Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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1. INTRODUCTION
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Storage and treating facilities are major
elements of an oil terminal.
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2.1 Tank Types
2.2 Major Design Criteria
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2.1 Tank Types
Tanks are usually described according to:
Their function, or
Their construction.
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Their function
Receiving,
Settling,
Treating,
Dehydrating,
Washing,
Desalinating,
Storing, or
Exporting.
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The construction is limited to two main
categories:
Fixed-roof tanks.
Floating-roof tanks.
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Fixed-roof tanks
As the name implies, fixed-roof tanks are tanks
which have their cylindrical shell covered by a
roof that is an integral part of the tank
construction.
Stiff, and
Less sensitive to uneven soil settlements.
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Disadvantage of a fixed-roof tank
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For a floating-roof tank, construction tolerances
are rather small due to the fact that the roof must
be free to move over most of the height of the
tank.
Capacity,
Class of product,
Soil conditions, and
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Weather conditions.
Capacity
The major factor for determining the main
dimensions of a tank is, of course, the amount
of liquid it needs to hold.
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Class of product
The tank type that will be selected for storing a
particular product or range of products is
generally based on its vapour saving efficiency.
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Soil conditions
Tank terminals are often located at:
Sea coasts, and
Rivers.
The soil at these locations is:
Seldom rock, or
Other hard material.
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In most cases it proves to be economical to
build a tank as high as possible.
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In some areas extensive precautions are
necessary to ensure that the foundation
material does not corrode the tanks, this
applies particularly in the Middle East where
the terrain on the coast can be salt-saturated
sand.
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Stability should be against:
Overturning, also
Roof uplift caused by the combined effect
of:
Internal vapour pressure against the
roof, and
Lift forces.
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The shell should also have stability against
buckling.
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In the case of floating roof tanks, rain can be a
problem in some areas.
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3.1 Tank Bottoms
3.2 Tank Shells
3.3 Tank Roofs
3.4 Internal Floating Covers
3.5 Rim Seal
3.6 Tank Pads
3.7 Bund Walls
3.8 Corrosion Protection
3.9 Fire-fighting Facilities 35
Tanks consist of three major components:
Bottom,
Shell, and
Roof.
To make a tank function, several more
components are required, such as:
Vents,
Roof seals, and
Roof drains.
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Despite the fact that they are not part of the
tank itself, other important items in the
construction are:
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3.1 Tank Bottoms
Tank bottoms are made from:
6 mm rectangular plates,
Lap-welded on top only.
Bottom Layout
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The bottom plates transfer the vertical pressure
from the stored liquid directly onto the tank
foundation.
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The bottom annular plates, placed under and
fixed to the tank shell are highly stressed by the
horizontal liquid pressure acting on the lowest
part of the tank shell.
Bottom-to-shell
Connection
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3.2 Tank Shells
The tank shell is the most important part of the
tank, because it must withstand the liquid
hydrostatic pressure.
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Each course:
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Tank shells are made by butt welding the
rectangular plates together.
The thickness
of the tank
shell decreases
stepwise
upwards.
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Locations of Vertical
Shell Seams
Shell plate thickness
The shell plate thickness is calculated in
accordance with the formula:
4.9 × D × (H – 0.3)
t =
SxE
Where:
t = minimum course thickness in mm.
S = maximum allowable stress in N/mm2
E = joint efficiency factor for welding (0.85–1)
D = nominal diameter of tank in m.
H = height from top of shell to the lower edge46
of the course under consideration, in m.
The plate's thicknesses are calculated on the
assumption that the tank will be filled with
water, since all tanks are hydrostatically tested
after construction.
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Minimum thicknesses for shell plates.
For tanks with a diameter up to 30 m the
minimum thickness is 6 mm.
For diameters between 30 and 60 m it is 8
mm and
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The stability of a tank shell can be improved
without increasing the plate thickness, by the
addition of one or more rings to the outside of
the tank (windstiffeners).
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Windgirders
The wind forces acting on the tank shell have
to be transmitted to the foundation.
Windgirders
on a Tank Shell
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Manholes and nozzle connections
Manholes and nozzle connections for inlets,
outlets, product drains, etc. are installed in the
lowest shell course.
Shell Nozzle
Connections
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3.3 Tank Roofs
Tanks are divided into two main categories:
fixed-roofs and floating-roofs.
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The roof plates are not fixed to the roof-
supporting structure, but are only welded with
a very light weld to the top curb-angle of the
shell with a seal weld
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Venting of fixed-root tanks
Temperature variations or
During filling of the tank
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To reduce vapour losses:
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Air baffles
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When clean air is drawn in during in-breathing
of the tank (or during emptying) it is normally
directed downward into the oil vapour and the
air and vapour will start to mix
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The air baffle is installed in non-pressure tanks
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The surface of the pontoon is 20-25% of the
total roof surface
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This is a pontoon-type floating roof, the centre
deck of which is reinforced on the upper side
by sturdy radial stiffeners (usually 60 cm wide
by 80 cm high)
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Double-deck roofs
For this type of roof the lower deck rests on the liquid
and some distance above this, the upper deck rests on
the lower deck, supported by bulkheads and
supporting, concentric rings
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The air spaces between the two decks provide
an effective insulation against solar radiation
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Apart from the advantage of the insulating effect
mentioned above, there are a number of occasions
when a double deck roof instead of a pontoon roof may
be chosen:
Roof seals
The up and down movement of a floating roof
must be smooth and therefore a rim seal is
installed between the tank shell and the outside
of the floating roof
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Fabric seals are sometimes preferred because
of their safety properties:
This accumulation
of rainwater could
arise for example
when the roof
drain is plugged
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Emergency drains, discharging into the oil
storage cannot be applied, since the level of
the oil will always be higher than the level of
the rainwater on the centre deck
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This means that the operator in charge
has to be particularly alert during
periods of heavy rain to ensure the water
is drained, thus preventing the floating
roof from collapsing or even sinking
when the rainwater load on the centre
deck reaches the design average of 250
mm rainfall
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Double-deck roofs are provided with
emergency drains to limit the rainwater load to
a value which will be carried safely
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This is a movable pipe that connects the outlet
nozzle of the shell with a guide structure
underneath the centre deck of the floating roof
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Roof access ladders
For inspection and maintenance purposes an
access ladder is provided from the top of the
shell to the roof, running over a rail track on
the roof
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Internal Floating Covers (IFC)
It combines:
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The decision to install an IFC may be required
by environmental authorities in order to reduce
air pollution
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The pad shoulder should be wide enough and properly
compacted under the annular bottom plate, under the
shell and near the tank
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Bund Walls
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The height of a bund wall, as measured from
the outside ground level should be sufficient to
afford protection to personnel when engaged in
firefighting
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Generally bund walls are constructed from
compacted granulated material covered with a
5-10 cm layer of bitumen, cement or
bitumen/sand mixture (dependent on the
product in the tank)
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Two or more tanks may be bounded by one
wall
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Corrosion Protection
Introduction
Corrosion is a destructive attack on metals
Two electrodes
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In the anodic reaction, the metal dissolves in the
electrolyte in the form of positively charged ions:
M M+ + e
H+ + e H (atomic)
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The electrons released by the anodic reaction
flow through the metallic circuit to the cathode,
where they neutralize an exactly equivalent
number of hydrogen ions
The cathode,
The anode or
Both
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The hydrogen film will eventually cover the
cathodic surface, stopping the flow of
electrons
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This secondary reaction causes the corrosion
to continue
Some degree of corrosion protection can be
obtained by coating the underside of the tank
bottom with:
Quality,
Extent of coverage and
Bond of coating to the steel
Here it is converted
into direct current
that flows from the
positive side of the
rectifier to the
ground bed 121
The current goes through the soil and is
collected at all points on the tank which are in
contact with the soil
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4 TANK OPERATIONS
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Watertesting a Tank
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When executing the water test, the following
points should be observed:
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4. When emptying the tank from test water, it
could be decided to do this "on gravity", i.e.
based on the static head of the water content
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For this reason excessive discharge rates are
undesirable and could cause vacuum
overloading of the tank shell and roof,
resulting in serious buckling
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As the cone will settle at the centre
approximately 30 % more than at the periphery,
the general condition is that the tank bottom is
flat after the water test and cone-down during
operation
Settlement can be
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Windforces
Windforces are included in the design
conditions of tanks and stiffener rings and
windgirders may have been installed to
improve the stability of the tank shell against
such forces
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The static head of the liquid in the tank is high
and the discharge rate reaches a peak value
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Due to incorrect operation, water may enter a
tank storing a hot product at temperatures over
100 °C
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During the first month of service
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When a floating-roof tank is in use, a number of
basic precautions are necessary, these include
the following:
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In cases where a lighter gravity crude has to be
stored under a roof designed for heavier
crudes it is advisable:
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Spiking of Oil with Butane or Propane
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Excessive spiking (sending more propane or
butane into the tank than can be dissolved in
the liquid) will create a dangerous situation for
the floating roof as free gas trapped under the
roof will make it unstable
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Landing the Roof
Methods of Calibration
Tank calibration has to be performed on:
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Definitions
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The oil height
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Deadwood
Is defined as any object within the shell of the
tank that would displace fluid, such as:
Columns and braces comprising the roof
supports,
Ladders,
Steam coils,
Swing pipes, and
Projections outside the shell, which
would contain oil and thus increase the
capacity of the tank, such as pipe
connections, manholes, and clean-out 176
openings
Measurements
Depth measurements
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Depth measurements are usually taken with a
steel tape with plumb-bob attached
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Thickness of the tank walls
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Deadwood
Scale,
Paraffin, or
Other substances
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Tanks require maintenance, both internally and
externally
Tank corrosion,
Pipeline connections,
Accessories,
Access ladders and
Walkways
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Internal Maintenance of Tanks
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Emptying and Blanking off the Tanks
1. Before any work is done:
Release vapours
All sources of ignition should be
eliminated from the area where flammable
vapour may be present or may travel
Roads should be closed and signs
posted to keep vehicles and other
potential sources of ignition away form
the area
Particular attention should be paid to the
wind direction in defining the extent of 188
the hazard
2. Initial cleaning
Normally, the operations department have to
carried out any initial cleaning steps, such as:
Aviation fuels or
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6. Tank Isolation
After the completion of flushing, tank-side
valves should then be closed, caution tabs
attached to them, and the lines isolated either
by disconnecting or blanking
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7. Water Draining
After isolation has been completed, the tank
will contain water with a thin film of product on
its surface
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Gas Freeing
Before allowing people without suitable
respiratory protection to enter a tank, the tank
should be freed from flammable/toxic vapours,
and the oxygen level raised to more than
20 % v
Gas-freeing is usually done by:
Natural ventilation,
Mechanical ventilation, or
Steam (in certain cases) 198
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Wind sail
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Air Blower
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Air Extraction
To a much lesser degree
Natural or
Forced ventilation
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Pure oxygen should never be used for
ventilation because it enhances the explosion
hazard
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Tank Cleaning
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These guns clean the tanks with a rotating
high pressure water jet
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Oil or chemicals may be used for jetting
instead of water
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There are various cleaning methods possible,
and a selection or combination of methods may
be made depending on each particular case
Crude,
Gas oil, or
Lighter fractions
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When the washing oil becomes fairly viscous,
the oil is pumped out via:
The drain, or
The suction hose of a second pump, (not
combustion engine driven)
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At this stage:
- All leg drain holes of floating roof tanks
- Heating coils
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In some cases, large quantities of sludge often
remain which defy removal by methods other
than manual
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If complete oil removal is difficult, do not start
to use water hoses until the tank is pronounced
gas-free
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The scale or sediment will contain a high
proportion of rust, and will have to be collected
and removed
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