FOUNDATIONS OF ZOOLOGY – LECTURE

MODULE 2 – ANIMAL ORGANIZATION

Cell is the smallest functional unit of the body while tissue is a - Made of macromolecules
group of similar cells performing specific function. The cell is
the starting point of animal organization. - A structure within a cell that performs a specific
function.
This chapter will discuss the animal organization through
the levels of life, the different cell types, structures and
functions. It will show how the cells will become tissues, into CELL
organs, then organ system into an organism. - Made of organelles

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

- Basic unit of structure & function of life/ smallest unit
 Molecular Level
 Cellular Level of life.
 Tissue Level
 Organ Level - Living
 Organ System Level
 Organism Level
 Population Level TISSUES
 Community Level - The same kind of cell working together group of
 Ecosystem Level similar cells
 Biosphere Level

- Living

ORGANS
- Tissues that work together

- Living

SYSTEMS

- Organs that work together

- Living

ORGANISM

- May be a single cell

- Entire living things (organisms)

ATOMS
- Smallest part of matter/particle of an element that - Usually made of systems
retains the properties of an element.
- Non-living
- Living

MOLECULES
- 2 or more bonded atoms POPULATION

- Form compounds - Same type of organism living together

- A combination of atoms. COMMUNITY

- NON-living - Several populations living together

MACROMOLECULE
- Very large molecules - Population interacting together
- Proteins, fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids
ECOSYSTEM
- NON-living
- A biotic (living) community plus the abiotic (nonliving)
ORGANELLES features

- “Tiny organs” BIOME

- Similar ecosystems on earth together
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BIOSPHERE - Robert Hooke (1665), English scientist looked at a
- Whole living layer around the globe thin slice of cork (oak cork) through a compound
microscope observed tiny, hollow, roomlike structures
- Includes abiotic features called these structures 'cells' because they reminded
him of the rooms that monks lived in, he only saw the
outer walls (cell walls) because cork cells are not
alive.

- Scholars think Robert Hooke used this microscope

when he prepared Micrographia, the first book
describing observations made through a microscope.
The middle glass of this three-lens instrument can be
removed to more closely examine a specimen

- 17th century scientist Robert Hooke was the first

person to use the word "cell" to identify microscopic
structures, describing
cork " . . . these pores, or cells, were not very deep,
but consisted of a great many little boxes.

- Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Dutch fabric merchant

and amateur scientist looked at blood, rainwater,
CELL PARTS AND BIOMOLECULES OF LIFE scrapings from teeth through a simple microscope (1
lens), observed living cells; called some 'animalcules'
Cells are the basic units of structure and function of all living
things. Each cell carries out basic life processes that allow the - which are now called bacteria .
body to survive. Each type of cell in the figure plays a specific
role. For example, muscle cells have many mitochondria that - Matthias Schleiden (1838), German botanist viewed
provide the energy they need to move the body. plant parts under a microscope discovered that plant
TWO GENERAL CLASSES OF CELLS parts are made of cells .
- PROKARYOTIC
- EUKARYOTIC
- Theodor Schwann (1839), German zoologist who
viewed animal parts
 "Karyose" comes from a Greek word which means
"kernel," as in a kermel of grain.
- under a microscope and discovered that animal parts
are made of cells
 In biology, we use the word root to refer to the
nucleus of a cell.
- Rudolph Virchow (1855), German physician, who
developed the cell theory.
 "Pro" means "before," and "eu" means "true," or
"good." So "Prokaryotic" means "before a nucleus,"
- Marcelo Malpighi, published an account of the
&"eukaryotic" means "possessing a true nucleus."
microscopic internal structure of plants.

- Hugo von Mohl, discovered the protoplasm.

- Robert Brown, discovered “nucleus” in the epidermal

cell of orchids.

- Rudolph Virchow (1855), German physician, who

developed the cell theory.

- Marcelo Malpighi, published an account of the

microscopic internal structure of plants.

- Hugo von Mohl, discovered the protoplasm.

HISTORY OF CELL DISCOVERIES
- Robert Brown, discovered “nucleus” in the epidermal
- Hans and Zacharias Janssen, Dutch lens grinders, cell of orchids.
father and son produced first compound microscope
(2 lenses) .
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- Beneden, Fleming. Boveri, & Straburger,
elucidated mitosis (nuclear division).

- Ernst Ruska(1931) builds the first transmission

electron microscope.

- Watson and Crick (1981), made their first

announcement of the

- double-helix structure for DNA.

- Lynn Margulis published Symbiosis in Cell Evolution

detailing the

- endosymbiotic theory. CELL THEORY

- Hofmeister, illustrated chromosomes in Tradescantia 1. All known living things are made up of cells.
pollen.
2. The cell is structural and functional unit of living
things.

3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

4. Cells contain hereditary information which is passed

from cell to cell during cell division

5. All cells are basically the same in chemical

composition.

6. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life

occurs within cells.

 A cell can be thought of as a “busy factory," with

different departments each performing specialized
tasks.

PARTS OF CELLS

CELL WALL

- Extracellular structure surrounding plasma membrane

w/c is commonly found in plants;

- Controls turgity ; provide protection & support for

plants; It has primary wall, middle lamella, secondary
wall, pits & plasmodesmata

PLASMA MEMBRANE

- Outer membrane of cell that controls cellular traffic;

- Fluid mosaic model.

- It is made up of two lipid layers called a "bilipid”

membrane.

- The lipids that are present in the plasma membrane

are called "phacid building blocks. The fatty acid that
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MODULE 2 – ANIMAL ORGANIZATION

makes up this membrane has two different parts to it-
a small water loving head- hydrophilic head.
- Hydro stands for water and philic means liking or
loving. The other part of this fatty acid is a long water-
repelling or water hating tail.
- This tail is hydrophobic- Hydro stands for water and
phobic means fear.
- The ribosomes in a eukaryotic cell generally have a
Svedberg value of 80S and are comprised of 40s and
60s subunits.
- Prokaryotic cells, on the other hand, contain 70S
ribosomes, each of which consists of a 30s and a 50s
subunit.

- ospholipids."

- -These lipid layers are made up of a number of fatty

CYTOSOL

- The least differentiated part of the cytoplasm.

- It is the matrix in which organelles. and membrane

systems are suspended and biochemical events
occur.
MICROBODIES
GOLGI APPARATUS
- Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are
found in the cytoplasm of almost all cells, roughly
- Protein packaging plant; spherical, and bound by a single membrane.

- A membrane structure found near nucleus w/c is - There are several types of microbodies, including
composed of numerous flattened layers of sacks. lysosomes, but peroxisomes are the most common.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM PEROXIZOMES

- Tubular network fused to - It contain a variety of enzymes, which primarily

function together to
- nuclear membrane goes
- rid the cell of toxic substances,& in particular,
- through cytoplasm onto cell hydrogen peroxide (a common by-product of cellular
metabolism).
- membrane;
- These organelles contain enzymes that convert the
- Stores, separates, & serves hydrogen peroxide to water, rendering the potentially
toxic substance safe for release back into the cell.

- as cell's transport system;

LYSOSOME

- It has two types, smooth ER

- An organelle first discovered by the Belgian scientist
Christian de Duve, who also discovered lysosomes.
- w/c lacks ribosomes & rough
- Digestive organelle for proteins, lipids, and
- ER w/c has ribosomes carbohydrates;

- embedded in surface . - Transports undigested material to cell membrane for

removal.
RIBOSOMES

- It serve as the protein production machinery for the

cell and are consequently most abundant in cells that
are active in protein synthesis, such as pancreas and
brain cells.
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MITOCHONDRIA

- For energy conversion

- Second largest organelle with unique genetic

structure;

- Double-layered outer membrane with inner folds

called cristae.

- Power house of the cell

CHROMATIN

- composed of long thin strands of DNA & functions to

contains instructions that control cell metabolism and
heredity

NUCLEUS
- DNA is genetic material of most living systems,
including eukaryotes and prokaryotes
- It appear as grayish body, spherical, elongated or
variously flattened or lobed.
- Double Stranded DNA - Only Natural Form
- It is surrounded by porous nuclear membrane and are
filled with fluid nuclear sap in which chromosomes & - Chromosomes of Eukaroytes and Prokaroytes are
one or more nucleoli float. double stranded DNA

- Nucleoli, function as intermediates in protein

synthesis.
- RNA is Single Stranded

- RNA is Genetic Material in Some Viruses

- RNA comes in 3 basic forms:

 tRNA (transfer RNA) = adapter in protein

synthesis - matches codon to amino acid

 rRNA (ribosomal RNA) = structural RNA in

ribosomes
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 mRNA (messenger RNA) = contains
information for protein synthesis
CHROMOSOMES
- Usually in the form of chromatin;
- Contains genetic information
- Composed of DNA
- Thicken for cellular division
- Set number per species (i.e. 23 pairs for human)
CYTOSKELETON
- Composed of microtubules
- Supports cell and provides shape;
- Aids movement of materials in and out.
MICROFILAMENTS
- Smallest component of the cytoskeleton at
- about 7 nanometers in diameter.
- Composed of G-actin protein and are
- wound in a helical shape.
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
- Are 8-12 nanometers in diameter and are twisted
together in a cord shape.
- They are composed of keratin and keratin-like
proteins which are tough and resist tension.
MICROTUBULES
- Are composed of alpha and beta tubulin that form
long, hollow cylinders.
- Are fairly strong proteins and are the largest
component of cytoskeleton at 25 nm.
- They make up the centrioles in a cell, the flagella and
cilia of a cell, and they serve as "tracks" for transport
vesicles to move along.
CENTRIOLES
- Paired cylindrical organelles near nucleus;
- Composed of nine tubes, each with three tubules;
- Involved in cellular division;
- Lie at right angles to each other
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A. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
- Consists of a single layer tightly packed, flattened cells with
a disk shaped central nucleus.
TYPES OF ANIMAL TISSUES AND FUNCTIONS - Location: Air sacs of the lungs, kidney glomeruli, lining of
the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.
After the cell, the tissue is the next level of organization in the - Function: Allows passage of materials by diffusion and
human body. A tissue is a group of connected cells that have filtration
a similar function. There are four basic types of
animal tissues: epithelial, muscle, nervous, B. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
and connective tissues. - Consists of a single layer of tightly packed, cube - shaped
cells.
- Location: Kidney tubules, ducts and small glands, and a
 Connective tissue is made up of cells that form the surface of ovary.
body’s structure. Examples include bone and cartilage. - Function: Secretion and absorption.
 Epithelial tissue is made up of cells that line inner and C. SIMPLE COLUMNAR
outer body surfaces, such as the skin and the lining of - Consists of a single layer of elongated cells. Contains goblet
the digestive tract. Epithelial tissue protects the body cells that secretes mucus.
and its internal organs, secretes substances such as - Location: Lines of digestive tract, gallbladder and excretory
hormones, and absorbs substances such as nutrients. ducts of some glands.
 Muscle tissue is made up of cells that have the unique - Function: Absorption, enzyme secretion
ability to contract, or become shorter. Muscles attached
to bones enable the body to move. D. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED CILIATED COLUMNAR
 Nervous tissue is made up of neurons, or nerve cells, EPITHELIUM
that carry electrical messages. Nervous tissue makes - A tuft of cilia tops each columnar cell, except for goblet cells.
up the brain and the nerves that connect the brain to all - Location: Lines the bronchi, uterine tubes and some regions
parts of the body. of the uterus.
- Function: Propels mucus or reproductive cells by ciliary
action.

E. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
- Consists of many layers of cells.
- Location: Lines the esophagus, mouth, and vagina.
Keratinized variety lines the surface of the skin.
- Function: Protects underlying tissues in areas subject to
abrasion.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

A. ADIPOSE TISSUE CELLS

- (Adipocytes) contain large fat droplets that push the nuclei
close to the plasma membrane.
- Location: Around kidneys, under the skin, in bones, within
abdomen, and in breasts.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE (COVERING)
- Function: Provides reserve fuel (lipids), insulates against
heat loss, and supports and protects organs.
- Tightly-joined closely-packed cells
- One side of epithelium exposed to air or internal fluid, other B. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
side attached to a basement membrane, a dense mat of - Consists numerous fibroblasts that produces collagenous
extracellular matrix (connective tissue) and elastic fibers.
- Covers the outside of the body and lines the internal organs
- Location: Widely distributed under the epithelia of the
and cavities
human body.
- Barrier against mechanical injury, invasive microorganisms,
and fluid loss - Function: Wraps and cushions organs.
- Provides surface for absorption, excretion and transport of
molecules C. FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUES
- Consists largely of tightly packed collagenous fibers.
- Location: Dermis of the skin, sub - mucosa of the digestive
TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
tract, and fibrous capsules of organs and joints.
- Function: Provides structural strength.
 Cell shape
 Squamous D. BONE (OSSEUS) TISSUE
 Cuboidal - Bone matrix is deposited in concentric layers around
 Columnar osteonic canals.
 Number of cell layers - Location: Bones
 Simple
- Function: Supports, protects, provides lever system for
 Pseudostratified
muscles to act on, stores calcium and fat, and forms blood
 Columnar
cells.
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NERVOUS TISSUE (CONTROL)

- Senses stimuli and transmits signals called nerve impulses

from one part of an animal to another
- Consists of a cell body and long extensions called dendrites
(towards cell body) and axons (towards another cell or an
effector)
- Neurons in nervous tissue transmit electrical signals to other
neurons, muscles, or glands.
- Location: Brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
- Function: Transmits electrical signals from sensory
receptors to the spinal cord or brain, and from the spinal
cord or brains to effectors (muscles and glands).

VASCULAR TISSUE

A. BLOOD
- Is a type of connective tissue. It consists of red blood cells-
transport O2, white blood cells- fights infection and
platelets suspended in an intercellular fluid (plasma),
prevents clotting of blood.
- Location: Within blood vessels.
- Function: Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients,
wastes, hormones, minerals, vitamins and other substances.

MUSCULAR TISSUE

A. SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE

- Is composed of striated muscle fibers (cells) that are long
and cylindrical and contain many peripheral nuclei.
- Location: In skeletal muscles attached to bones.
- Function: Voluntary movement, locomotion.

B. SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE

- Is formed of spindle - shaped cells, each containing a single
centrally located nucleus. Cells are arranged closely.
Smooth muscle tissue is not striated.
- Location: Mostly in the walls of hollow organs.
- Function: Moves substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a
baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control.

C. CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE

- Consists of branched striated cells, each containing a single
nucleus and specialized cell junctions called intercalated
disks that allow ions (action potentials) to move quickly from
cell to cell.
- Location: The walls of the heart.
- Functions: As the wall of the heart contract, cardiac muscle
tissue propels blood into the circulation; involuntary control.
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