P RO C E E DI N G S OF T H E X I

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS
OF EGYPTOLOGISTS
F l o r e n c e , I t a l y 23 - 30 A u g u s t 2 0 1 5
MUSEO EGIZIO FIRENZE
Florence Egyptian Museum
fields.

edited by
Gloria Rosati and Maria Cristina Guidotti

Archaeopress Egyptology 19
CAMNES
Center for Ancient Mediterranean
and Near Eastern Studies
Proceedings of the XI International
Congress of Egyptologists

Florence Egyptian Museum

Florence, 23-30 August 2015

edited by

Gloria Rosati and Maria Cristina Guidotti

Archaeopress Egyptology 19
 Archaeopress Publishing Ltd
Gordon House
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ISBN 978 1 78491 600 8

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 Contents

XI International Congress of Egyptologists ......................................................................................................................... x

Preface .............................................................................................................................................................................. xiii

Papers
Development of Old Kingdom pottery: three cases studies (‘Cemetery of the Workers’, Heit el-Ghurab
and the Khentkawes Town)...................................................................................................................................................1
Sherif M. Abdelmoniem
Of Min and moon – cosmological concepts in the Temple of Athribis (Upper Egypt) .........................................................7
Victoria Altmann-Wendling
Les relations entre l’horloge stellaire diagonale et le corpus des Textes des Sarcophages
dans le sarcophage intérieur de Mésehti : le temps et les décans .....................................................................................14
Bernard Arquier
The Qubbet el-Hawa casting moulds – Late Period bronze working at the First Cataract ................................................19
Johannes Auenmüller
Overlapping and contradictory narratives in Ancient Egyptian visual programs ............................................................26
Jennifer Miyuki Babcock
Sāmānu as a human disease in Mesopotamia and Egypt ...................................................................................................29
Susanne Beck
The pyramid as a journey – cultic encounters between father and son in the Pyramid of Pepy I ....................................35
Nils Billing
The Ancient Egyptian dialects in light of the Greek transcriptions of Egyptian anthroponyms ......................................41
Ana Isabel Blasco Torres
Dalla sabbia alla teca: esempi di interventi conservativi eseguiti su alcuni papiri del Museo Egizio di Firenze.............46
Paola Boffula Alimeni
New evidence on the king’s son Intefmose from Dra Abu el-Naga: a preliminary report .................................................53
Francisco L. Borrego Gallardo
The Merenptah Sarcophagi restoration project.................................................................................................................59
Edwin C. Brock and Lyla Pinch Brock
Egyptian names and networks in Trismegistos (800 BC – AD 800).......................................................................................64
Yanne Broux
The Ptolemaic dedication of Archepolis in the Bibliotheca Alexandrina: materiality and text .......................................69
Patricia A. Butz
Bernard V. Bothmer and Ptolemaic sculpture: papers on Ptolemaic art from his archives held at the
Università degli Studi di Milano .........................................................................................................................................75
Giorgia Cafici
The Tell el-Maskhuta Project .............................................................................................................................................81
Giuseppina Capriotti Vittozzi and Andrea Angelini
Silence in the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant: themes and problems ......................................................................................87
Ilaria Cariddi
Progetto Butehamon. Prospettive e ricerche nella necropoli tebana ................................................................................92
Giacomo Cavillier
Notes on the inscribed Old and Middle Kingdom coffins in the Egyptian Turin Museum .............................................. 103
Emanuele M. Ciampini

i
Rethinking Egyptian animal worship (c. 3000 BC – c. 300 AD): towards a historical-religious perspective.................... 107
Angelo Colonna
Before and after the Temple: the long-lived necropolis in the area of the Temple of Millions of Years
of Amenhotep II – Western Thebes ...................................................................................................................................112
Anna Consonni, Tommaso Quirino and Angelo Sesana
Papyri with the Ritual of the Opening of the Mouth in the Egyptian Museum in Turin ................................................. 120
Federico Contardi
Notes for a building history of the temple of Ramesses II at Antinoe. The architectural investigation ......................... 124
Michele Coppola
Animal mummies in South African collections ................................................................................................................ 131
Izak Cornelius, Salima Ikram, Ruhan Slabbert, Liani C. Swanepoel, Frank Teichert and Tiffany van Zyl
Nouvelle lecture d’une scène de la théogamie d’Hatshepsout ......................................................................................... 137
Alice Coyette
Worship and places of worship in the Greco-Roman town at Marina El-Alamein........................................................... 140
Grażyna Bąkowska-Czerner and Rafał Czerner
Middle Kingdom coffin of Khnum from the National Museum of Warsaw ...................................................................... 148
Dorota Czerwik
Non-destructive analysis on 11 Egyptian blue faience tiles from the 2nd and 3rd Dynasties ........................................ 154
Joseph Davidovits and Frédéric Davidovits
Scenes from the Amduat on the funerary coffins and sarcophagi of the 21st Dynasty.................................................. 159
Cássio de Araújo Duarte
Votive pottery deposits found by the Spanish Mission at Dra Abu el-Naga .................................................................... 166
Elena de Gregorio
The building activity of Pinudjem I at Thebes ................................................................................................................. 172
Gabriella Dembitz
The ‘Book of Going Forth by Day’ in the funerary chamber of Djehuty (TT 11): past, present, and future .................... 177
Lucía Díaz-Iglesias Llanos
The pre-Egyptological concept of Egypt as a challenge for Egyptology and the efforts to establish a research
community .......................................................................................................................................................................184
Florian Ebeling
The Gebelein Archaeological Project, 2013–2016 ............................................................................................................. 188
Wojciech Ejsmond
Trois nouvelles harpes découvertes à Thèbes ouest: Quel apport pour l’égyptologie ? .................................................. 192
Sibylle Emerit
The ‘pantheistic’ deities. Report from research on iconography and role of polymorphic deities ................................ 198
Grzegorz First
Études sur le cadre de vie d’une association religieuse dans l’Égypte gréco-romaine : l’exemple de Touna el-Gebel ... 203
Mélanie C. Flossmann-Schütze
Forme di imitazione egizia nella decorazione architettonica di Nea Paphos .................................................................. 209
Leonardo Fuduli
Ahmose-Sapair in Dra Abu el-Naga: old and new evidence ............................................................................................. 215
José M. Galán
The Moon god Iah in ancient Egyptian religion ............................................................................................................... 222
Gudelia García-Fernández
Expression of loyalty to the king – A socio-cultural analysis of basilophoric personal names dating to the Old and
Middle Kingdoms .............................................................................................................................................................228
Christina Geisen

ii
Love and gold in cross-cultural discourse in the Amarna letters .................................................................................... 233
Graciela Gestoso Singer
Some unpublished inscriptions from Quarry P at Hatnub ............................................................................................... 237
Yannis Gourdon and Roland Enmarch
Names of eye parts in different text genres: a contribution to technical language in ancient Egypt............................. 242
Nadine Gräßler
The transformation of Theban Tomb 39 (TT39). A contribution from a conservation viewpoint in terms
of its history after dynastic occupation .......................................................................................................................... 247
Dulce María Grimaldi and Patricia Meehan
The complete corpus of viticulture and winemaking scenes from the ancient Egyptian private tombs ........................ 254
Maria Rosa Guasch-Jané, Sofia Fonseca and Mahmoud Ibrahim
Des étoiles et des hommes : peurs, désirs, offrandes et prières ...................................................................................... 260
Nadine Guilhou
Cracking a code: deciphering the marks of the royal necropolis workmen of the New Kingdom .................................. 266
Ben Haring
The Egyptian Dionysus: Osiris and the development of theater in Ancient Egypt .......................................................... 271
Allison Hedges
The Abydos Dynasty: an osteoarchaeological examination of human remains from the SIP royal cemetery ................ 276
Jane A. Hill, Maria A. Rosado and Joseph Wegner
You up – I down: orientational metaphors concerning ancient Egyptian Kingship in royal iconography
and inscriptions ................................................................................................................................................................283
Shih-Wei Hsu
Image processing. Elaboration and manipulation of the human figure in the Pyramid Texts................................................ 287
Francesca Iannarilli
Hieroglyphic inscriptions on precious objects: some notes on the correlation between text and support .................... 291
Agnese Iob
Predynastic precursors to the Festival of Drunkenness: beer, climate change, cow-goddesses, and the ideology of
kingship ............................................................................................................................................................................296
Victoria Jensen
Crowdsourcing in Egyptology – images and annotations of Middle Kingdom private tombs ........................................... 303
Peter Kalchgruber and Lubica Hudáková
‘To build a temple in the beautiful white stone of Anu’. The use of Tura limestone in Theban architecture ........................ 308
Christina Karlshausen and Thierry De Putter
The motif of the kiosk during the first half of the 18th dynasty ..................................................................................... 313
Edyta Kopp
A heritage in peril: the threat to Egypt’s urban archaeological sites .............................................................................. 318
Peter Lacovara
Le sḏm.f circonstanciel. Une forme verbale rare en néo-égyptien littéraire ................................................................... 320
Vincent Pierre-Michel Laisney
Amduat type papyri in the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow ....................................................................... 325
Nika Lavrentyeva
Carving out identities in the Egyptian desert: self-presentation styles adopted by the ancient
travelers of Kharga Oasis ..................................................................................................................................................328
Nikolaos Lazaridis
Ya-t-il une « fabrique d’albâtre » et un atelier de tissage au Ramesseum ? .................................................................... 333
Guy Lecuyot

iii
Deux nouvelles ‘Recommandations aux prêtresʼ datées de Ptolémée X Alexandre Ier .................................................... 339
Nicolas Leroux
Scenes representing temple rituals on some 21st Dynasty coffins .................................................................................. 345
Éva Liptay
Building B, a domestic construction at Tell el-Ghaba, North Sinai ................................................................................. 351
Silvia Lupo, Eduardo Crivelli Montero, Claudia Kohen and Eva Calomino
The Montecelio Obelisk in Rome ......................................................................................................................................357
Lise Manniche
The role of e-learning in Egyptology: ‘Hieroglyphs: Step-by-Step’ website as a case study............................................ 362
Ahmed Mansour and Azza Ezzat
The function and importance of some special categories of stars in the Ancient Egyptian funerary texts,
1: AxAx- and iAd-stars .........................................................................................................................................................368
Alicia Maravelia
Chapel of the tomb belonging to Amenhotep III’s Vizier, Amenhotep Huy. Asasif Tomb No. 28, Luxor-West Bank.
Excavation results: ‘Vizier Amenhotep Huy Project’ (2009–2014) .................................................................................. 377
Francisco J. Martín-Valentín and Teresa Bedman
Objets découverts dans des tombes thébaines situées sous le Temple de Millions d’Années de Thoutmosis III
à l’ouest de Louxor ............................................................................................................................................................384
Javier Martínez Babón
Fish offerings found in Area 32 of the archaeological site of Oxyrhynchus (El-Bahnasa, Egypt).................................... 389
Maite Mascort Roca and Esther Pons Mellado
The Akh-menu of Thutmosis III at Karnak. The Sokarian Rooms ..................................................................................... 394
Julie Masquelier-Loorius
The 13th Dynasty at Abydos: a royal tomb and its context .............................................................................................. 399
Dawn McCormack
The transmission of the Book of the Twelve Caverns .......................................................................................................... 405
Daniel M. Méndez Rodríguez
A new reading of Problem No. 53 in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus. The limits of proportionality .......................... 410
Marianne Michel
The ang-morphs in Coptic and their grammaticalization in Later Egyptian .................................................................. 416
So Miyagawa
‘Augmented Reality’ technology and the dissemination of historical graffiti in the Temple of Debod .......................... 422
Miguel Ángel Molinero Polo, Alfonso Martín Flores, Jorge Martín Gutiérrez, Cristóbal Ruiz Medina,
Lucía Díaz-Iglesias Llanos, Fernando Guerra-Librero Fernández, Daniel Miguel Méndez Rodríguez,
Luis Navarrete Ruiz, Manuel Rivas Fernández and Ovidia Soto Martín
The Min Project. First working seasons on the unpublished Tomb of Min (TT109) and Tomb Kampp -327-:
the Tomb of May and a replica of the Tomb of Osiris ...................................................................................................... 427
Irene Morfini and Milagros Álvarez Sosa
Figurative vase painting from the First Intermediate Period through to the Fatimid Dynasty: a continuity? .............. 433
Maya Müller
Basic considerations on the construction of pyramids in the Old Kingdom ................................................................... 437
Frank Müller-Römer
Die Verwendung von Münzen in pharaonischer Zeit ....................................................................................................... 441
Renate Müller-Wollermann
In the footsteps of Ricardo Caminos: rediscovering the ‘Speos of Gebel el Silsila’.......................................................... 445
Maria Nilsson and Philippe Martinez
The folding cubit rod of Kha in Museo Egizio di Torino, S.8391 ...................................................................................... 450
Naoko Nishimoto

iv
The mystery of the ‘high place’ from the Abbott Papyrus revealed? The results of the works of the
Polish Cliff Mission at Deir el-Bahari 1999–2014.............................................................................................................. 457
Andrzej Niwiński
The mummies of the ‘Three Sisters’ in the Museo Egizio: a case study. Conservation and studies of textiles and
bandages ...........................................................................................................................................................................462
Cinzia Oliva and Matilde Borla
Technical aspects of faience from Hierakonpolis, Egypt – a preliminary report ........................................................... 468
Marina Panagiotaki, Elizabeth Walters, Yannis Maniatis and Anna Tsoupra
Horus Seneferou ka-s : quand le dernier souverain de la Ire dynastie devint la première femme pharaon de
l’Histoire à porter un nom d’Horus ..................................................................................................................................472
Jean-Pierre Pätznick
The Herakleopolis Magna Project: seasons 2012–2015..................................................................................................... 480
M. Carmen Pérez-Die
The Stelae Ridge cairns: a reassessment of the archaeological evidence ........................................................................ 485
Hannah Pethen
The Italian-Egyptian Mission at the Monastery of Abba Nefer at Manqabad: results of the first four
seasons’ work ....................................................................................................................................................................491
Rosanna Pirelli, Ilaria Incordino, Paola Buzi and Anna Salsano
Wedjat-eyes as a dating criterion for false doors and stelae to the early Middle Kingdom.............................................. 499
Melanie Pitkin
La collection égyptienne du Musée Sandelin à Saint-Omer (France) ............................................................................... 506
Jean-Louis Podvin
Some remarks on the Egyptian reception of foreign military technology during the 18th Dynasty:
a brief survey of the armour.............................................................................................................................................513
Alberto Maria Pollastrini
Medical re-enactments: Ancient Egyptian prescriptions from an emic viewpoint ......................................................... 519
Tanja Pommerening
Textual layers in Coffin Texts spells 154–160 .................................................................................................................... 527
Gyula Priskin
The cat mummies of the Società Africana d’Italia: an archaeological, cultural and religious perspective ...................... 532
Maria Diletta Pubblico
Khnum the Creator: a puzzling case of the transfer of an iconographic motif ............................................................... 538
Maarten J. Raven
Temple ranks in the Fayyum during the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods: documentary sources and
archaeological data ...........................................................................................................................................................543
Ilaria Rossetti
Le musée de Mallawi: état des lieux après les destructions et projets pour l’avenir ...................................................... 549
Ashraf Alexandre Sadek
A new light on Coptic afterlife (O.4550 from the Coptic Museum in Cairo) ..................................................................... 553
Hind Salah El-Din Somida Awad
The lost chapels of Elephantine. Preliminary results of a reconstruction study through archival documents ............. 556
Daniele Salvoldi and Simon Delvaux
Doors to the past. Rediscovering fragments in the new blockyard at Medinet Habu ..................................................... 563
Julia Schmied
Les dépôts de fondation de la Vallée des Rois : nouvelles perspectives de recherche sur l’histoire de la nécropole
royale du Nouvel Empire ..................................................................................................................................................568
François C. A. Schmitt

v
Economic mentalities and Ancient Egyptian legal documents ........................................................................................576
Alexander Schütze
Excavations in the ‘Temple of Millions of Years’ of Thutmosis III ................................................................................... 581
Myriam Seco Álvarez
Rituels funéraires au temps de Hatchepsout : le sanctuaire de la tombe de Djehouty et ses parallèles ........................ 587
José M. Serrano
The so-called Book of Two Ways on a Middle Kingdom religious leather roll ................................................................... 594
Wael Sherbiny
Ibyc. PMGF 287 and Ancient Egyptian love songs ............................................................................................................. 597
Anna Sofia
The Physiologus in Egypt ....................................................................................................................................................603
Marco Stroppa
A survey of astronomical tables on Middle Kingdom coffin lids ..................................................................................... 608
Sarah L. Symons
Blue painted pottery from a mid-18th Dynasty royal mud-brick structure in northwest Saqqara ................................ 613
Kazumitsu Takahashi
Studies on BD 17 vignettes: iconographic typology of Rw.tj-scene (New Kingdom – Third Intermediate Period).......... 619
Mykola Tarasenko
Were components of Amarna composite statues made in separate workshops? ............................................................ 626
Kristin Thompson
Research on Old Kingdom ‘dissimilation graphique’. World-view and categorization ................................................... 633
Simon Thuault
La funzione del tempio tolemaico di Deir el-Medina alla luce dell’archeologia .............................................................. 638
Claudia Tirel Cena
The ‘geography’ of the hierogrammateis: the religious topography of the Western Harpoon
(7th Nome of Lower Egypt) ...............................................................................................................................................644
Elena Tiribilli
The Ancient Egyptian shabtis discovered in the regions of Roman Illyricum (Dalmatia, Pannonia) and Istria:
provenance, collections, typological study and dating .................................................................................................... 650
Mladen Tomorad
From Egypt to the Holy Land: first issues on the Egyptian collection in the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum,
Jerusalem ..........................................................................................................................................................................656
Benedetta Torrini
Tradition and innovation within the decoration program of the temple of Ramesses II at Gerf Hussein ...................... 661
Martina Ullmann
The Egyptian Execration Statuettes (EES) Project ............................................................................................................ 667
Athena Van der Perre
A new long-term digital project on Hieratic and cursive hieroglyphs ............................................................................ 671
Ursula Verhoeven and Svenja A. Gülden
Hierakonpolis Faience, 2005–2013, with context and accompanying finds – a quest for chronology
and possible use ................................................................................................................................................................676
Elizabeth J. Walters, Amr El Gohary, Shelton S. Alexander, Richard R. Parizek, David P. Gold, Recep Cakir,
Marina Panagiotaki, Yannis Maniatis and Anna Tsoupra
The Berlin Plans from the New Kingdom Period.............................................................................................................. 680
Yoshifumi Yasuoka
The career of Nakhtmin (TT 87) as revealed by his funerary cones ................................................................................ 686
Kento Zenihiro

vi
Object biographies and political expectations: Egyptian artefacts, Welsh Heritage and the regional community
museum .............................................................................................................................................................................693
Katharina Zinn
Who am I - and if so, how many? Some remarks on the ‘j-augment’ and language change ............................................ 701
Monika Zöller-Engelhardt

Poster presentations
Vocabulaire de l’Égyptien Ancien (VÉgA). Plateforme numérique de recherche lexicographique ................................. 709
A. Almásy, Ch. Cassier, J. Chun-Hung-Kee, F. Contardi, M. Massiera, A. Nespoulous-Phalippou and Fr. Rouffet
Pottery from the early Roman rubbish dumps in Berenike harbour............................................................................... 711
Agnieszka Dzwonek
A sequence of five 13th Dynasty structures at Memphis ................................................................................................. 714
Rabee Eissa
Funerary culture of the Memphite region during the Early Dynastic Period ................................................................. 717
Barbora Janulíková
3D-Reconstructions of Late Roman fortresses in Egypt ................................................................................................... 718
Dmitry Karelin, Maria Karelina and Tatiana Zhitpeleva
The Roman Imperial cult temple at Luxor: its architecture and possible connection between Roman and Egyptian
cultures .............................................................................................................................................................................720
Irina Kulikova and Dmitry Karelin
One of the earliest discovered houses at Memphis .......................................................................................................... 722
Hanan Mahmoud Mohamed
Reden und Rufe, are they kingly patterns? A first step towards an explanation of the origin(s) of speech captions
in ‘daily life’ scenes in private tombs ...............................................................................................................................724
Aurore Motte
Étude pluridisciplinaire de têtes de momies (Lyon)......................................................................................................... 725
Annie Perraud, Matthieu Ménager, Pascale Richardin and Catherine Vieillescazes
Progetto Osiris: valorizzazione delle piccole collezioni egizie ........................................................................................ 727
Massimiliana Pozzi Battaglia e Federica Scatena
Study and restoration of two mummies from the Moulins Museum ............................................................................... 729
Noëlle Timbart

List of papers presented at ICE XI.....................................................................................................................................731

Massimiliano Franci

vii
 Predynastic precursors to the Festival of Drunkenness:
beer, climate change, cow-goddesses, and the ideology of
kingship1

Victoria Jensen
University of California, Berkeley

Abstract
The Festival of Drunkenness (Hb tx) was a public, state-sponsored ritual that occurred on the 20th day of the first month of Akhet, the season
of inundation. The Festival is noteworthy for its combination of royal and popular elements. The king made offerings of alcohol beverages to
appease the goddess Hathor/Sekhmet (and syncretized goddesses such as Tefnut and Mut) in order to avert pestilence and ensure a plentiful
inundation, while the populace participated in sacred revelries that mirrored the drunkenness and propitiation of the goddess. Textual refer-
ences to the Festival of Drunkenness extend from at least the 12th Dynasty to the Graeco-Roman era. However, I argue that the origins of the
Festival likely extend even further back into Egyptian history. Specifically, three crucial components of the Festival of Drunkenness emerged in
the Nagada II–III period of the Predynastic era, c. 3500–3100 BC: the invention and industrial-scale production of beer; the drying of the climate,
which made the Nile’s annual inundation indispensable to human life; and the belief in a goddess with bovine-human attributes with whom the
king became intimately connected.
Keywords
Kingship; Hathor; Bat; beer; Festival of Drunkenness

The1culture of ancient Egypt is well known for the authoritative
role played by its king (Baines: 3–47), but how was the king able
to establish and maintain this authority at the dawn of kingship?
In this paper, I will propose that one answer may lie in the
Festival of Drunkenness, a public, state-sponsored ritual attested
from pharaonic Egypt. This celebration was tied to mythological
beliefs about the Sun god Re and his daughter, Hathor (Sternberg-
el Hotabi 1992: 101–9). The ritual was conducted to propitiate
the goddess, in order to transform her from a destructive lioness
to her benevolent aspect as the anima of love, fertility, music,
dance, and drink. Once appeased, it was hoped that Hathor
would allow the proper functioning of the annual inundation,
when the Nile brought new, fertile soil to the fields and drenched
them with life-giving water. By constructing himself as the link
between gods and men, and thus as the semi-divine agent who
could propitiate this essential natural force, the king became
indispensable.2 In this paper, I argue that crucial components
of the Festival of Drunkenness can be traced to the Nagada II–
III period of the Predynastic era, c. 3500–3100 BC: the invention
and industrial-scale production of beer; the drying of the
climate, which made the Nile’s annual inundation indispensable
to human life; and the belief in a goddess with bovine-human
attributes who controlled natural phenomena and with whom
the king became intimately connected.
Mythological background
In Egyptian religious belief, Horus, the god associated with
the living king,3 was often paired with the goddess Hathor.
1
An earlier version of this topic was given by the author at the
American Research Center in Egypt national conference, 15 April 2013.
In developing this paper, I gratefully acknowledge the suggestions
of further literature given to me by Steve Harvey, Rita Lucarelli, and
the anonymous reviewer. I also am indebted to Renée Friedman for
providing me with her images of the Bat sherd from Hierakonpolis.
2
Desroches-Noblecourt (1995) provides an interesting analysis of a
complex of symbols concerning the inundation and kingship. She
mentions that the king’s virility is renewed by the inundation and he
comes to be represented as Hapy (13). She also discusses the motif of
double figures of Hapy binding the Two Lands (sema-tawy) using the
heraldic plants of Upper and Lower Egypt (61–74).
3
In Nagada IIIA, serekhs appear that associate early rulers with the
Her name literally means ‘Mansion of Horus’ but figuratively,
she represents the womb that created Horus (Orehov 2003:
424). Hathor was the daughter of the Sun god Re and was
the manifestation of his Eye – the sun’s fierce and immanent
power on earth. Hathor had a dual aspect, either violent or
peaceful. Her raging side was called Sekhmet, ‘the Powerful
One,’ a leonine goddess equated with war and pestilence.
When Hathor was propitiated, however, she was sovereign of
music, dance, joy, fertility, and inebriation. In this guise she
was shown either as a beautiful woman or in bovine form.
The tale of the ‘Destruction of Mankind’ (Hornung 1982b;
Desroches-Noblecourt 1995: 28–30) features this dual nature of
Hathor. In this story, Re is ruling the world when he learns that
mankind is plotting to overthrow him. He sends Hathor out to
slaughter the rebels. She does so, creating her form of Sekhmet.
However, Re has second thoughts about destroying humankind,
and devises a plan to calm Sekhmet. He commands that red ochre
be added to 7,000 jars of beer, which are poured onto the land,
flooding it. The next morning the goddess sees the lake and in
her bloodlust she drinks it up. The state of drunkenness pacifies
her, and she returns to Re in the form of a beautiful woman.4
This myth has correlates in the natural world. Egyptians
feared diseases that struck around the inundation’s arrival,
as attested by protective spells against the ‘plague of the year’
(Borghouts 1978: 12–6). Also, the dyed beer is equated with
the red hue of the Blue Nile waters as the approaching flood
brought a heavy load of soil to Egypt (Oestigaard 2011: 48–51).
Thus, this myth had cosmological significance – the powerful
cycles of nature were personified as deities and integrated in
religious beliefs and festivals.
sky god Horus (Midant-Reynes 2000: 232–3, 247).
4
A separate but related myth is that of the ‘Return of the Distant
Goddess’, which also involves Hathor or Tefnut as the Eye of Re, who is
raging out of control and must be appeased so she can return to Egypt
(Richter 2010; Desroches-Noblecourt 1995: 30–4). The appeasement
for this myth was also celebrated on the 20th day of the first month
of Akhet; her jubilant return to Egypt was marked by an additional
drunkenness festival in the month of Tybi (Sternberg-el Hotabi 1992:
108; Darnell 1995).

ICE XI (2017): 296–302 296


The Festival of Drunkenness
The earliest written evidence for the festival is found in a
calendar from the sun-temple of Niuserre (5th Dynasty), but
this text is fragmentary and not incontrovertible (Spalinger
1993a: 297; Helck 1977: 57 and Pl. II). The next attestation
comes from Lahun, where papyri of the 12th Dynasty list
celebrations and temple attendants, particularly performers
(Spalinger 1993a: 297). A festival calendar has been
reconstructed from these records by Luft (1992: 217), who
places the festival on the 20th day of the first month (1 Akhet
20); the festival name is tp-‘ tx, referring to the Egyptian word
txj ‘drunkenness’ (Wb. V 324-5). The next extant record of
the ritual dates to the 18th Dynasty, when Hatshepsut built
a ‘porch of drunkenness’ (wAh/whA n tx) at the temple of Mut
at Karnak (Bryan 2014: 103–6; 2005: 182). A millennium-long
lapse occurs until prolific evidence concerning the festival
resurfaces in Ptolemaic temples.5
An additional factor to consider is the name of the month
in which the festival took place, which is txj (Wb. V 325.20).
This month name is recorded on numerous calendars dating
from the 16th century BC to the Roman period (Depuydt 1997:
116–8),6 and substantiates the continued association between
drunkenness and the first month of the year. Depuydt
observes that ‘month name and monthly feast name go hand
in hand, as the month owes its name to the festival and the
festival its position in the year to the month’ (1997: 130).
The Festival of Drunkenness had both royal and popular
components. As described at Dendera, a procession of priests
carried the statue of the goddess, accompanied by her retinue
of other gods, to various chapels in the temple and eventually
through the hypostyle hall and into the front courtyard to be
placed on a kiosk, where the populace could see her (Cauville
2002: 55). The celebrants would feast and drink to the point
of unconsciousness, falling asleep in the temple’s courtyard
(Bryan 2014: 103–6; 2005: 182).
The royal rituals included presenting offerings of beer and
other alcoholic beverages to Hathor, along with the goddess’s
attributes of power and placation such as menats and sistra
(Cauville 2002: 51–2).7 Other images depict the king offering
16 vases of water to the goddess, who is given the epithet
nbt mDd(ny), ‘Mistress of Sixteen’ (Pres 1999). This number
represents the ideal height of the Nile flood in cubits (Pres
1999; Oestergaard 2011: 21). For every ruler of Egypt, the
5
For Dendera, see Cauville 2002. For Philae, see Inconnu-Bocquillon
2001. For Edfu, see Goyon, J.-C. 2006. Le ritual du sHtp Sxmt au
changement de cycle annuel d’après les architraves du temple d’Edfou et
textes parallèles, du Nouvel Empire à l’époque ptolémaïque et romaine.
Cairo, IFAO. For the temple of Ra.t-tAwy at Medamud, see Darnell 1995.
For the Mut precinct at Karnak, see Bryan 2014 and 2005: 182–3, and
Spalinger 1993b: 161–84.
6
In the Ramesside period, some texts replace the month name txy
with DHwty, ‘Thoth’ (van Walsem 1982: 216), so one sees references
to the 20th day of Thoth. This equates with the 20th day of txy. Van
Walsem (1982: 215–7) provides textual evidence that, in Ramesside
Deir el-Medina, months were referred to by the name of the great
monthly feasts.
7
The offering hymn includes phrases that date back two millennia to
the Pyramid Texts of the 6th Dynasty (c. 2350 BC), although the hymn
has not survived on any other sources in the interim (Gutbub 1961;
Cauville 2002: 68–80). This is noteworthy evidence of the continuity
of Egyptian religious tradition, and reminds us that the sources
that have survived to modern scholars are but a few lucky pieces of
testimony, while most have been lost over time.
International Congress of Egyptologists XI
Predynastic precursors to the Festival of Drunkenness
height of the annual inundation was of prime importance
to the well-being of the country. To understand fully the
Egyptian concern with this crucial phenomenon, we need to
look at the period of state formation.
Significance of the inundation
One of the major drying phases of the late Holocene (Vernet
2002: 47–8) occurred in the mid 4th millennium, the
period of Predynastic cultural development in Egypt. The
desertification of the formerly savanna environments pushed
human settlements closer to the river’s edge and reduced
their options for both firewood and sustenance, as the halfa
grass, reeds, acacia, tamarisk and palm trees (Geller 1992:
74) that had provided fuel for pottery kilns and cooking fires
were replaced by encroaching sand. Hoffman enumerates
various forces in the Naqada II period, including ‘political
centralization, inter-regional warfare, environmental
degradation, and climatic deterioration’ (1982: 138). The
intense use of local resources combined with the increasingly
arid climate that impacted the region likely threatened the
communities’ very survival. This scenario helped drive
political centralization and warfare between polities as
they battled for diminishing arable land.8 In this milieu, the
annual Nile flood was of paramount importance in sustaining
agriculture and, indeed, human life.
Industrial-scale brewing
Hierakonpolis is a site that continues to produce early
testimony for numerous cultural features that were further
developed in dynastic Egypt. Evidence for extreme social
differentiation is emerging from the elite cemetery, HK
6 (Friedman 2011). Another notable feature is the oval
Ceremonial Center (Friedman 2009: 81). Remains of feasting
and butchery of wild animals have been recovered that
prove that it was a locus of ritual activity (Linseele et al. 2009;
Friedman 2009: 81, 89). Moreover, the faunal remains include
species that would only have been available at the time of
the inundation, pointing to a specific annual time-frame for
ceremonial feasting (Friedman 2011: 36).
Part of the feasting seems to have included beer, because
large-scale brewing operations have been identified in an
industrial sector on the north side of the settlement. To
date, more than ten installations have been found with the
oldest ones dating back to 3600 BC; each installation included
six to ten large conical vats and the production capacity per
installation is 100–200 gallons per day (Friedman 2011: 34–5).
It is unknown how much of this productive capacity was
allocated to feasting versus daily use (Friedman 2011: 35).
Hierakonpolis was not the only Predynastic site to develop
industrial-scale breweries. The site of Abydos also provides
evidence of large brewing installations in a Nagada II–III
settlement (Geller 1992: 135). In the Delta, Tell el-Farkha
demonstrates similar breweries dating to 3500–3350 BC
(Cialowicz 2011: 55), that is Nagada IIb-IId (Cichowski 2008:
8
Various authors prefer to emphasize different elements from this
suite of issues. Hassan finds climate change to be of primary
importance, influencing social and political organization as well as
‘instigation of certain ideological beliefs and ritual practices’ (Hassan
2002: 11). Geller, however, emphasizes power dynamics and ‘human
agency’ as the most important factors (1992: 26–30).
297
Victoria Jensen

39), the cusp of its transition from an independent Lower

Egyptian cultural identity into Nagada III material culture.

Production of beer on this industrial scale – along with

associated pottery manufacturing and grain storage facilities
close by – indicates that rulers of these settlements had
established an integrated system of coordinated labor-
specialization (Friedman 2011: 34). These rulers controlled
and managed the settlements’ resources and manpower, and
seem to have initiated a redistributive economy whereby
they provided the populace with some portion of the finished
products, including beer.

In anthropological studies, alcohol is frequently observed

to perform a socially integrative function (Heath 1987: 31).
Sociologists and psychologists note its primary function as a
tranquilizer which reduces anxiety or stress (Heath 1987: 39).
Alcoholic drinks often mark specific occasions as part of feasts
and construct an ‘ideal world’; in this ritualized use ‘they
make an intelligible, bearable world which is much more how
an ideal world should be than the painful chaos threatening
all the time…They are not false worlds, but fragile ones,
momentarily upheld and easily overturned’ (Douglas 1987:
11–2). Dietler believes that cultural practices around alcohol
serve to actively construct, embody, perform, and transform
both personal and group identity (2006: 235). He notes that
hosting feasts converts economic capital into symbolic
capital (2010: 79) for the host. People are brought together
in community, but feasts can also ‘symbolically reiterate and
legitimize institutionalized relations of asymmetrical social
power’ (Dietler 2010: 79).
The use of alcohol as a means of constructing social standing
is seen clearly in the Egyptian Predynastic evidence, as the
rulers of these proto-kingdoms marshaled the resources to
provide alcoholic largesse. Joffe observes that in the early
states of western Asia (including Egypt): ‘Redistribution of
beverages in the process of feasting secured allegiance but
also fused subsistence, labor, and belief. The combination of
transformational, psychoactive, and alimentary qualities and
their association with sociopolitical and religious concepts
and institutions created a powerful tool for manufacturing
consent’ (1998: 298). The Festival of Drunkenness was one
such important sociopolitical and religious event; it allowed
the community to embody the pacification of Hathor, as the
king (acting as Re) provided abundant alcohol. Consequently,
the next theme I will address is the Predynastic evidence for
belief in a powerful female-bovine deity who would become
known as Hathor in the Early Dynastic period.9
9
There is not space in this article to discuss the various bovine
goddesses in Egyptian religion, but they include not only Hathor
but also Bat, Sopdet, and Mehet-Weret. There is scholarly discussion
of the type of ungulate represented by these early cow-goddesses;
Rashed (2009: 407) argues that Bat’s round, upcurving horns
represent the African buffalo (Syncerus) or perhaps the aurochs (Bos
primigenius), in contrast to Hathor’s lyre shaped horns. However,
aurochs’ horns could develop either a rounded curvature or the lyre
shape, so it is possible that both Bat and Hathor share the aurochs
as their avatar. The earliest attestations of Hathor’s name are found
on Early Dynastic sealings. A spell from the Pyramid Texts, 546b,
directly connects the name Hathor with the bovine-human (‘Bat’)
faces depicted on the kilt of the king; it reads ‘His kilt which is on him
is Hathor.’ (Gillam 1995: 215, footnote 45). As part of the king’s kilt
regalia, these Bat/Hathor emblems are first attested on the Narmer
Palette. Bat’s name derives from bA, ‘spirit, power’ plus the feminine
ending t (LÄ I, 631; Rashed 407). In the Pyramid Texts, c. 2300 BC, she
figure 1: schist palette, egyptian museum cairo je
43103. gerzeh tomb 59, nagada ii c. 3650-3300 bc (photo:
author).
Female-bovine deities
Bovines appear to have held special significance for the
earliest Egyptians. For instance, bovine burials were found
among human burials in the Badarian era, c. 4400–4000
BC (Hendrickx 2002: 276), and figurines of bulls, cows, and
calves were found in the cemetery at el-Amra (McIver and
Mace 1902). In Nagada I – early Nagada II, bovines, as well
as crocodiles and hippopotami, are frequently represented
on White Cross-lined pottery. Hendrickx asserts that this
association of cattle with dangerous and powerful animals
indicates ‘a more symbolic, probably religious and/or
sociological interpretation’, rather than their being depicted
for their economic value (2002: 276).
In the mid to late fourth millennium, the period of proto-
state formation and increasing social stratification, various
objects attest to the emerging iconography of a bovine-
human deity.10 In his excavations at Gerzeh, Petrie discovered
a unique palette in a Nagada II period tomb (1912: 22, pl. 6:
7). The palette’s reverse side had residues of malachite on it,
while the obverse has been interpreted as representing the
goddess Bat (Figure 1). Two long, curving appendages are
is called ‘Bat with her Two Faces’ (Allen 2005: 157). This epithet is
not explained, but perhaps it can be linked with the later duality of
Hathor/Sekhmet. Another bovine goddess is Mehet-Weret, whose
name literally means ‘Great Flood’ and she, too, is attested in the
Pyramid Texts (Allen 2005: 75). And Sopdet, the divine personification
of the star Sirius, whose appearance heralded the coming inundation,
was also bovine in form in the Early Dynastic period (Hornung 1982a:
80). The question of when Hathor and Bat began to overlap in their
symbolic realms is a subject of ongoing debate (see Rashed 2009: 407
for a recent overview), but may extend further back in time than the
sparse extant textual evidence corroborates.
10
This is not an exhaustive list of the objects with the Bat head.
Several more, including a cylinder seal from Abydos and another
incised pottery sherd from Hierakonpolis, are detailed – with
bibliography – in Rashed 2009.

International Congress of Egyptologists XI 298


figure 2: decorated ware vessel, metropolitan museum
of art 15.2.34. nagada ii (photo: author).
seen as cow’s horns which terminate in stars. On either side of
the trunk-like body, two triangular extrusions, which Petrie
felt doubtlessly represented the ears, also bear stars (Petrie et
al. 1912: 22). Another star rests on top of the head.
In addition, the image can be seen as a celestialized version of
the bird-headed female figures with upraised arms that are so
prevalent in Nagada II iconography, both on decorated ware
(Figure 2) and as clay figurines (Figure 3) (Wengrow 2001:
98; Baumgartel 1960: 52, 86). Seen in this light, the curving
elements are the upraised arms, the central star represents
the head, and the two symmetrical appendages with stars
on the trunk may represent breasts. Thus, the image is an
example of multivalent symbolism so prevalent in dynastic
figure 4: terracotta figurine of bird-headed female
brewing beer, nagada ii, egyptian museum cairo je
38908 (image published in needler, w. 1984. Predynastic
and archaic egyPt in the Brooklyn MuseuM, plate 85.
brooklyn, the brooklyn museum).
International Congress of Egyptologists XI
Predynastic precursors to the Festival of Drunkenness
figure 3: painted terracotta female figures, brooklyn
museum, 07.447.502 and 07.447.505. nagada ii c. 3500-3400
bc (photo: brooklyn museum 07.447.502_07.447.505_
glass_bw_sl4.jpg (creative commons-by)).
Egyptian culture. Read in both of these ways, the object
enhances our understanding of the connection between the
avian-female figures and the bovine-human deity Bat.
Another object relevant to this discussion is the figurine
of a bird-headed woman brewing beer in a large vat (Cairo
JE 38908), which was excavated at Adaima (Figure 4). Most
known bird-headed figurines appear to be dancing or
involved in some sort of ritual activity on boats; pertinent
to the argument of this paper, this figurine connects the
divine imagery of the bird-headed figures with the activity of
brewing beer (Graff 2008).
Turning now to the Predynastic power center of Hierakonpolis,
an enigmatic ostracon (Figure 5) was discovered in a trench
figure 5: incised ostracon from ceremonial center
at hierakonpolis (photo: r. friedman, courtesy of
hierakonpolis eXpedition).
299
Victoria Jensen

near the edge of the floor of the town’s ceremonial center.

Given the other material found in this stratum, Renée
Friedman dates this object to Nagada IID2–IIIA (2009: 93, 96).
The red-polished ware sherd is decorated on both sides; the
images have been interpreted as a Bat head on the interior side,
and a bull’s head (possibly representing the king) subjugating
a female on the other (Hendrickx and Friedman 2003: 97–101).
The similarity between the Bat head on this ostracon and that
of the Gerzeh palette is striking, with the only noticeable
difference being the lack of individual stars on the points of
the horns, ears, and top of head; however, the deeply-carved
horns are surrounded by a more lightly incised, wavy line that
may indicate one large star (or perhaps a rosette). Hendrickx
and Friedman note ‘the similarity between the star/flower
motive and the “rosette” used on, for example, the Narmer
palette for the writing of “king” or “royal power”’ (2003: 97,
footnote 5). I think this raises an excellent idea, and there may
indeed be an overlap of symbolism indicating both kingship
and celestial presence. Indeed, as we shall see on the Narmer figure 6: porphyry bowl with bat/hathor head, petrie
Palette, at the time of Egypt’s unification there is a celestial museum uc 16245 (photo: author).
relationship between the king and Bat.11

Among the trove of Protodynastic to Early Dynastic objects

found in the Main Deposit at Hierakonpolis were fragments
of a porphyry bowl (Quibell and Green 1902: pl. LIX) (Figure
6). Dated to the reign of Narmer on stylistic grounds (Burgess
and Arkell 1958: 10), it bears decorations on its rim of Bat’s
face and the glyph that represents her name (jabiru stork,
Gardiner G29). As part of a deposit of royal items made in the
temple of the god of kingship, the presence of Bat again shows
that a relationship existed between Narmer and this goddess.

The Narmer Palette (Figure 7) is perhaps the most iconic

object known from the dawn of statehood in Egypt. It, too,
was discovered in the Main Deposit (Quibell and Green 1902:
13, 41 and pl. XXIX). Overseeing the bellicose images of royal
control on the palette are three elements, which are identical
on both sides. Centrally placed at the very top is the king’s
name in a serekh while on either side are human faces with
bovine ears and horns, representing Bat. It seems that the
triumph of Narmer over his foes is done under the auspices
of Bat, or perhaps on her behalf, as she supervises the scenes
of him smiting one enemy and beholding the neatly arranged
rows of beheaded and castrated enemies. The placement of
Narmer’s serekh between Bat’s faces establishes him in the
celestial region, on the same level with the goddess.

Conclusion

I have endeavored to demonstrate the possibility that three

factors in the Predynastic era – the invention of brewing,
adverse climate change, and beliefs in the power of a human-
bovine deity – combined to provide the basis for the Festival
of Drunkenness known in dynastic times. This participatory
ritual was the means by which the king enacted his
responsibility to maintain the cycles of nature by pacifying
11
Hendrickx and Friedman (2003: 97, footnote 5) warn against
interpreting prehistoric depictions based on information known
from the historic era, such as interpreting any celestial bovine
figurine as Hathor. It is true that such interpretations should be
made cautiously. However, just because our first written evidence of a
phenomenon dates to a certain time does not mean that it came into
being at that moment. For instance, we must recall that some of the
religious beliefs expressed in the Pyramid Texts had their origins in
oral culture long beforehand (Allen 2005: 4).
figure 7: narmer palette, egyptian museum cairo je
32169 = cg 14716 (photo: author).
Hathor. Although the earliest surviving written evidence
for the festival dates to the Middle Kingdom, it is extremely
likely that it had precedents in the preliterate past. As Hassan
states, ‘the integration of agrarian communities culminating
in the unification of Egypt in historical times would not
have been possible without the cogency of ritual and mythic
transformation’ (Hassan 1992: 307). The essential ideas of
kingship were forged during the Predynastic era: his divine
nature as an embodiment of Horus, his role in propitiating the
gods in order to assure the renewed fertility of the land, and

International Congress of Egyptologists XI 300


his responsibility to promote cosmic order by fighting against
chaos.
The development of these ideologies involved the creation
of rituals, the particular details of which we cannot recreate
at this distance of time. But the ceremonial center at
Hierakonpolis with its exceptional faunal feasting remains
provides mute evidence that some sort of ritualized activities
occurred. Moreover, Hierakonpolis’s tremendous brewing
capacity was all but certainly linked to those communal
rituals.
The development from chiefdom to a state society moved the
source of the ruler’s legitimacy from Neolithic kin groups to
a more distant locus, the realm of the gods, as attested by
the co-location of Narmer’s name and the icons of a supreme
bovine-human goddess at the top of the Narmer Palette. This
shift in the hegemonic order demanded rituals that would
enable the community to embody the new theology, both
socially and personally.
Drunkenness in the context of these rituals had a meaning
that went much deeper than quotidian experience. By
taking part in the festival, both king and commoner had a
hand in re-creating the political power structure. The king’s
role in sponsoring major festivals served a legitimating
function, renewing the king’s importance with his subjects,
while simultaneously renewing the cosmos, as implied by
the pacification of the goddess who brought the annual
inundation back to Egypt.
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