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Contents
List of Contributors xv
Preface xix
1 Chiral Separation by LC 3
Juliana Cristina Barreiro and Quezia Bezerra Cass
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Workflow for LC Chiral Method Development 7
1.3 New Column Technologies 9
1.4 Selected Examples of Fast Separation 12
1.5 Chiral 2D-LC 14
1.5.1 LC–LC and mLC–LC 14
1.5.2 LC × LC and sLC × LC 17
1.6 Future and Perspectives 19
References 20
2 Chiral Separation by GC 27
Oliver Trapp
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Chiral Recognition in Gas Chromatography 29
2.2.1 Chiral Recognition by Hydrogen Bonding 31
2.2.2 Chiral Recognition Using Chiral Metal Complexes 31
2.2.3 Chiral Recognition by Host–Guest Interactions 31
2.3 Preparation of Fused-Silica Capillaries for GC with CSPs 33
2.4 Application of CSPs in Chiral Gas Chromatography 34
2.4.1 CSPs with Diamide Selectors 34
2.4.1.1 Chirasil-Val 34
6 Polysaccharides 189
Weston Umstead, Takafumi Onishi, and Pilar Franco
6.1 Introduction 189
6.2 The Early Years 190
8 Cyclodextrins 273
Gerhard K. E. Scriba, Mari-Luiza Konjaria, and Sulaiman Krait
8.1 Introduction 273
8.2 Structure and Properties 274
8.3 Cyclodextrin Complexes 279
8.4 Application in Separation Science 288
10 Proteins 363
Jun Haginaka
10.1 Introduction 363
10.2 Preparation of Protein- and Glycoprotein-Based
Chiral Stationary Phases 364
Index 593
List of Contributors
Weston Umstead
Han Sun Chiral Technologies Inc.
Group of Structural Chemistry and West Chester, PA, USA
Computational Biophysics Xiaoliang Yang
Leibniz-Forschungsinsitut für State Key Laboratory of
Molekulare Pharmakologie Coordination Chemistry and
Berlin, Germany Jiangsu Key Laboratory of
and Advanced Organic Materials
Institute of Chemistry School of Chemistry and Chemical
Technical University of Berlin Engineering, Nanjing University
Berlin, Germany Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
Preface
References
Part I
Chiral Separation by LC
Juliana Cristina Barreiro1 and Quezia Bezerra Cass2
1
Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
2
Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
1.1 Introduction
R O R
O O
O AcO AcO AcO OH
OH X
R ACN:AcOH X
+ O +
OH 75 °C, 2 h OH O OH O
XH AcO AcO AcO
O O O
(RR)-DATAN
Or
R O R
O AcO O O
AcO OH AcO OH
R X X
OH + O ACN:AcOH +
OH O OH O
XH 75 °C, 2 h AcO
AcO AcO
O O O
(SS)-DATAN
X = NH or O
Scheme 1.1 Derivatization reaction of HAs and AAs either with (RR)-DATAN or
with (SS)-DATAN for producing diastereomers. Source: Oliveira et al. [2]/with
permission of MDPI/Public Domain CC BY 4.0.
Buffer/additives
CSPs
Elution mode
Organic modifier
Temperature
Application
Figure 1.1 Illustration of a pattern that should be considered for starting a direct
chiral separation.
20,0
k1
17,5
k2
15,0
12,5
10,0
k
7,5
5,0
2,5
0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Water (%)
Figure 1.2 Graphic showing the retention factors (k1 and k2) of omeprazole
enantiomers at tris-(3,5-dimethylphenylcarbamate) of amylose in going from neat
MeCN to aqueous MeCN solutions as mobile phases. Source: Cass et al. [5]/with
permission of Taylor & Francis.
classified in five categories (Types I–V) [6, 7]. Variations of these classi-
fications have been made considering the chiral selectors in three main
groups: macromolecular selectors, macrocyclic selectors, and low-
molecular mass selectors [8].
Although the three-point interaction model, as elaborated by Dalgliesh
for paper chromatography separation of AAs [9], didactically explains
the formation of the transient diastereomeric complex between solute
and CSP, the interactions accountable for the chiral discrimination still
demand clarification [8]. Moreover, a CSP encompasses several heteroge-
neous non-selective and stereoselective active sites that contribute to the
resolution of an enantiomeric mixture by the CSP at a given mobile phase
and temperature [10].
It is important to stress that, due to the complexity of chiral discrimi-
nation mechanisms, there is no preset-up condition for achieving reso-
lution for a given application. For method development, understanding
the most important interactions should somehow help in a planned
workflow.
The most important types of CSPs and their properties will be discussed
in detail throughout the chapters of this book.
0 10 20 30 40 60 80
Seconds
class of chiral analytes. For preparative separation, the load capacity should
also be considered (see Chapter 5).
In exploring multimodal elution, either sequentially in a single column
or using multiple columns in a scouting system, one should be aware of
solvent miscibility. An excellent choice for changing elution mode is
100% ethanol. Give time for column equilibration between elution modes
and modifiers.
The use of either acidic or basic additives and buffers does not affect
the enantioselectivity for some CSPs, and it should be used only if the
enantiomeric mixtures demand it, either because they are ionizable or to
facilitate detection. For instance, the enantiomeric resolutions of both
ketamine and norketamine are affected by the used pH (pH 5.0, 7.8, and
9.0) of the 10 mmol−1 ammonium bicarbonate/acetonitrile (54/46, v/v)
mobile phase in a CHIRALPAK AS-3R column (3 μm particles, 4.6 mm
I.D. × 100 mm) [12].
On the other hand, CSPs of the following types: macrocyclic antibiotics,
protein, cinchona alkaloids, and cyclodextrin are all affected by the use of
buffer or additives, and the chiral discrimination changes even to neutral
analytes. Volatile buffers are required for detectors such as MS (mass spec-
trometry), CAD (charged-aerosol detection), ELSD (evaporative light-
scattering detection). Make sure to wash off the buffer or additives before
changing elution mode.
In selecting elution mode and mobile phases for measuring enantiomeric
ratio consider that the limit of quantification (LOQ), concentration, matrix
effect, and detection mode limit elution conditions and can drastically affect
the enantioselectivity and/or resolution. On the other hand, solubility is an
important parameter when the intended use is preparative separation (see
Chapter 5).
The main interactions involving the elution mode are listed in
Table 1.1 [13].
The normal elution is the preferred mode to measure enantiomeric ratio
of synthesis products and in quality control, while the reversed elution
mode or polar ionic mode is the most used in bioanalysis and for environ-
mental matrices [1]. Polar organic and normal elution modes are preferred
for preparative scale separation [14].
Temperature affects both thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of chiral
discrimination. Inversion of the elution order can be obtained even in
the allowed CSPs temperature range, and the effects on retention factor
and enantioselectivity should be tuned in a case-to-case basis and, for
that, it is important to determine the temperature of isoelution [15].
(a) (b)
75 5 Hz, 78 250 Hz,
1 s response time 1 s response time
65 68
55 58
Absorbance signal
45 48
35 38
25 28
15 18
5 8
–5 –2
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.10
(c) (d)
240 480
330
140 280
230
90 180
130
40 80
30
–10 –20
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.10
Time (min) Time (min)
OH
OH N OH N
O N O O
O
LC–LC mLC–LC
1D 2D
2D 1D
2D
1.5.2 LC × LC and sLC × LC
An LC × LC separation is suitable for non-targeted and comprehensive
analysis of a sample; it allows broader information in a single 2D chromato-
gram. For that, all fractions from the 1D are transferred into the 2D for fur-
ther analysis (Figure 1.7). To avoid undersampling and remixing fractions,
4 fractions per 8σ peak width must be collected in the 1D and transferred
into the 2D. Moreover, the 2D column needs to provide very fast separations,
and it is expected that SPP will outperform FPP CSPs. As for heart-cut, the
switching valve configuration (such as of 8-, 10-, or two 6-port valves) plays
an important role in the interface between the columns of both dimensions
but, in this case, the modulation interface plays a much greater role, since it
is responsible for transferring the fractions with lower undersampling
effect [3, 35, 36].
LC × LC sLC × LC
2D 2D
1D 1D
The interface can be based on either loops or trap columns. The loop
interface is the most used either for heart-cut or for comprehensive 2D-LC;
however, the trap columns interface is preferable when the mobile phase of
the 1D is immiscible with the mobile phase of the 2D or when there are great
differences in solvent strength. The trap columns interface should enhance
sensitivity and diminish injection problems; nevertheless, the selected trap
columns need to show good retention/desorption efficiency and do not
affect the plate capacity in the 2D [40].
Since orthogonality can be achieved in coupling a CSP to an achiral col-
umn, reversed-phase elution mode has been preferred for 2D-LC, since
alkyl columns are an obvious choice in LC × LC for either dimension.
Software for data analysis is indispensable in LC × LC, and it is still the
Achilles’ heel.
In a very elegant LC × LC approach, two CSPs (quinine and quinidine car-
bamates) with similar chemoselectivity but orthogonal stereochemistry
have been used for enantioselective AA analysis of peptide and protein
hydrolysates. With that, the achiral analytes elute along a diagonal line,
while the AA enantiomers appeared in the same retention but in opposite
position of the diagonal line in the 2D plot. Therewith, stereochemical
information for unknown peptides in complex samples has been
obtained [51]. For further discussion about this example, see Chapter 11
and Figure 11.12.
For enantioselective separation of AAs in honey samples, derivatization by
Sanger’s reaction with 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene to form dinitro-phenyl
amino acids (DNP-AAs) has been first carried out to enhance sensitivity
and, thus, detection at 365 nm. In an unusual approach and to take advan-
tage of the much slower enantioselective separation, a quinine-bonded SPP
CSP was used in the 1D, while a C18 column was used in the 2D. This
LC × LC setup resolved most enantiomers of 20 DNP-AAs in this natural
complex sample [52].
sLC × LC is the notation given to LC × LC when only a target region of the
1
D chromatogram is comprehensively sampled to the 2D. It differs from
mLC–LC in the sense that the achieved resolution for the selected area of
the 1D chromatogram does not diminish by sampling it to the 2D (Figure 1.7).
It is important to say that the LC system used for sLC × LC is essentially the
same as that used for mLC–LC.
Stoll and Carr [35] call attention to the fact that the main advantage of
sLC × LC is that the separation obtained in the 1D is not lost in 2D regardless
of how narrow the width of the peak is, with no risk of peak remixing.
Moreover, the sLC × LC allows quantification without the need of transfer-
ring a fraction larger than the peak volume to avoid losing analytes from the
1
D, as usually is the case with LC–LC.
Taking advantage of both mLC–LC and sLC–LC modes, the enantiomeric
resolution of the 20 proteinogenic AAs (and 5 others) were obtained in a
commercial 2D-LC system. The DNP-AA was separated in the 1D using an
achiral C18 column (1.8 μm, 2.1 mm I.D. × 100 mm) with gradient elution,
whereas the enantiomers were resolved in the 2D using a tert-
butylcarbamoylquinine-based SPP CSP (2.7 μm, 3.0 mm I.D. × 50 mm) in
isocratic elution. The 1D peaks were sampled as 40 μl fractions to the 2D by
means of a two-position four-port dual valve connected to a double loop
deck, each with six 40 μl loops in a total run time of 130 minutes. The abso-
lute configuration of the AAs in the peptide antibiotic drugs gramicidin and
bacitracin have been determined by the use of this 2D-LC method [50] (see
also Chapter 11).
Despite the advances in CSP technology, the number of reported enanti-
oselective comprehensive methods is so far very low. With the capability to
solve non-targeted analysis, an increase in publications in this topic is
expected soon.
References
1 Barreiro, J.C., Tiritan, M.E., and Cass, Q.B. (2021). Challenges and innovations
in chiral drugs in an environmental and bioanalysis perspective. TrAC Trends
Anal. Chem. 142: 116326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2021.116326.
2 Oliveira, R.V., Simionato, A.V.C., and Cass, Q.B. (2021). Enantioselectivity
effects in clinical metabolomics and lipidomics. Molecules 26: 5231.
https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26175231.
3 Calderón, C. and Lämmerhofer, M. (2021). Enantioselective metabolomics
by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 207:
114430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2021.114430.
4 Pandey, R., Collins, M., Lu, X. et al. (2021). Novel strategy for untargeted
chiral metabolomics using liquid chromatography-high resolution tandem
mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem. 93: 5805–5814. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
analchem.0c05325.
5 Cass, Q.B., Degani, A.L.G., and Cassiano, N.M. (2003). Effects on
enantioselectivity by the use of polysaccharide-based columns by
multimodal elution. J. Liq. Chromatogr. Relat. Technol. 26: 2083–2101.
https://doi.org/10.1081/JLC-120022395.
6 Wainer, I.W. (1987). Proposal for the classification of high-performance
liquid chromatographic chiral stationary phases: how to choose the right
column. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 6: 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/
0165-9936(87)87055-3.
7 Lough, W.J. (2014). Classification of LC chiral stationary phases: Wainer
Types I–V revisited. J. Chromatogr. B 968: 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jchromb.2014.04.044.
8 Lämmerhofer, M. (2010). Chiral recognition by enantioselective liquid
chromatography: mechanisms and modern chiral stationary phases.
J. Chromatogr. A 1217: 814–856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2009.10.022.
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