Structures and forces

Aims:
Learn about the forces acting upon any structure.
How these forces can be used effectively in a structure(Equilibrium)
Frame and shell type structures (natural and man made)
Beams and bending
Improving beams to displace loads more effectively
Triangulation to increase structural strength
Trusses, triangulation and monocoque structures.

Tasks:
1) Name and describe the five forces acting upon any structure, sketch and example of each. Name a
product that uses each type of force as part of its function
2) Name the three types of beam. Give an example of each.
3) What are the disadvantages of face loading a beam?
4) How can a beam be loaded to carry a load more efficiently?
5) How can an ‘edge loaded’ beam be improved to be more stable? What are the five beam section
types?
6) Describe what is unique about a cantilevered beam? Give two examples of a cantilevered beam.
7) Name and describe any two manufactured shell structures and any two frame structures.
8) Name and describe any two natural frame structures and any two shell structures.
9) Using words and pictures, describe what a monocoque structure is. How does it differ from a frame
structure? Give two examples of monocoque structures. Natural or manufactured).
10) Use words and diagrams to explain how an arch structure works. Describe how an arch handles the
forces acting upon it to remain structurally strong.
 What is a Structure?
A structure is a combination of materials and/or
parts to create a 3D shape.
Examples of structures are buildings, bridges,
packaging, cars e.t.c.
Groups of structures
• Mass Structures
• Frame Structures
• Shell Structures
 Mass Structures
A Mass Structure is made by piling up
materials into a shape or design. - Mountains,
coral reefs are natural mass structures.
Sand castles, dams and brick walls are
manufactured mass structures. They are built
using reinforced concrete, stone, brick or soil.
Mass structures rely on their weight for
strength.
 Frame Structures
A frame structure is made by connecting individual
members, for example, chairs, bridges, cranes roof
trusses.
The members are connected so that the structure
can withstand the various forces acting on it.
Most buildings use a framework structure to provide
a skeleton for the building.
 Structural
solutions can be
very elegant and
attractive as well
as functional

An arch is composed of a
column on either side of
what is essentially a curved,
horizontal surface (beam).

Structures and forces

 Shell Structures
A shell structure, in building construction,
is a thin, curved plate structure shaped
to transmit applied forces by
compressive, tensile, and shear stresses
that act in the plane of the surface.
Body of vehicles and roofing sheets are
examples of shell structures.
Corrugation
 Natural Structures
These are not man-made.
Examples:
• Human skeleton
• Egg
• Leaf
• Beehives
• Birds nest
• Mountains
• caves
Structures and forces
Types of structure:
Structures occur naturally and can be made by humans and animals.

Natural shell
structures

Man made frame

structure (Composed
Structures are broadly classifies as shell or frame of individual , pressed
structures. In reality, most designed objects are a shell structures).
combination of the two.
Man made HDPE shell
Natural shell structure
structure

Natural frame
structures
Structures and forces
Monocoque structures
In a monocoque
structure the skin of
the object forms the
load bearing area.
(Like an eggshell)
Lattice frame works.
A beehive is as an amazingly
efficient structure. It uses the
least possible waxy material to
cover the maximum possible
surface area ,to make a strong,
hexagonal structure. Why is a
honey comb hexagonal? A
honeycomb is half frame and half
monocoque
Shell structures: Depend on
the way they are shaped for
structural strength. Another name
for some shell structures is
Monocoque. Monocoque, from
Greek for single (mono) and French
for shell (coque), is a construction
technique that supports structural
load by using an object's external
skin as opposed to using an internal
frame or truss that is then covered
with a non-load-bearing skin.
Monocoque construction was first
widely used in aircraft in the 1930s.
Structural skin is another term for
the same concept.
Structures and forces
A s a designer you need to be able to arrange the components of your designs to be
structurally safe, and in equilibrium. This means that all the forces acting upon your
structure are in balance. Any structure has to withstand the five forces acting upon it.

1) Bending : A squashing over force from one or both ends

2) Tension : A pulling apart force
3) Compression: A squashing, pressing down force
4) Torsion: A twisting force like the force needed to open a jar lid
5) Shear: A force moving in opposite directions catching a component between them.
Scissors use the shear force principal

When a design is successful it is said to be structurally sound with all the forces acting
upon held in balance, or equilibrium. When the forces become unbalanced the structure
fails .

All structures have a load which is either static or dynamic. An example of a static load is
a driver sat in a stationary car. The drivers bodyweight becomes a dynamic load as the
car moves along the road . Forces shift and change to different parts of the seat and car
body construction as the car moves along. As motion and momentum are absorbed into
the car body, the driver and the cars contents, they too become a dynamic load as they
move about.
A diving board is actually a cantilevered
beam (A beam fixed at one end only)
Compression

Bending
Underside of the diving
board is in compression

Structures and forces Compression

Torsion forces forces are used
to crush this
are used to twist off a
lid and also gives the Tension can

screw thread
Tension force is
used to pull
Shear
mechanism its strength apart the chest force moving
‘expanders’ in opposite
directions
catching
material
between
them.
Structures and forces
Strong structural forms: Can be built
using triangles, arches, boxes,
cylinders’ corrugation or castellation
Load The top of the
beam is in
compression and Beams can be strengthened by
the underside is Common beam sections
changing their section to include: L- section, T- section,
in tension increase the load bearing I-section . Cylinder, box, and
Surface loading is weak strength and surface area triangle section.
and subject to bending
and compression Strengthening beams and frame structures
Load
Edge loading prevents
compression and
Triangulated
torsion but leaves the frames use
beam subject to Custom Car, body triangles to
torsion
framework brace a frame
Edge loading is stronger across its
diagonals
Corrugation and
castellation displace
the load more evenly,
and increase the
surface area of the Triangulation
structure. Ideal for
Corrugation and Castellation thin panels.
Structures and forces
Beams and columns:
A column is a vertical structural component
subjected to compression forces,(mostly).
Lintels are beams that
span two points to
support a vertical load
A beam is a horizontal structural member. It
has two contacts, or fixing points with the
other components in a structure. A lintel ‘Beam and
above a doorway or window is a beam. post’
The ‘post’ or
construction
vertical
used in a
component
A Cantilever is a beam fixed at one end only. timber house
is actually a
The position of a load determines how a column
cantilever works, and how it displaces a
load. Large aircraft wings and some bridges Arches are strong
are cantilevers. Cantilevered aircraft wing structures and
useful for displacing
vertical loads

Cantilevered
beams
Structures and forces: Struts and ties

The weight or load

compresses the
top surface

Structural members
Structural members
in tension are called
being compressed are
ties. Pulling apart
called Struts. These are
forces are also
subjected to
called tensile forces
compressive forces
The underside is
subjected to
tension
Structures and forces
Ray and Charles Eames chair
Injection moulded, one piece, with plastic shell seat and steel
plastic shell construction framework legs.

The leg moulding allows for stacking

and provides structural strength

Steel framework suspends a

One piece, injection moulded, fabric covering to form a
polypropylene chair by Verner seat
Panton
Structural
strength is
attained
by the
curves and
folds
moulded
into the
chairs Chair inspired by natural forms and
form
materials
Any good structural design is a balance between:
weight, strength, function, and cost.

A bad structural design is:

1) Too heavy or large for the task.
2) Takes up too much space.
3) uses too much material or too many
components. Unnecessary parts are called
‘redundant members’.
A good structural design:
1) Has a good ‘strength to weight’ ratio.
2) Does not occupy too much space or
volume in order to function. Skeletons are
amazing examples of structural engineering.
3) Has no useless or repeated parts, or
redundant members
This is part of the honeycomb from a beehive
The cells are used both for the
storage of honey and for the
developing larvae.
The hexagonal structure in the
hive is a wonderful example of the
ways in which minimum-material
or energy solutions tend to evolve
in nature: in this case the
hexagonal lattice requires the
minimum of wax to surround the
largest area. Only triangles,
squares and hexagons can be
used to fill a space without gaps,
but for a given circumference of
material, the hexagon surrounds
the largest area. (In terms of a
single unit, of course, it's the circle
that's best (as a polygonal limit),
but they leave gaps when packed
 Structures and forces
Roof Truss and triangulated frame types & configurations
Truss Terms: The terms below are typically used to describe the various
parts of a metal plate connected wood truss. The truss profile, span, heel
height, overall height, overhang and web configuration depend on the
specific design conditions and will vary by application.

A typical triangulated frame

structure using a ‘warren
truss’

The warren truss is

composed of equilateral
triangles
Types of Roof Trusses
There are two basic types of trusses. The pitched or common truss is characterized by its triangular
shape. It is most often used for roof construction. Some common trusses are named according to
their web configuration, such as the King Post, Fan, Fink or Howe truss. The chord size and web
configuration are determined by span, load and spacing
The parallel chord truss or flat truss gets its name from having parallel top and bottom chords. This
type is often used for floor construction.