ 613
Kazumitsu Takahashi
Studies on BD 17 vignettes: iconographic typology of Rw.tj-scene (New Kingdom – Third Intermediate Period).......... 619
Mykola Tarasenko
Were components of Amarna composite statues made in separate workshops? ............................................................ 626
Kristin Thompson
Research on Old Kingdom ‘dissimilation graphique’. World-view and categorization ................................................... 633
Simon Thuault
La funzione del tempio tolemaico di Deir el-Medina alla luce dell’archeologia .............................................................. 638
Claudia Tirel Cena
The ‘geography’ of the hierogrammateis: the religious topography of the Western Harpoon
(7th Nome of Lower Egypt) ...............................................................................................................................................644
Elena Tiribilli
The Ancient Egyptian shabtis discovered in the regions of Roman Illyricum (Dalmatia, Pannonia) and Istria:
provenance, collections, typological study and dating .................................................................................................... 650
Mladen Tomorad
From Egypt to the Holy Land: first issues on the Egyptian collection in the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum,
Jerusalem ..........................................................................................................................................................................656
Benedetta Torrini
Tradition and innovation within the decoration program of the temple of Ramesses II at Gerf Hussein ...................... 661
Martina Ullmann
The Egyptian Execration Statuettes (EES) Project ............................................................................................................ 667
Athena Van der Perre
A new long-term digital project on Hieratic and cursive hieroglyphs ............................................................................ 671
Ursula Verhoeven and Svenja A. Gülden
Hierakonpolis Faience, 2005–2013, with context and accompanying finds – a quest for chronology
and possible use ................................................................................................................................................................676
Elizabeth J. Walters, Amr El Gohary, Shelton S. Alexander, Richard R. Parizek, David P. Gold, Recep Cakir,
Marina Panagiotaki, Yannis Maniatis and Anna Tsoupra
The Berlin Plans from the New Kingdom Period.............................................................................................................. 680
Yoshifumi Yasuoka
The career of Nakhtmin (TT 87) as revealed by his funerary cones ................................................................................ 686
Kento Zenihiro

vi
Object biographies and political expectations: Egyptian artefacts, Welsh Heritage and the regional community
museum .............................................................................................................................................................................693
Katharina Zinn
Who am I - and if so, how many? Some remarks on the ‘j-augment’ and language change ............................................ 701
Monika Zöller-Engelhardt

Poster presentations
Vocabulaire de l’Égyptien Ancien (VÉgA). Plateforme numérique de recherche lexicographique ................................. 709
A. Almásy, Ch. Cassier, J. Chun-Hung-Kee, F. Contardi, M. Massiera, A. Nespoulous-Phalippou and Fr. Rouffet
Pottery from the early Roman rubbish dumps in Berenike harbour............................................................................... 711
Agnieszka Dzwonek
A sequence of five 13th Dynasty structures at Memphis ................................................................................................. 714
Rabee Eissa
Funerary culture of the Memphite region during the Early Dynastic Period ................................................................. 717
Barbora Janulíková
3D-Reconstructions of Late Roman fortresses in Egypt ................................................................................................... 718
Dmitry Karelin, Maria Karelina and Tatiana Zhitpeleva
The Roman Imperial cult temple at Luxor: its architecture and possible connection between Roman and Egyptian
cultures .............................................................................................................................................................................720
Irina Kulikova and Dmitry Karelin
One of the earliest discovered houses at Memphis .......................................................................................................... 722
Hanan Mahmoud Mohamed
Reden und Rufe, are they kingly patterns? A first step towards an explanation of the origin(s) of speech captions
in ‘daily life’ scenes in private tombs ...............................................................................................................................724
Aurore Motte
Étude pluridisciplinaire de têtes de momies (Lyon)......................................................................................................... 725
Annie Perraud, Matthieu Ménager, Pascale Richardin and Catherine Vieillescazes
Progetto Osiris: valorizzazione delle piccole collezioni egizie ........................................................................................ 727
Massimiliana Pozzi Battaglia e Federica Scatena
Study and restoration of two mummies from the Moulins Museum ............................................................................... 729
Noëlle Timbart

List of papers presented at ICE XI.....................................................................................................................................731

Massimiliano Franci

vii
 Some remarks on the Egyptian reception of foreign military technology
during the 18th Dynasty: a brief survey of the armour

Alberto Maria Pollastrini

École Pratique des Hautes Études, Paris

Abstract
The war against Hyksos and the following offensive in the Syro-Palestinian area, during the Early New Kingdom, increased the Egyptian process
of acquiring new military technologies, which substantially changed the way of fighting and the structure of the Pharaonic army. During that
period of crucial innovations, bronze helms and coats were introduced into Egyptian warfare, in addition to the two-wheeled horse-drawn
war chariot, the composite bow and new types of daggers and swords. Armour was able to combine an effective defence with a high intrinsic
value, making these items relatively rare and affordable to very few. Omitting the more technical aspects, in the light of iconographical, textual
and archaeological evidence, I hereby propose some hypotheses about the introduction of armour to 18th Dynasty Egypt, its different ways of
circulation, and its reception, as ‘foreign exotic products’, in Egyptian culture.
Keywords
Late Bronze Age; 18th Dynasty; hoplology; armour; military technology

ʻ[...] En effet, les armes sont pourvues des spécificités qui dépassent le simple aspect fonctionnel: elles comportent,
entre autres, des valeurs de pouvoir, de virilité et de prestige. Elle sont par exellence les caractérisations matérielles des
conceptions idéologiques, techniques et artistiquesʼ
(Gernez 2007: 119)

On the occasion of the opening of the Musée Charles X in
1827, the most important French artists of that time were
hired by the state to decorate the ceilings of the new museum.
François-Edouard Picot worked on the ceiling of the 4th room
(now Room XXX of the Louvre’s Department of Egyptian
Antiquities): he painted an allegory, entitled L’Étude et la Génie
dévoilent l’antique Égypte à la Gréce, in which the Egyptian
civilization is exalted as being more ancient than the Greek
(Guichard 2013: 21–2, 52–5, fig. 16, 25). In the foreground,
at the foot of the throne, upon which sits a feminine figure
personifying Ancient Egypt, Picot depicted a selection of
items considered to be representative of Egyptian culture:
some of them were directly copied from archaeological finds
kept in the museum, others from plates of Description de
l’Égypte. The artist chose to include among them a helm and
dagger, probably inspired by Plate 88 of Description de l’ Égypte,
Antiquités, Vol. II, dedicated to the drawings of some offensive
and defensive weapons, painted in the tomb of Ramesses III in
the Valley of the Kings (Hovestreydt 2010: 118–25).
Nowadays the choice of a piece of armour as representing
one of the most iconic items of Ancient Egyptian civilization
would seem bizarre in the light of recent studies that have
acknowledged the foreign origin of armour and its diffusion
in the Near East in the Late Bronze Age, following the success
of chariot warfare, and mainly thanks to Mitannic maryannu
(de Vaux 1967: 428 ; Moorey 2001: 3).
According to Yadin (1963: 15), armour is a combination of personal
protection covering the most vulnerable parts of a warrior’s
body and giving the advantage of letting hands be free to wield
weapons and shields. The head, thorax, abdomen and groin had
all been recognized logically as vital areas of the human body
since Antiquity, and were thus protected with proper covering –
e.g. helms and coats of scales. Armour provided the best answer
to the demand for the protection of charioteers in war (Deszö
2004: 319; Drews 1993: 319; Moorey 2001: 8; Yadin 1963: 84).
Late Bronze Age helms are almost only known through
iconographical evidence, a large part of this being Egyptian
items (Figure 1). They usually had an ovoid or conical skull
section, a slightly pronounced neck-guard, and sometimes
protections for the ears. Leather or bronze skull caps could
be made from a single piece, or built up with scales, and
sometimes be adorned with a plume or a crest.
Body armour was constructed by lacing rows of overlapping
bronze or leather scales to a garment of leather or heavy fabric.
As examples, as well as the corpus of Egyptian iconographical
sources (Figure 2), we can refer to the many archaeological
discoveries from Egypt, the Near East and the Aegean.
The manufacture of armour is outside the scope of this
contribution – for the more technical aspects, see De Backer
(2011: 64–104), Hulit (2002: 102–34) and Ventzke (1983: 94–
100, 149–50) for body armour, and Kendall (1981: 201–3) for
helmets – but I will analyze, below, the dynamics that led to
its introduction and diffusion in Egypt.
Armour as an ideological theme and ethnic stereotype
The oldest known iconographical evidence is represented by
two fragments from a lost battle relief, probably carved on the
interior of the north wall of the court of the mortuary temple
of Thutmose II, near Deir el-Medina (Bruyère 1952: 40–1, pl.
III/6, pl. IV/1; Schulman 1988: 71, n. 27; Spalinger 2005: 60, n.
3.1a and b). The scene, perhaps completed during the reign of
Thutmose III, is one of the most ancient Egyptian depictions
of a clash of war chariots. It is plausible to suppose that the
relief had been commissioned to commemorate a victory of
Thutmose II over Asiatic foes, perhaps during the campaign
against the Mitannians along the Euphrates (Breasted 1906:
51; Naville 1898: 17, pl. 80; Sethe 1896: 40), or on the occasion
of the punitive expedition against the Shasu raiders in
southern Palestine (Giveon 1971: 9–10; Morris 2005: 33; Sethe
1906: 36, 13–4).
One of the two fragments clearly shows the death of a bearded
Asiatic warrior; a small part of a helmet, apparently belonging
to him, is also visible. The other fragment shows an Asiatic

ICE XI (2017): 513–518 513

Alberto Maria Pollastrini
figure 1: synoptic table i: types of helmets during 18th dynasty.
warrior, defeated and wounded by an arrow; again, a fragment
of a helmet can be seen near the back of an escaping warrior
who carries a quiver.1 Neither helmet is worn, but both are part
of the debris left on the battlefield by the defeated Asiatics.
From the 18 Dynasty, details of lost helmets on the field
became a topos within the canon of royal battle scenes – in
addition to a range of propagandistic iconographical themes
– intended to represent the unconditional surrender of foes,
as well as the complete defencelessness of foreigners in
the face of Egyptian military power (Morenz 2007: 106–7).
The decoration of the wooden panels of the war chariot of
Thutmose IV is the most evident testimony of this ideological
aspect (Carter, Newberry 1904: 26–32). On the right panel
(Wreszinski 1935: pl. 1), the Pharaoh is shown with the god
Montu, shooting arrows from his chariot into a group of
maryannu. In the tangle of fleeing Asiatic war chariots, three
armoured warriors are clearly recognizable; one of these,
still in control of his chariot, despite being wounded by an
arrow, is also wearing a scale helmet and an armoured throat-
1
I suggest the reconstruction of the two helmets in the Synoptic
Table I: Types of Helmets during 18th Dynasty.
International Congress of Egyptologists XI
piece. Furthermore, among the debris of the
battlefield, three helmets are lying on the
ground.
On the left panel (Wreszinski 1935: pl. 2),
Thutmose IV, standing on his chariot, is shown
in the act of striking two Asiatic warriors
with a type of piercing axe that was effective
against armoured enemies and in common
use in the 18th Dynasty (Davies 1987: 43–6, pl.
18–23; Yadin 1963: 12). Again, the foes are seen
confusedly retreating in front of the Pharaoh:
two of these, one on a chariot and one fallen
on the field, are wearing helmets and the
ground is strewn with abandoned weapons:
daggers, shields, quivers and four helmets.
A further iconographical detail of an
abandoned helmet was once to be seen in
another, lost, Asiatic battle relief. According
to the reconstruction suggested by Johnson
(2009/2010: 28), the scene could represent
Tutankhamun and the Egyptian army storming
a Syrian fortress. It was probably part of the
decoration of a memorial building in Karnak
for the deceased young king, completed by
Ay and then demolished (Gabolde 2014/2015:
28; Gabolde 2015: 409–25); subsequently the
dismembered blocks were reused in Luxor,
Karnak and Medamud (Dodson 2009: 67–8). In
particular, two fragments, from the fill of the
First Pylon of Karnak Temple, ATP F 836–8 and
ATP F 882–1 (Redford 1988: 19; Schulman 1988:
62–3, tav. 14,1, fig. 17), show two discarded,
plumed helmets on the ground, once more
associated with the corpses of defeated Asiatic
warriors.
Armour as booty
War was an opportunity for the Egyptians to
discover the development of armour, and moreover, during
the early 18th Dynasty, it was also a primary source of weapon
supply, by means of the collection of enemy spoils on the
battlefield (Morkot 2007: 173). This booty was seen not only
as a source of profit, but also, according to Liverani, as an
aspect of the ideology related to royal propagandistic texts:
the antagonist who dares to oppose in arms the Pharaoh will
be defeated, becoming ‘un’entità passiva da saccheggiare o
devastare’ (1994: 208–9).
Some lists of booty appear in the ‘Annals’ of Thutmose III
(Sethe 1907: 647–756) and on two stelae (one from Gebel
Barkal (Reisner 1931: 80, (2); Reisner and Reisner 1933: 32)
and that of Amunhotep II from Karnak (Porter and Moss 1972:
89; Legrain 1903: 126–131). These all relate to the records
of victorious campaigns, and represent the first written
evidence of coats of scales and helmets.
To properly define this innovative defensive equipment, the
Egyptians had to introduce two new expressions into their
vocabulary: Hsmn mss n aHA (Decker 1982:
665–6; Erman and Grapow 1971a: 149, 7), ʻcombat bronze
garmentʼ, a paraphrase of coat of scales and
514
 Some remarks on the Egyptian reception of foreign military technology

Later, in Year 35 of his reign, Thutmose III

and the Egyptian army captured another
haul of armour from the battlefield, after
a clash against a coalition of Mitanni
vassals, next to the still-unknown Syrian
town of Arana (Grandet 2008: 106):

The booty of Thutmose III (Sethe 1907:

711, 7–8)

[Hsmn mss n] aHA 2

Hsmn dbn [n DADA] […]

ʻbronze combat garment 2;

bronze helmet for the head [...]ʼ.

Egyptian army booty (Sethe 1907: 711,

16–712, 1)

Hsmn mss n aHA [...]

Hsmn dbn n DADA 5

ʻbronze combat garment [...];

bronze helmet for the head 5ʼ.
figure 2: synoptic table ii: types of body armours during 18th
The last known reference to plundered
dynasty.
armour comes from the Amunhotep II
Hsmn dbn n tp (Erman and Grapow 1971b: 438, 1), a ʻbronze stele from Karnak, reporting the memory of a rearguard
helmet (or covering?) for the headʼ. battle, fought during the crossing of the Orontes in Year 7 of
his reign:
The text of the ‘Annals’ records that Thutmose III, after the
battle of Megiddo in Year 23 of his reign, took more than 200
(Helck 1955: 1311, 16)
items of scale armour as plunder:
mss n aHA, ʻcombat garmentʼ.

Armour as tribute or gifts

According to the ‘Annals’ of Thutmose III, starting from the

campaign in Year 33 until the last recorded year (42), the
(Sethe 1907: 664, 3–5) Pharaoh was honoured with a huge array of foreign gifts and
tributes (Redford 2006: 334). From Year 38, gifts of armour
Hsmn mss nfr n aHA n xfty pf 1 were included among the annual inw coming from Retenu.
Hsmn mss nfr n aHA n wr n Mk[ti 1] Scholars have long investigated the meaning of the term
[...] mss n aHA n mSa=f Xs 200 inw, giving interpretations that range from ʻgiftʼ to ʻtributeʼ,
depending on the ideological justification (Panagiotopoulos
‘Superior quality combat bronze garment, belonging to that 2006: 372–3). It is unnecessary to go deeply into the debate
enemy [the prince of Qadesh] 1; here, but I embrace the concept expressed by Liverani (1994:
superior quality combat bronze garment, belonging to the 220–2), who considers both the terms ʻgiftʼ and ʻtributeʼ as
chief of Megiddo 1; misleading, when used on the basis of modern knowledge
combat […] garment belonging to his ruined army 200’. concerning links between Egypt and the producing countries.
It is probable, instead, that inw had a more neutral meaning,
This remarkable trophy is also recorded, more briefly, on the
and was used, with propagandistic effect, to encompass
Gebel Barkal stele:
tributes as well as traded goods.

(Helck 1955: 1235, 9) We may suppose that during the Thutmoside period the
Syrian area was an important hub for the supply of armour.
mss.w=sn nb(.w) n aHA According to the ‘Annals’, such equipment was included only
among the inw coming from Retenu:
ʻAll their combat garmentsʼ.

International Congress of Egyptologists XI 515

Alberto Maria Pollastrini
Tribute for Year 38
(Sethe 1907: 718, 17)
[Hsmn mss n aHA 4]1, ʻ[bronze combat garment 4] 1ʼ.
Tribute for Year 41
(Sethe 1907: 726, 17)
Hsmn [mss n aHA], ʻbronze [combat garment]ʼ.
Tribute for Year 42
(Sethe 1907: 732, 1)
Hsmn mss n aHA, ʻbronze combat garmentʼ.
During the same period, representations of the ceremony
of inw offerings, on the occasion of the New Year Festival,
became popular in the tombs of high officials (Aldred 1970:
105; Morkot 2007: 174). There are five scenes that include
helmets and coats of scale armour among the foreign goods,
all grouped in the Sheikh Abd el-Qurna necropolis.2 Syrians
bringing helmets are depicted in the tomb Menkheperrasoneb
(TT86), dating to the reign of Thutmose III (de Garis Davies and
de Garis Davies 1933: 8, [63], 9, [80], pl. VII) and in the tomb
of Amenmose (TT42), dating to the reigns of Thutmose III and
Amunhotep II (de Garis Davies and de Garis Davies 1933:29,
[116], [136], pl. XXXIV, XXXV). In the tombs of Rekhmire (TT
100), Qenamun (TT 93) and Sennufer (TT 96), the inw are
shown methodically arranged in front of the Pharaoh, seated
under a canopy.
In TT100 (de Garis Davies 1943: 36–38, [19], pl. XXXVII), which
dates to the end of the reign of Thutmose III and the beginning
of the reign of Amunhotep II, ten helmets, represented on
small tables, are painted in yellow – presumably to depict
bronze. In TT93 (de Garis Davies 1930: 31, [114], pl. XXII),
dating to the reign of Amunhotep II, eight helmets and two
coats of scale armour, with collars for neck protection, are
depicted. In TT96 (de Garis Davies 1928: 49, fig. 6), dating to
the reign of Amunhotep II, five helmets are represented on
a small table.
Referring to a clay tablet (EA22) from Tell el-Amarna (Aruz,
Benzel and Evans 2008: 159; Moran 1987: 123–36), we have an
actual reference to armour offered as gifts. The ‘Akkadian’
text describes the list of gifts sent to Egypt by the Mitanni
king Tushratta to celebrate the marriage of his daughter,
Tadukhipa, to Amunhotep III. These gifts include a bronze
cuirass, a bronze helmet, a leather cuirass, a bronze helmet for
a sarku-soldier, items of protection for horses, reinforced with
bronze rings, and two bronze head-protectors for horses.3
2
Most probably, the tomb of Min (TT 109) should be added to this
group. A relief on the south-west wall of the tomb might show eight
helmets (see Morfini, I. and Álvarez Sosa, M.: Min Project. The first
seasons’ work on the unpublished Tomb of Min (TT109) and Kampp
Tomb 327: the Tomb of May and a replica of the Tomb of Osiris in
these Proceedings).
3
Although there is no proof, I wonder if the relics of ten bronze
scales found during excavations in the Amunhotep III palace of
Malqata (Winlock 1947: 162–3) could be part of this largesse.
International Congress of Egyptologists XI
The diffusion of armour among Egyptian soldiers and
foreign mercenaries in Egyptian service
The constant influx of armour, through plunder, inw, and
exchanges of gifts, led during the late 18th Dynasty, to its
gradual diffusion into the Egyptian army, according to the
iconographical evidence.
Fragment M. 4487 (Bisson de la Roque 1930: 43–4, fig. 36;
Cottevieille-Giraudet 1936: 19, 55, fig. 86), found at Medamud,
but belonging to the decoration of the memorial building of
Tutankhamun in Karnak (see supra), shows the tops of two
plumed helmets, worn by Egyptian charioteers. Another part
of the decoration of the memorial building of Tutankhamun
– fragment Cairo Reg. No. 13940 (Legrain 1929: 134–5, fig.
87), reused in the Second Pylon of Karnak – depicts a Nubian
battle scene. In the lower part of the relief an Egyptian war
chariot team is shown: one of the two charioteers, perhaps
the kTn, judging by the quiver, wears a plumed helmet that
seems similar to those carved on the Medamud fragment.
Block MCA-EGI-EG 1889 (Martin 1989: 43–4, tav. 32, 34) from
the Memphite tomb of Horemheb, and now conserved in the
Museo Civico Archeologico of Bologna, shows a scene from a
military camp: a group of soldiers, probably charioteers, are
carrying a heavy load; three of these men are wearing helmets.
An Asiatic battle scene fragment from the funerary temple
of Horemheb (Darnell and Manassa 2007: 182, fig. 24) may
represent an ideal synthesis of what has been suggested
in this paper. An Egyptian war chariot is shown passing
through a field strewn with dead Asiatic foes. In the relief,
the propagandistic topos of the helmet lying on the ground
is added to the iconographical detail of the hands taken as a
trophy. Of the two Egyptian charioteers, only the kTn is wearing
a helmet, while the sole means of protection for the qra.w is his
shield. Generally, the kTn was of aristocratic descent, while the
qra.w came from the lower ranks (Darnell and Manassa 2007:
64, n.41). Can we surmise that the difference in equipment
between kTn and qra.w was not only a matter of army ranking,
but also to do with social status?
Concluding, we must not overlook the influence of foreign
mercenaries in terms of the diffusion of armour (Shaw 2010:
82–3). Papyrus EA 74100 from Tell el-Amarna (Parkinson and
Schofield 1994: 157–70, pl. 21–2) includes the unique image
of two soldiers wearing cropped, ox-hide tunics, and helmets
apparently made of boars’ tusks, and thus probably testifying
the presence of Mycenaean warriors within the Egyptian army.
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