1

Lecture contents

• Density of states
• Distribution function
• Statistic of carriers
– Intrinsic
– Extrinsic with no compensation
– Compensation

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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Density of states

Problem: Calculate number of states per unit energy per unit volume
V(x)

Large 3D box (L is large, n is large) with

0 Lx x
Born-von Karman Boundary Conditions: Lz
Ly
 ( x  Lx , y, z)   ( x, y, z) V0
Lx
2
Free electron approximation: kx  nx   k x k y k z 
Lx
  Ae ikr ky 
2
ny 
2 3 n x n y n z
Ly Lx L y Lz
2
kz  nz
Lz

Number of states:

kL S V
1D : N 2D : N 3D : N 
2 2  2
2 3

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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Density of states

V  2k 2  2 kk
k  2mE  V0 1 2
1
N
2 3 E  V0  
E 
2m m

1 N
N (E) 
V E
In the interval E to E+dE number
In the interval k to k+k
of states per unit “volume” (spin
number of states :
included):

4k 2 kL3 2m3 2

3D : N  N (E)  E  V0 1 2
2 3  2 3

2kkL2 m
2D : N  N (E) 
2 2  2

kL 2m1 2
1D : N 
2
N (E)  E  V0 1 2


NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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Density of states and dimensionality

From Singh, 2003

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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Density of states in 3D and DOS effective mass

Effective mass density of states

3D density of states
GaAs
2m *3 2
N (E)   E  V 12

 2 3
0

Conduction band DOS mass in

G point:

m *
dos m *
c
Conduction band DOS mass in
indirect gap semiconductors
(c– degeneracy of the valley):

m m m 
13
 c
* 23 * * *
m dos 1 2 3

Valence band DOS mass : m *

dos 
 m * 3/ 2
hh m * 3/ 2
lh 
23

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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General: N(E), f(E) and carrier concentrations

Intrinsic

N(E)

n-type
E
C
f(E)
0 1.0

p-type
Etop

Density of
states, N(E)
Fermi-Dirac
Carrier
concentrations
 N E  f E dE
EC
distribution
n and p
function, f(E)
NNSE 618 Lecture #7
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Filling the empty bands: Distribution function

Electron concentration at the energy E

(Density of states) x (distribution function):
n( E )  N c ( E ) f ( E )

Electrons (Fermi particles) follow Fermi-Dirac

statistics.

1
Fermi-Dirac distribution function:
f FD ( E )  E  EF

e k BT
1
In the non-degenerate case (electron energies
are far from EF ): E  EF  k BT

Boltzmann distribution function may be used:

f B ( E )  e E  EF  k BT

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Statistics of carriers: General

Electron concentration at the energy E

(Density of states) x (distribution function):
n( E )  N ( E ) f ( E )
E  EC 1 2 dE
32
2 me*
Electron concentration in the energy range n( E )dE 
E to E+dE close to the conduction band  2 3  E  EF 
exp   1
minimum:  k BT 
Total electron concentration in the 32  
E  EC 1 2 dE
32
2me* 2me* x1 2 dx
conduction band n   k BT  32
 
 2 3  E  EF   2 3 exp x   c   1
Ec exp    1 0
E  EC  k T
E  EC  B 
x c  F
k BT k BT
32 
 me*k BT  x1 2 dx

2
 2 
 2 2 
   exp x   c   1
0

General equation for 3D carrier concentration

(effective density of states) x (Fermi integral of ½ order): n  NC 1/ 2 (c )

General equation for 2D carrier concentration me*

(effective density of states) x (Fermi integral of zero order): ns   kBT  ln 1  exp c  
 2

DOS Effective DOS

NNSE 618 Lecture #7
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Statistics of carriers: General, 3D

32 
 mh* k BT  x1 2 dx

2
The same is true for holes in p  2 
 2 2 
   exp x  V   1
the valence band (3D): 0 1/ 2 ( )

p  NV 1/ 2 (V )

Effective density of states of electrons (or holes)

One-to-one correspondence

Concentration of Fermi level

mobile (band) carriers position

NNSE 618 Lecture #7
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Statistics of carriers: Non-degenerate system

x1 2 dx E  EC
 
2 E F  EC
n  NC x
exp x   c   1
General equation: c 
0 k BT k BT

If all the C.B. energies are far expx c   1

from Fermi level:   
EC – EF >> kBT (> 3 kBT) : x1 2 dx 
 0
exp x   c   1 
0

 e ( x c ) x1 2 dx  ec e  x x1 2 dx  ec
0
2

Concentration of band carriers

General case: Non-generate system:

 E  EC 
n  NC 1/ 2 (c ) n  N C exp F 
 k BT 

p  NV 1/ 2 (V )  E  EF 
p  NV exp V 
 k BT 
Law of mass action:
 Eg 
np  N C NV exp    ni2

 k BT  Definition of intrinsic carrier concentration
NNSE 618 Lecture #7
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Statistics of carriers: Intrinsic semiconductors

Intrinsic carrier concentration

In intrinsic semiconductors charge conservation
(no ionized impurities): n = p = ni

n NC  2 E  EC  EV 
1  exp F 
p NV  k BT 

Intrinsic Fermi level:

Useful relations between Fermi level and

concentration of carriers in extrinsic semiconductors:

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Carriers in intrinsic semiconductors

Fermi level position in

intrinsic semiconductor

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Adding impurities: Extrinsic semiconductors
Simple impurity with two charge
states, e.g. simple donor:
d0  d+ + e,
Total donor concentration: N d  N d  N d0
Concentration of neutral (filled with
N d0  gN d f FD ( Ed ) 1
electron) and ionized donors: f FD ( E )  E  EF
N d  N d 1  gf FD  e k BT
1
d0 has a degeneracy factor g

E F  Ed
N d0 gf FD
Ratio of neutral to charged donors:   ge k BT
N d 1  gf FD
g=2 for simple donors and
g=4 for simple acceptors
N d
(nondegenerate)
1 1
Ionization ratio for donors  EF  Ed
 
Nd n
1  gd e k BT 1
n1
d
and acceptors: N a 1 N c  k BT
 with n1  e
Ea  E F gd
Na
1 gae k BT

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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Extrinsic semiconductors: no compensation
What happens with Fermi level if semiconductors contains impurities?

n  N a  p  N d
In extrinsic semiconductors charge neutrality
condition includes ionized impurities ( instead of n
= p in intrinsic semiconductors):

When impurity of one type (say donors) are present: n  p  N d  N d ; if p  n

Nd  E  Ec 
Then general equation for Fermi level (needs to be E F  Ed
 N c 1/ 2  F 
solved for degenerate semiconductors) :  k BT 
1 gd e k BT

Nd Nd
And in non-degenerate case ( – ionization energy): d
n n
or n
1 gd
n
e k BT 1
Nc n1
d
n  4Nd  Nc 
or n  1   1  1 with n1  e k BT

2 n1 gd

Fermi level position n  4N d 
 E  EC 
(non-degenerate) using n  N C exp F  E F  EC  k BT ln 1   1  1
2Nc  n1 
 k BT   

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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Extrinsic semiconductors: no compensation

At high temperatures, for

4Nd
n1
 1 n  Nd

At low temperatures, for

4Nd
 1, or n  N d
Fermi level position in n-Ge
(uncompensated)
n1
Fermi level
 d k BT Nd
EF  EC   ln
2 2 g d NC
and concentration
d
N d N C  2 k BT
n e
gd

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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Extrinsic semiconductors with compensation
What happens with Fermi level if semiconductors contains both donors and acceptors?

Let’s consider non-degenerate case with p  n

n  N a  p  N d
Neutrality condition: n  N d  N A  N d  N A
Nd
E F  Ed
 n  NA
Equation for Fermi level for non-degenerate case :
1  gd e k BT

d
nn  N A  Nc 
Or  n1 (T ) with n1  e k BT

Nd  N A  n gd

Solving this quadratic equation:

n
1



N A  n1  1 

4 N d  N A n1 
 1

2  N A  n1
2
  
Fermi level position (non-degenerate) N n  4N d  N A n1 
EF  EC  k BT ln A 1  1  1
using  E F  EC 
n  N C exp  2Nc  N A  n1 2

 k BT 
NNSE 618 Lecture #7
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Extrinsic semiconductors with compensation

At high temperatures, for 

4 N d  N A n1  1 and n1  N A
N n 
2

n  Nd  N A
A 1

What is the accuracy of assumption p  n ?

ni2
At high temperature: n  Na   Nd
n
For n-type material:

For p-type material:

At low temperatures, for n  N A , N d  N A

NA
Fermi level EF  Ed  k BT ln
g d N d  N A 
d
N d  N A NC 
and concentration n e k BT

NA gd
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Doped semiconductors: Temperature dependence

Carrier concentration vs. temperature

curve has 3 distinct regions (4 regions in
compensated semiconductor)

Typical dependence for Si

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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Carrier concentration at low temperatures

Fermi level position and electron concentration in n-Ge

N d  N A  1016 cm 3 1  NA  0
2  N A  1014 cm 3
3  N A  1015 cm 3
4  N A  1016 cm 3

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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Strong non-degeneracy

 E  EF 
Strong degeneracy, i.e. Fermi level lies in the exp  C   1 or EF  EC
conduction (or valence) band:  k BT 

E F  EC
Carrier concentration: n  NC 1/ 2 (c ) c 
k BT
E F  EC
 k BT
2 x1 2 dx 2
 0 exp x  c   1 x
Substituting Fermi function by n  NC  N 12
dx 

C
step function (good for EF  EC  3kBT )
0

3
4  EF  EC  2
Finally: n  NC  
3   k BT 

Which is similar to simple metal

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Summary of carrier statistics in semiconductors
Importance of doping:

Si Resistivity
Intrinsic Undoped 2 x 105 -cm
Doped w/ 1015 5 -cm
As atoms/cm3

5 order of magnitude resistivity change

due to 1 in 50 million impurities !

n-type 1015 As atoms/cm3 in 5x1022 Si atoms/cm3

• Electronic properties are extremely

sensitive to impurities, defects, fields,
stresses …
• Fermi level determines static carrier
concentrations
p-type • General equations can be simplified in
non-degenerate and strongly degenerate
cases
link to Java applets
http://jas.eng.buffalo.edu
NNSE 618 Lecture #7
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Hall effect: carrier charge and concentration
determination

Lorentz force on a moving particle: F  ev  B 

Steady state: balance of forces in y direction: e y  ev x Bz

Consider one type of carriers (e.g. n >> p)

Current density in x-direction: J x  env x

Hall coefficient (Hall and drift
mobilities considered equal):

 1
 y  ne for n  type
RH   1
J x Bz  for p  type

 pe

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2D Statistics: Quantum Wells

Schrödinger equation under effective mass  2 2 

approximation (with envelope function  ):     V ( z )   E
 2m * 
Electrons (or holes) are “free” along x
and y:
  eik x x e
ik y y
f (z )
We return to a problem of a “particle in
a well”

 2 2 
    V ( z )  f ( z )  Ef ( z )
 2 m * 

Solution:
– Finite number of discrete energy From Singh, 2003
levels
– Sinusoidal wavefunction inside the
well
– Exponential decay in the barrier

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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Quantum Wells
• Each level in 1D well
corresponds to a 2D band
with parabolic dispersion

• E(k) dispersion
corresponds to an effective
mass in x-y plane

• Hole 2D bands split

according to their effective
masses (light and heavy
holes)

• For better accuracy for

holes use Kohn-Luttinger
valence band structure

From Singh, 2003

NNSE 618 Lecture #7

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2D statistics: Density of states in Quantum Wells

• Density of states in 2D band (a single m*

subband in the interval E to E+dE number of N (E) 
states per unit “volume”)
 2

From Singh, 2003

me*
 kBT  ln 1  exp c  
2D Carrier concentration in a single
ns 
subband [cm-2]
 2

NNSE 618 Lecture #7