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HI
STORY
FORM2NOTES
TRADE
Def i
niti
onoft rade
It’
st hebuy ingandsel li
nggoodsorexchangeofgoodsf ormut ual benef i
t.
Originanddev elopmentoft rade
Ther e wer e exchanges bet ween count ries ofdi fferentenv ironmenti n mor ef av our able
surroundi ng;t her ewasanor ganisedt radebet weenhunt ingandgat her i
ngcommuni tiesand
theirmor eadv ancednei ghbour .
InAf ri
cai twast hrought hepr oduct ionandex changeofcommodi ti
essuchascat tle,salt-
smokedf ish,kol anut s,mi ner alsandmet alswhi chwer ei nstr
ument alinmai ntai
ni ngt rade
fl
ow, thisshowst hatfoodwasmor eimpor tant .
Aspeopl ebecamemor eandmor eadv anced,sodi dt hei rneeds,l ikecl othing,impr oved
met hodsoff armi ng,improv edcr opsandl ivest ockandt heuseofmoder ntoolsincul tivation.
Moder nci v il
isat i
onhasal socont ri
but edt owor ldinsecur ity,whichhasl eadt omanuf act ureof
weaponssuchasgunsandammuni ti
on.
Met hodsoft rade
a)Bar tert rade
Bar tert radei stheol destmet hodoft radei nt hehi stor
yofhumanci vi
li
zation.Bar ter
i
nv olv est heexchangeofgoodsandser vicesf orot hergoodsorser vi
ces,likegame
meatwi thagr i
culturalpr oduces, cloth, horses, salt,copperf oegol d,slaves,ivory ,kola-
nuts, ani mal ski
nsandost r i
chf eather s.
Theseexchangescoul dt aket hef orm ofsi lentt radeordumbbar ter.Thisiswher ei s
nocommonl anguageandal soi naf orm ofsi gnl anguage.
Adv ant ages
 I t’ssui tablewher et herei snocur rency
Disadv ant ages
 I t’snoteasyt oest abl i
sht heact ual valueoft hegoods
 Somegoodscoul dnotbedi videdi ntosmal lerquant i
ties
 Lackofdoubl ecoi nci denceofwant s.(si mi l
ardemand)
 Bul kyandper ishabl ecommodi ti
eshadpoort r
anspor tat
ion
 Lackofacommonl anguage
b)Cur rencyt rade
I
t’
st heuseofmoneyt opur chasecommodi ti
esort opayf orser vices.Cur rencyi sa
medi um ofexchangeaccept edbyacommuni tyasameasur eofv aluef orgoodsand

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serv i
ces.
Impor tantchar act er i
sticsofcur rency
 I tshoul dbeaccept edbysoci ety
 I tshoul dbest abl eandr etainv aluewi thoutdepreciat
ing
 I tshoul dbedur abl eandofqual i
tyt obekeptf oralongt i
me
 I tshoul dbedi visibl ei ntosmal leruni ts
 I tshoul dbeconv er ti
bleint oot hercur r
enci
es
 I tshoul dbepor tabl et oal l
oweasyt ransport
ation
Maj ormoder ncur renci es
 Uni tedki ngdom-st erli
ngpound
 USA-dol l
ar
 Ger many -deut schemar k( DM)
 Fr ance–f ranc( FF)
 Japan–y en
 Eur opean–EURO
Adv antages
 I tcanbedi v i
dedi nt osmal leruni t s
 I tispossi blet ost or eweal thsi nemoneyi sast oreofwealth
 I tspor tablesi ncei t’
snotbul ky
 I tisameasur eofv alue/wor thofgoodsandser vi
ces
 I thasi nt r
insicv al ueascur r enciesar egenerall
ymadef rom pr eciousandr are
met als
Disadvantages
 Thev alueoft hecur r
encymayf luct uat edependingont hestrengthofacount y’
s
economy
Ty
pesoft rade
 Local trade
 Regi onal trade
 International trade
a)Localt rade
Thisi st heexchangeofgoodsatt hev i
llagelevelwithinageogr aphicalregi on.I t
i
ncl udesnei ghbour ingv il
lages;onev ill
agecoul dproducebasket sandexchanget hem
forpot sf rom anot herv il
lage.
Origin:itbeganduet o
i
) Climat icandenv ironmentcondi tions.Theseaf f
ectt hedistr
ibutionofv arious
kindsofani mal sandpl ants.Si tuat i
onsar i
sewher epeoplesr equi r
ement sar e
notf oundi nt hel ocal ity
i
i) Unev en di stribut ion ofnat uralr esources.No r egions have al lt he nat ural
resour cest heyr equi re
i
ii) Speci alization,someski ll
swer epr eservi
ngf oraf ew people,li
kei r
on-wor king,

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pot teryandcl oth-maki ng.Thepeopl ewhodi dn’ thav esuchski l

lsacquiredwhat
theycoul dnotpr oducet hr ought rade.
iv) Sur pluspr oduct ion.Ther ewasal soneedf orl ocaldemand;peopl eexchanged
theexcessofwhatt heyhad i n plent ywi th whatt heyneeded f rom ot her
communi t
ies.
Dev elopment
Localt radedev elopedi nor dertosat isf ytheneedofgoodst hatwer enotav ail
ableinav i
ll
age
andpr oduct ionofsur plusgoodsmadei tnecessar ytosel lwhatwasnotr equi
redt ot he
nei ghbour i
ngv il
lages, ascont inuoussuppl yanddemandofgoodsl edtofurtherdevelopment
oft rade.
Peacef ul co-exi stenceofnei ghbour i
ngcommuni t
iesal socont ri
but edtodevelopmentoft rade.
Regi onal andi nt ernat i
onal tradef urt
herencour agedt hedev elopment
Or gani sation
Itwasor gani sedbet weeni ndi vi
duals, fami lies, cl
ansandal tercommuni ti
eswhi chexchanged
tradegoodsl ikegr ai ns,pot s,i
roni mpl ement s, ski
nsandl iv estock.
Itwasor gani sedal ongacommoncl anort r i
balbor deronar egularbasissuchasweekl yor
for t
ni ghtl
y
Tr ader out esf aci li
tat edt heeasymov ement soft r
ade
Itwasconduct edmai nlyusi ngthebar termet hod
Char acter i
st i
csofl ocal tr
ade
 I twascar riedoutwi thinasmal larea
 Ther angeofgoodswasl imit
edt oav ailabili
ty
 Thenumber soft rader swer efew
 I twast hebasi sofr egional andi nter nat ional tr
ade
 I twasdonebysmal l-scalet r
ade
Impact
 I tpr omot edgoodr elati
onsbet weent hecommuni tiesi nv olved.
 Ther ewasi nteractionbet weencommuni ti
esl eadi ngt ot headoptionofnew cul t
ur al
pract i
ces
 Ther ewasi nter mar r
iage
 Dev elopmentoft radi ngcent r
eswhi chgr ewi ntotowns
 Ther ewasav ailabil
ityofgoodsandmat er i
als
 Ear l
yi ndust rieswer eest abli
shedt opr oducei t
emsoft rade
 Chi efdomsemer geasar esul
tofl eviesandt ri
butespai dt ot r
ader
s
 I tpr ovidedabasef orr egionalandi nt er national tr
ade.
b)Regi onal trade
It’
st heexchangeofgoodsconduct edbet weent woormor egeogr aphi
calregionsliketrans-
Sahar ant rade.
Thet r
ans- Sahar ant rade
Itwasconduct edbet weenNor thAf ri
caandWestAf ri
ca.Itder iveditsnamef r
om crossingof

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theSahar andeser tbyt raders.

Origin
It
’snotcl earwhent hist r
adest arted,mer chant swer et ravellingonhor sedr awnchar i
ots
betweennor thandWestAf ri
ca,duet oi ncreasedar idity,thev ol umeoft radedecr eased,but
withthei nt r
oduct i
onoft hecamelf r
om Asi at het r
adewasr eviv ed.TheAr abi cwhoor iginall
y
settl
edi npar tsofNor thAf ri
caandf r
om t heret heyst artedmov ingsout h,fir
stast rader sand
l
aterasset tlers.
Dev el
opment
 Thecamelwhi chwasusedasameansoft ranspor tmadei teasi ertot r
av eland
conductt rade acr oss t he hotand host i
le deser tas t he camelcoul d withst and
ext remel yharshcondi ti
ons.
 Theav ai l
abil
it
yoft radecommodi t i
esl ike,gold,i vory,slav es,leather,kola-nuts,pepper
andgum wer er eadilyav ai
lablei nt heWestAf rica.Si milar l
yt hecommodi ti
essuchas
sal t
, hor ses,weapons, i
ront ools, cloth, sil
k,beads, cowr iesshel ls,gl
asswar eanddr i
es
fruit.
 St rongki ngdom.Ther ewer est rongki ngdomsl ikeGhana, Mal iandSonghai .Ther ulers
ensur edt hatthet radepr osper edandt hatt r
ader outeswer esecure.
 Thet uar egs.Theyser vedasgui dest ot hecar av ansast heywer econv ersantwi t
ht he
deser tr outs.Theyguar dedt hecar av ansagai nsthost iledeser tcommuni ti
eswho
soughtt or obthem; theyact edasmi ddl emenandmai ntainedoasest hroughpr oviding
foodst uffs.
 Weal thymer chant s.Theyf inancedt hecar avansasani nv estmentt hathopedwoul d
bringt hosepr of i
ts.
 Oases.Thi sl ead t o gr owt h of t rans-Sahar an trade t hrough r efreshment and
repl enishi ngsuppl i
es.
 I slam.Asi sl
am spr eadt hrought her egi on,itser vedt ouni f
yt hetradersasbr others
andsi st ers.

Organi zati
on
Weal thymer chantsintheNor t
hAf r
icanfinancedt hecar av
ans.Itwasdonewher emer chant s
gather edcommodi t
iesandcommi tsthem totheirempl oyeeswhowoul dor ganisecar avans
andt heywoul dcommi ttheirmerchandiseasl oanst othei
rt r
ader
swhowoul dthenor ganise
caravans.
Thet raderswoul dcollectcommodi ti
esthatwer ei ndemandi nWestAfri
cansuchashor ses
andweapons.Thet rader’
swoul dteam upwi t
hot hertraderstoform acaravan.Thecar avans
woul dbemadeupofsev er
al hundredsofpeopl e.
Thet raderswoul dengaget heser vi
cesoft hetuaregorBer berguides,al
soknownast akshifs
whowoul dgui dethecaravanst othelocationswitht hehighestdemandatt het i
me.
Duringt hei
rtri
ps,thetraderswoul dengagel ocalagent swhowoul dserveasi nter
mediar ies.

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Therewer et wot ypesoft r

ader out esusednamel y,t hemai norpr i
mar yr outesandt he
secondar yr out es.
a)Thewest ernr oute.I tbeganatf ezi nmor occo andwentt hroughSi j
i
lmasa,t hen
Taghaza, Timbukut u, Audaghastandendedi nt heNi gerbel t
.
b)Thecent ralr oute.Thi sr out ebegani nTuni st hr oughGhat ,Agades,Kanoandended
wi thint heHausast ate.
c)Theeast ernr oute.Thi sr out est artedf rom Tr ipol ithenwentt hroughMur zuk, Bil
maand
finallyendedatNj i
mi i
nKar nem Bor nu.
Di f
f i
cul tiesencount eredbyt rader s
 Thej our neywasl ongandt iring, somet imest hecar av antrader sranoutofsuppl i
esf or
themsel vesandani mal s
 Thecar av ansencount eredi nsecur ityi nt hedeser tl i
ker obber sandt er
rorismswhi ch
wer ehost ile
 Ther out esi nt hedeser tchangedf requent l
y, thecar av answoul doccasi onallygetl ost
 Thedeser tcl i
mat ewashar shwi thv eryhi ght emper aturesdur i
ngt hedayandv erylow
atni ght
 Ther ewasal anguagebar r
ierbet weent het rader sandt hedeser tcommuni ties
 Bl indi ngsandst ormshamper edt hepr ogr essoft hecar avan
 Thecar av answer eal way sdangerofat t
ackbyv ari
ousdeser tcr eaturessuchas
scor pi onsandsnakes
 Thet akshi fswoul dt ur nagai nstt heempl oy er sandat tackandr obt hem
 Ther ewasr ivalryamongt rader sov ert hemonopol yandcont r
oloft r
adeandt r
ade
rout es
Factor
st hatl eadt odecl i
neoft het rans- Sahar ant r ade
 Thegol dandsal tfieldsgotexhaust edr educi ngsuppl y
 Fal lofempi resl i
keSonghai causedpol it
ical inst abi lityandi nsecur it
yint her egion
 Ext ernali nvasi onbymor occocostdest ruct i
onofsomecommer cialcentresl ikeGao
andTi mbukut u
 Ther iseandgr owthoft r
ans- At lant i
ct r
ader ender edt rans-Sahar ant r
adeunpopul ar
 Eur opeant r
adi ngact iviti
esal ongWestAf ri
cancoastunder mi net het r
ade
 Abol i
tionofsl avetradef rom t he1840sdeni edt het radersamai nt r
ade`item’
 Thet uar egschangedt heirrol esasgui desandbecamer obber soft hecar avans
 Thedeser tcondi t
ionl ikesandst ormsanddeser ti nsect s.
Impact
 Thet radepr ov i
dedani mpor tantl i
nkbet weenwest ernSudanandNor thAf r
ica
 I tst i
mul at edt hegr owt hofsmal lset tlementwhi chl atergrewi ntobi gancientt owns
 I tcr eat edanewsoci al cl
assi nwest er nSudan
 Thet radebr oughtabouti slami sat i
onofpeopl ei nWestAf rica
 Newt y pesofgoodswer eint roducedt ot hepeopl eofWestAf r
ica
 Theybui l
tschool sanduni ver sitywer eAr abi cl it
er at ureandphi losophywer et aught

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C)I nt ernat i
onalt rade
Itr eferst ot radebet weencount riesout sidegeogr aphi calr egi ons.I tcanal sobedef ineas
tradewhi chi nv olvest ravel acr ossseasandoceans.
Thet rans- At l
ant i
ct rade
Ital sor efer redt oast riangul art rade, becausei twasconduct edbet weenAf ri
ca, Amer icaand
Eur opeacr osst heAt l
ant icOcean
Or i
gi ns
Itbegani n15thcent uryasar esultofPor t ugueseandSpani shexpl or ation.Atf irstPor t
uguese
t
h
tooksl avet o Eur ope,wher et heywor kedasdomest icser v ant s.I nt he16 c.wi t ht he
discov eryandcol oni zationofAmer i
ca,sl av eswer eexpor tedt her ef rom westAf ricaby
Eur opeanmer chant s.
Eur opeansi nPor t
ugal , Spai n, Holland, FranceandBr i
tainst artedpl ant ationofsugar , t
obacco
andcot t
oni nt hel ands.Thi scr eatedanagentneedf orcheapl abourasi ndi genousr ed
Indianswer eunwi l
lingandunf ittowor ki nt hepl ant ation.Thesol utiont ol abourpr oblem
wasf oundi nAf ri
ca.
WhyAf ri
cansl av ewer emor epr efer redt hanot herr aces
 Thesuppl yofAf ri
cansl avewashi gh
 Theywer echeapert oacqui re
 Theywer est rongert hant heEur opeanandRedI ndi anl abour ers
 Theywer er egar dedasi mmunet ot ropical diseas
 Thei rcompl exionpr event edt hem f r om escapi ngt hem easi ly
Dev el opment
Thi swasi nf luencedbyt heact iviti
esofPor t
ugueseast heywer et osai ltoWestAf ricaand
est abl i
shedt radel i
nks.Theycapt uredaf ew Af ri
canssl avewhom t heyt ookt ooEur opet o
wor kasdomest i
cser vant s.t heywer eshi ppedt oHi spani olai n1510.Thesuccessesoft heir
exper imentl eadt omor esl avesbei ngshi ppeddi rectlytoAmer icaf rom Af ri
ca
Fact or sf ort hedev elopmentoft rans- At l
ant i
ct rade
 Eur opeannat i
onshandl i
nkswi thWestAf ri
ca.
 Af ricanchi efshaddev elopedat ast ef orEur opeangoodssuchasgl ass,cl othes,r um
andf ir–ar ms
 Thei nt roduct ionoff i
re-armsi nWestAf r
icamadei teasi ert or aidcommuni tiesf or
slav esandt oconductwar sofconquesti nordert ocapt ur esl av es.
 Theest abl i
shmentofmi nesandpl antationsandi nnew l andsi ncr easedt hedemand
forsl av es
 The i ncr eased demand ofr aw mat erials by Eur opean i ndust ries resul ted i n an
increasedi ndemandf orsl av esinAmer i
ca.
 Ther ewascompet iti
onandr i
valryamongEur opeannat i
onst ocont rolt
het rade
 Thet radewasl ucr ativeandpr ofit
abl etot hemer chant s.
 Shi p – bui lding t echnol ogyi mpr ov ed wi thbui lding ofl ar gershi pswi thagr eater
capaci tyf orsuchassl aves.

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Or ganizat ion
Itwasconduct edbet weent hreecont inent sthatar eAf r
ica,Amer i
caandEur ope;i ti nv ol
ved
Por tugal ,Spai n,Hol l
and,Br itainandFr ance.Fr om Af rica,slav eswer eshi ppedt opl ant ati
ons
i
nt heCar i
bbeanandt heAmer icawhi lerawmat erialsi ncludi nggol d, pepper ,iv
ory ,hi
des, gum,
beeswax,r iceandgi ngerwer esentt oEur ope.Fr om pl antat i
onsi nAmer i
caandCar ibbean,
raw mat erialssuchassugar ,t obacco and cot t
onwer esentt of actor i
esi nEur opef or
processi ng.
Thesl av eswer et hemai ncommodi tyt hatwer eshi ppedf rom t heWestAf ri
cancoastand
dest inedf orpl ant ationsi nAmer icaandCar i
bbean.
Cheapmanuf act uredgoodswer eshi ppedf r
om Eur opeanpor tst omi ddl
emenont heWest
Af ri
cancoast .Themi ddlemenhel dt hemer chandi sei nt rustandusedi tt ot radewi ththe
slav escapt ors.Thi sl eadt ogr owt hoft heWestAf ricanpor tssuchasAccr a,LagosandDakar .
WhenEur opeant rader sar riv edi nt heWestAf r i
ca,agent soft hel ocalki ngscol l
ect edf ees
from t hem af terwhi cht heywer eent er tained.
Met hodsusedt oacqui redsl av es
 Theywer esol dbyr uler ssuchaschi efsandki ngst othesl avet r
ader s
 Thecapt ivesofwarwer esol dt othesl avet r
ader s
 Theywer eexchangedwi thot hercommodi tiese. ggunandcl ot h
 Somel onel yt rav ell
er swer eki dnappedbyt hesl av etrader s
 Commodi ti
esr aidedt hei rnei ghbour sandcapt uredpeopl ewhower esol dt osl ave
traders
 Chi ldrenwer eent i
cedwi thgi ftsl ikedsweet sandt hencapt uredt obesol dt osl ave
traders
 Debt or swer esol dt osl av et rader st opaydebt st hroughamet hodknownaspany ari
ng
Reasonsf ort hedecl i
ne
 Ther ewasdecl inei ndemandofsugarasFr ancebeganpr oduci ngcheapersugart hat
penet rat edanddomi nat edt heEur opeanmar ket.
 I nt he1776,t heU. S.A at tainedpol iti
cali ndependencef rom Br i
tain,amov et hat
depr i
v edt heBr i
tishofpr of i
tsmadef r
om t hesl av et r
ade
 Dur i
ngt hei ndust rialr ev olutioni nEur ope,machi nesr eplacedhumanl abourast hey
wer emor eef fi
cient .
 TheChr ist i
anmi ssi onar iesbegant oadv ocat ef ortheabol i
ti
onofsl avet rade,asdi d
th
humani tar iansi nBr itai ndur ing19 c.
 I nfl
uent i
aleconomi stsl i
keAdam smi thadv ancedar gument sf oraf reeent erpri
se
economy ;menwer el esspr oduct i
v ewhenensl av edthanf reemen.
 TheU. S. A.exper iencedaci v i
lwarbet weent henor t
handsout hov ert hei nstit
ut ionof
slavery ,t henor thwhi chwasagai nstsl av erywont hewarl eadi ngt ot heabol itionof
slaveryi nt heU. S.A.
 Leadi ngAf ricansact ivel ycampai gnedagai nstsl av et rade.Ki ngnzi ngambembaof
Congowr oteal ettert ot heki ngofPor tugalr equest i
nghi mt ost ophi smenbuy i
ng

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slavei nt heCongo.
I
mpact
 Thet r
adel edt ot hedev elopmentofpor tslikeBr i
st olandLi v erpool .
 Itcont ributed t ot he emer gence ofa cl ass ofweal thyt rader s who invested in
plantat ion.
 Itledt oset t
lementofAf r
icansi nAmer i
ca.
 Ther ewasdepopul at i
oninAf ricaassl aveswer ecapt uredandt akent oAmer i
ca.
 Slav er aidi
ngl edt oani ncr easedi ni nter-
tr
ibal war s,t
hewar sincr easedi nsecuri
ty.
 Kingdomsl i
ket heFant e, Asent e, DahomeyandOy owhi chcont rolledt hetr
adebecame
verypower ful.
 Ther ewaseconomi cdecl inebecauset hey oungandabl ewer et akenaway ,l
eavi
ngt he
weakandol d.
 Slav er aidingi nv olvedt hedest ruct ionofpr oper ty;vil
lageswer eof tenburntdownand
l
ef tinr uins.
 Ther ewasdecl inei nt raditional indust ri
esduet oi ntr
oduct i
onofgoodssuchascl othes
andgl asswar eatt heexpenseofl ocal ones.
 Thet rans- Sahar ant radedecl ineasgoodswer edi vertedt owar dst heWestAf ri
can
coastf rom t hem wasexpor t
edov erseas.
 Long-l astingt radel inkswer eest ablishedbet weenWestAf rica, Eur opeandAmer i
ca.
 Slav e mar ketand por tsl i
ke Lagos and El mina f rom wher e sl ave were shipped,
dev elopedi ntour bancent r esal ongt hecoastofWestAf rica.
 Slav et radeweakenedAf ricansoci eti
estot helev elthatt heycoul dnotef f
ecti
vel
yr esi
st
coloni sat i
on.
 Theabol it
ionoft radel eadt ot hecr eati
onofSi erraLeoneandLi ber i
aasset tl
ement s
forf r
eedsl av es

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DEVELOPMENTOFTRANSPORTANDCOMMUNI CATI ON
Defini
tionoft rade
I
t’sfrom t wowar ds;Tr answhi chmeansacr oss,bey ond,ov erort othefarsideofandpor t
meani ngt hecar r
y i
ngofgoods.I t’sther ef oret hecar ry i
ngofgoodsandpeopl efrom oneplace
toanot her.
Traditi
onalf or msoft ranspor t
Thesear ehumanpor tr age, packofani mal s, r
aft,boat sandsai l
i
ngshi ps
Landt ranspor t
a)Humanpor trage
Thiswascar ri
edonheads, shoul dersandbacks
Advant ages
 I twasr eadi lyav ailable
 I twascheapmet hods
 I twasf lexiblebecausei thar dnof ixedt i
mesf ordepar t
ureandar ri
val
Disadv antages
 I twast ime- consumi ngasmov ementwassl ow
 Ther epor tercoul dcar ryonl yasmal lload
 I twast iresome, forcingt hepor tert omakef requentr est
 Por terswer eaf fect edbyadv erseweat hercondi t
ion
b)Packanddr aughtani mal s
Animal swer einit i
allydomest icat edonl yf orf ood,l atert heydi dcar rygoodsandpeopl e.At
fi
rstthel oadwaspl aceddi rectlyont heani mal sback, later,someoft heanimalsbegant opull
vehicl
es.Ani mal slikeox, donkey ,horse, mul e, el
ephant ,camel ,r
eindeeranddogs
Advant ages
 Ani mal sar echeapt omai ntainsi ncet heyrequi reonl yfeeding
 Acci dent sar er aresi nceani mal sdonotov erspeed
 Ani mal scanbeusedi naccessi blear eas
 Someani mal scansensedangerbysni ffi
ngoutanenemyf rom adist
ance.
 Ani mal sdonotneedf uel apar tf rom t eachi ngandt raining
Disadv antages
 Ani mal smaybeat tackedbywi ldani mal s
 I tissl owandt edi ousmodeoft ranspor t
 Theamount sofl oadwhi chani mal scancar r
yar elowwhencompar edtomotorv ehi
cle.
 Packani mal sar est ubbor nwhent iredorheav il
yl oaded
 Theani mal scanonl ycov eral imi teddi stance
c)Vehi cleswi thoutwheel s
Theear l
iestv ehicleswer ecr udecont rapt i
onswi thoutwheel s.Ast heywerecumber somet o
dragal ongt hegr ound, theymov edsl owl yandcar ri
edsmal lloads.
Thesl eigh( sledge)
Thesl eighgl idedonr unner spl acedf rom backt of ront.I twascommonl yusedint hesnow

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ter r
ainsofnor ther nEur opeandNor thAmer i
ca.I twasi nitial
lypul l
edbypeopl e; l
at erteamsof
dogswer ehar nessedt oit.Ther eindeerwasal sousedi nsomepar tsoft hear cticandsub-
ar cti
cr egi ons.
Thet rav ois
Itwasv -shapedwi tht henar rowersi dehar nessedt oahor seordogsusi ngapol e.The
br oadersi dewhi chwasdr aggedal ongt hegr ound, hadcr oss- piecest hatser v edasabasef or
thel oad.Thet rav oiswasmostcommonl yusedi nt heNor thAmer i
cabecauseofi tst r
eel ess,
dr yandf latt errain.
Thesedanchai r
Thi swasaspeci alchai rf i
ttedwi tht wopol esr unningont hesi desf rom backt of r
ont .Four
mencar ri
edi tont hesepol es.
Thedev el opmentofwheel
Thei deaoft hewheelwasdev elopedf rom t heuseofwoodenr oll
er s.Thesel oosel engt hsof
l
ogspl acedunderal oad.Thel oadwast henpul l
edf orwar dov ert her oller s.Aseachr oller
wasf ixedatt heback.I twascar ri
edandpl acedagai natt hef ront.
Thewheeli nMesopot ami a
Itwasf i
rstusedbySumer i
ansi nMesopot ami aabout5000y ear sago.I twassol id,heav yand
fixedt ot heaxl e.Thespokewheelwasdev elopedar ound2500bc.I twasusedonahor se-
st
dr awnchar i
ot ,maki ngt hem l i
ght erandswi ft
er .Thesewer et he1 v ehi clest obeusedi n
war fare.
Lat err ubberst ri
pwasaddedont heout side.Amet alst rip,inst eadofr ubber ,wasi ntroduced
byAssy ri
ans.Al lt hesemadet hewoodenspokewheelmor edur abl e.I twasal sousedi n
shadoof s,apul leysy stem wi thwhi chf armswer ei rr
igat edi nMesopot ami a.
Impactoft hewheeli nMesopot ami a
 I tenabl edt heSumer i
ansbui ltwarchar iotswhi chincr easedmobi lityoft hesol der s.
 I tenhancedt r
anspor tati
onofpeopl eandgoods.
 The char iot s gav et he Sumer ians sol der s hei ghtadv antage ov ert heirenemi es,
enabl i
ngt hem t ofightmor eef f
icient .
 I tpr omot edt r
adet hroughef fici
encyoft ranspor t
at i
onofgoodsandt rader s
 I tfaci li
tatedt heconst ruct i
onofr oads
 I tenhancet hemaki ngofpot sofhi ghqual i
ty
 I tpr omot edear l
yagr icul
t ureast hewheel wasusedonshadooff ori rrigation.
Thewheeli nchi na
Theyi nv ent edt hewheelabout4000y earsago.Theyusedt hepot ter’swheelt opr oducef i
ne
por celainv essel s.Theywer ef i
xedonhor se-dr awnchar iotsandcar tsdr awnwat erbuf fal oes
forcar ryingpeopl eandgoods.
Thewheeli nAf ri
ca
Itspr eadt hr oughEgy ptfrom sout hEastAsi awhent hecount rywasi nv adedbyt heHy ksosi n
1800BC.Thei nv ader susedhor sedr awnchar iots.Whent heywer edef eat ed,t heEgy pt ians
usedt hewheel tomaket heirowncar t
s, thisspr eadt oot herpar tsofAf rica.

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Thewheeli nEur ope

TheGr eekswer et he1stEur opeanstouset hewheel ,dur i
ngt heOl y
mpi cswhichwereheld
everyfoury ears;oneev entwasaf our
teen-kilometr
echar iotrace.
st
Mili
tarychar i
otswer e1 useddur ingther eignofAlexandert hegr eat.Usinghorse–drawn
chari
otsandwheel edsi eget owar s,theGr eeksconquer edt ur
key ,Persi
a,part
sofIndiaand
Egypt.
TheRomansl earnedtheuseoft hewheelf r
om t
heGr eeks.Theyi mprovedtwo-wheeled
chari
otsf orspor t
,postal servicesandwar fare.
Watert ranspor t
st
The1 meansofwat ert ransportwasj ustal ogtowhi chamancoul dcling,t
heearlypeopl
e
musthav edi scoveredt hatt heycouldhol dont oat r
eet runk,r emainafloatandactual
lybe
tr
anspor ted.

Theear l
iestv essels
Rafts
I
t’smadeupofsev erallogst i
edtogether.Thishel pedt oimpr oveont hestabi
li
tyoft helog.A
l
ongpol er eachedt hebot tom oftheriverwast opr opel andst eerther aft
.Howev er,i
twasst il
l
dif
fi
cul ttomov eupst ream.
Thedug- outcanoe
Theear l
iestboat swer esimpl ydug-outtreetrunk.Thehal l
owedoutsect i
onprovidedr oom for
passenger s.Thesewer eusedf orcrossingr i
versov ershal l
ow wat ersandf i
shing,butt hey
werenotunst able.
Oar-drivenboat s
Oarswer eusedt opushorr owtheboatagai nstwat ercur rentsthusi ncreasi
ngthespeedand
power .Theywer eusedbyEgy pti
ans, Romans, Phoeni ci
ansandGr eeks.
Sail
ingboat s
Theywer epropel l
edbywi nd;itwasdonebyt r
appi ngwi ndsi nclotht hatwasat t
achedt oa
mastont heboat .Theyhadgr eaterspeedt hanoar -drivenboat s.
Sail
ingshi p
Theywer elargerandbi ggerthant hesaili
ngboat s.Amastwaser ect edinthecent reofthe
vessel andasquar esailattachedoni t.
Limitationsofear lyformsofwat ertransport
 Theycoul deasi lysinkduringst r
ongwi ndandst orms.
 Theycoul donl ymov edownst ream ast heirmov ementr el
iedonwat ercur
r ent.
 Theycar ri
edonl yaf ewpassenger sandgoodsatat ime
 Passenger sandgoodswer eexposedt otheel ement sofweat her .
Developmenti nmoder nmeansoft ranspor t
Roadt ranspor t
Romanr oads

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The1str oadt obebui ltwasbyRomansabout312bc.Themai nai m wast oensur er apid

mov ementoft roopsandadmi nistrators.
Ev eryr egionwasaccompani edbyanengi neert osuper vi
seconst ructionandmai ntenance.
Thebui ldingwasdonebysol diers, assistedbyl ocallabourers.
Ther oadshadf oundat ionsofupt ooneandhal fmet ersdeepandmadewi thwhat ev erl ocal
st
mat er i
alt hatwasav ailable, usual lyheav yrockswer et hr
owni n1 , f
oll
owedbyot herl ay ersof
smal lerst onesandr ubbl e.Ther ewasadr ainoneachsi deandker bst onest opr ev entt he
sur f
acef rom slidingout war ds.
st
The1 r omanr oadcal l
edt heapi anway ,connect edRomeandCapua, adi stanceof209km.at
thehei ghtoft heempi re;ov er85000km ofr oadshadbeenbui lt.
Char act eristi
csofr omanr oads
 Theywer econst ruct edst raight
 Theywer er aisedhi ghabov et hegr oundt oav oidflooding.
 Theywer ewel ldrainedoneachsi de
 Theywer ebui l
twi thbr i
dgesacr ossr iversandt unnelst hroughhi lls.
Macadam r oads
Johnmacadam ( 1756- 1830)dev isedaf asterbutcheaperwayofconst ructingr oads.He
reali
sedt hator dinar ygr oundcoul dst i
llbeusedt omakegoodr oadsi fitwaskeptdr y .He
remov edonl ythet opsoi landt henputt hr eel ayersofsmal l,br okenst ones,car ri
agewheel s
wer eusedt opr esst hest onest ightlyandgr i
tt obr eakof fandbi ndev erythingt ogether .The
sur f
acewascur vedt oal l
ow wat ert or unof fintodi tchesont hesi des.Thesoi lunder neat h
remai neddr yandmadet her oaddur able.
Theser oadswer elat erimpr ov edbyaddi ngt art opr oduceawat erproofsur facecal ledt ar-
Mac.Thewor dwascoi nedf rom t hewor dt ar, andf r
om macadam’ sname.
Adv ant ageofmacadam r oads.
 Theywer eal l-weat herr oads
 Ther oadswer ewi dehencecoul daccommodat emor et raffic
 Theywer edur able
 Theywer est raighthencer educedacci dent s
 Theyhadasmoot hsur facehencet hemot ori
ngsur f
acewascomf ortable.
Thebi cy cle
Itmeanst wowheel s;itwasi nvent edi n1700byaFr enchmandesi vrac.I thast wowheel s
wer epl acedi nf rontoft heot heronaf ramewor kr at
hert hansi debysi deonasi ngleaxl e.
Thev eloci pede
It
’sal soknownast hehobbyhor se,thiski ndofabi cyclewas1stusedi n1820.Ther ewasno
transmi ssionofpowert ot hewheel s.Ther i
dersatoni tandpushedi tf orwardwi thhi sf eet
andsomespeedwasbui ltup.
Thepennyf arthing
Thenamewasder ivedf rom t heBr it
ishcoi ns, thepenny ,andt hef ar t
hing, becauseonewheel

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wasbi ggert hant heot her .Ther idert ransmi ttedpowerf rom pedal sattachedt ot hef ront
biggerwheel ov erwhi cht hehesat .
Thesaf etybi cy cle
Itwasdev el opedf rom 1884.Chai ngear i
ngwasi nventedbyEngl ishmanJ. K St anley.It
consi stedoft wospr ocket -wheel s, thebi ggeroneat tachedt ot hepedal si
nthecent reandt he
smal leronet ot her earwheel .
Anot her Engl ishman,J. B Dunl op,i nv ented t he pneumat ict yr
es whi ch r eplace t he
uncomf ortabl esol i
dr ubberones.
Thel asti mpr ov ementwast hei nv ent ionoft hef ree-wheelwhi chal lowedt herearwheelt o
rotatewhent her iderwasnotpedal ling.
Themot or-cy cl e
Themot or-cy cl ei samot orisedbi cycl e.The1stwasmadebyGot t
li
edDai mlerin1855.The
framewasmadest rongerandwheel swi der,anengi neandagearboxwer eaddedt oease
ri
ding.I twasf ast ert hanabi cy cleandcheapert hananaut omobi le,itcouldaccessr ough
terrai
n, carriedonl yonepassengerorasmal l load.
Themot orv ehi cle
Itwasnotasuddeni nv ent ionofanyoneper son.I twast her esul tofacont ri
butionofmany
peopl eov ersev er alhundr edy ear s,i n1789,aFr enchengi neer ,andJosephCugnot ,builta
three-wheel edv ehicl epower edbyast eam engi ne.I tmov edatasl ow, walki
ngpace, alt
hough
i
tcoul dcar rypassenger s, itwasdesi gnedt ot ranspor tcannons.
In 1858 pet rol eum oi lwasdi scov ered i nt heU. S.Ai n 1859,Fr enchman Et ienneLenoi r
dev el
opedt hei nt er nalcombust ionengi nei nst eadofst eam,t heengi neusedpet r
oleum
vapourwhi chwasi gni tedt ogi v eani nt ernalexpl osi on.
AnAust r
alian,Mar cu,bui l
tt wov ehicl esbutt heywer ebannedf rom t heroadsbecauset hey
wer et oonoi sy .
AGer manengi neer ,Ni colasOt toal somadesi gnificantcont r
ibut ionst odesignoft heengi ne.
In1886,Dai ml erbui ltaf our-wheel edcarwi thahi gh- speedpet rolengi ne.Aconv ertedhor se-
drawncar riage, thisv ehi clewast hef or erunneroft hemoder ncar .
Towar dst heendoft he1880s,aFr enchcompany ,Panhar d-l
ev assor ,boughtt her i
ghtt ouse
st
Daiml er sengi newi thinaf ewy ear s, thei rfactor ypr oducedi ts1 car .
Adv ant agesofr oadt ranspor t
 I ti st hecheapestf or m oft ranspor tov ershor tdistance
 Roadt ranspor tisf lexibl e
 I t sfast ercompar edt owat erandr ailt
r anspor t
 Canbeusedbymanymeanse. g.humanandani mal s
Disadv ant agesofr oadt ranspor t
 Acci dent sar ehi ghonr oads, l
eadi ngtol ossofl i
ves.
 Tr af fi
ccongest ionl eadi ngt oj ams
 Exhaustf umesmot orv ehi cl escauseai rpol lution
 I ti sexpensi v et oconst ructal l weat herr oads.

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Railt ranspor t
Itwasdev elopedf rom t hei deaofv ehiclesmov i
ngal ongaf i
xedt ack.The1str
r ail
way swer e
t
h
usedi nGer manyf rom 16 ci nt hecoal mi nes.
Thest eam engi ne
Thomassav ery,aBr iti
shengi neer ,desi gnedandbui ltt he1stst eam-dr i
v epumpwhi chwas
usedt opumpwat eroutofcoal mi ne.
In1780, aScot tishengi neer ,Jameswat tdev elopedasmal l
er,mor eef ficientsteam engi ne.
1n1801, Ri char dTr ev it
hi cki nstalledwat tsengi nei nav ehiclewhi chr anonanor dinaryr oad.
In1813,Chr i
stopherbr acketandWi lli
am Hedl ermadeanot herst eam engi ne,ni ckname
puffingBi ll
ybecauseoft hesmokei tpr oduced.
Thei ntroduct i
onofl ocomot i
onbyGeor geSt ephensonandRober twhi chwast he1stst eam
l
ocomot iv etopul lapassengert rainal ongapubl i
cr ail
wayf rom St ocktont oBur l
ingt on.
Thedi eselengi ne
In 1892,aGer man engi neer ,Rudol ph di eseldesi gned aheav y-oilengi net o wor kon a
compr essi oni gni tionsy st em.Hi sengi ne, buil
ti n1895, achievedcompr essi onfarhi ghert han
thatr equi redf orsel f-igni tioni nor dertoobt aint hegr eatestpossi bl
eef ficiency .
Theel ect ri
cengi ne
st
The1 el ectricr ail
waysy stem wasbui lti nBr itainin1883.Desi gnedbySi emensbr other sand
j
ohnHopki nson.El ect ri
c240v olts, waspi ckedupf rom at hi
rdr ai l
.
InU. S. Amanyi nst i
llationsi nvolvingel ect ri
ct r
amway swer ebui ltint he1890s.Theywer e
oper atedbypowert akenei t
herf rom ov er headcabl esorl iver ail.Theywer edesi gnedbyF. J.
SpragueandC. Jv andepoel e.
Thet rans- Siber ianr ai lwayl i
ne.
Thisi sf oundi nRussi a.I twasbui ltin1891f rom Leni ngradt oVl adivost okont heshor esof
thePaci ficOcean
Thegr eatAmer icanr ai l
way
Iti
sf oundi nt heU. S. Ai tst artsont heAt l
ant iccoastandst retchest ot hePaci f
icOceancoast
ont hewest .
TheCanadi anpaci ficr ailway
Iti
sf oundi nCanada.I twasbui l
ti n1881andl inkst heeast er ncoastoft heAt l
ant i
cOceant o
thewest erncoastoft hePaci ficOcean.
Adv ant agesofr ailtranspor t
 I ti ssui tabl ef ort ranspor tationofheav ybul kygoods
 I ti seconomi cal f ort ranspor t
ationofgoodsandser vicesov eral ongdi stance.
 El ect r
ict rainsar eaf astmeansoft ranspor t.
 I tf ollowsar egul art i
met abl ewhi chenabl espassenger st opl ant hei rmov ement .
 I ti ssaf emeansoft r
anspor tasacci dent sarer are.
 Under groundt rainshel ptor educet raff
iccongest ionont her oads.
Disadv ant agesofr ai l
wayt ranspor t

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 Itisexpensi vet oconst r

uctr ailway sandbuyt hewagons.
 Acci dent st houghr arear eal way sfatal whent heyoccur .
 Di esel engi nesemi tal otofsmokel eadi ngt oairpol luti
on.
 Rai ltranspor tisheav ilyaf fect edbyt errai n.
 Rai lwayt r anspor ti snotf lexibleandhast obesuppl ement edbyot hermeansof
transpor t.
Impactofr ailwayt ranspor t
 I thaspr omot edur bani zat ionast ownshav edev elopedal ongr ai
lwayl ines.
 I tl ed t ot he dev elopmentofi nt
er nat ionalt rade asbul kygoodscoul d be easi l
y
transpor tedt ot hemar ket s.
 I tl edt oi ndust ri
alr ev olut ioni nEur opeasr aw mat erialscoul dbet ransportedt o
indust rial andf inishedpr oduct st omar ket s.
 I topenedr emot econt i
nent ali nter
ior sofAf ri
ca,Asi aandn.Amer icaf oragr i
cult
ural
andmi ner al expl oitation.
 I thel pedt hecol onialistt oest abl i
shef fect i
vecont rolov ert heircoloni esthroughqui ck
mov ementofadmi nistrator sandt r
oops.
 Rai lwayt ranspor thasof fer edempl oy mentt omanypeopl e.
 I tledt owi despr eadmi gr ationandset tl
ementofpeopl e.
Wat ert ranspor t
Steamshi ps
th
Inthe18 c.i twasdi scov eredt hatst eam powercoul dbeusedt odr ivemachi nes.In1736,an
Englishman,Jonat hanhul l
s,bui ltaboatdr iv enbyst eam power .Itwast estedont heriver
st
Avon,buti twasnotasuccess.The1 successf ulst eam boatwasbui l
tin1783bya
Frenchman, Mar qui sdeJouf froy .Itwasdr i
v enbypeddl e-wheel s, oneoneachsi deoft hehul l
.
In1787,JohnFi tch,anAmer i
can,bui ltast eam boatdr ivenbysi soar soneachsi de.In1790
hebui ltanot hershi pwhi chcoul dt r
av elat112km/ hwi thi thebeganser v i
cesont heDelawar e
Riverbet weenPhi l
adel phi aandTr enton.
Anot herwasbui l
tbyScot ti
shengi neer ,Willi
am Sy mingt on.Hi sst eamshi pwasdr i
venbyt wo
paddl ewheel s.ThenRober tFul ton, anAmer ican, buil
tt hecl er mont ,whichwasdr i
venbyt wo
paddl e-wheel s.In1807, thecl er montbeganar egularpassengerser vi
cebet weenal banyonon
theHudsonRi verandNewYor k.
A pr opel lerundert he shi pr epl aced paddl e- wheels.The 1st pr opellerst eamerwas t he
Archimedes, bui lti n1838.
Threedev elopment swhi chi ncreasedt hepopul arityofst eamshi psi ncluded- :
In1854,JohnEl deri nvent edaneconomi calt wo–cy li
ndercompoundengi newhi chcutf uel
consumpt ionbyabout60%.
TheSuezCanal wasopenedi n1869; i
tshor tenedt herout et ot heeastbyabout5000km.
Coalst at ionswer eopenedal lalongt hemai nsea- routs.I twasnol ongernecessar ytocarrya
l
otoff uel andsot her ewasmor ecar gospace.

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Dev elopmentofmoder nshi ps.

Themoder ncr uiseshi pi sal uxur iousshi pdesi gnedt oof f
erent ert
ainmentt opassenger sas
theshi pt akesacr uisei nt heocean.
Theseshi psar eabout3oom l ongandcar ryupt o2000passenger s
Canal s.
Acanali saman- madewat erchannelusual l
ydugonast r
aightcour se.Themai nr easonfor
theconst ruct i
onoft hecanal sinEur opeandNor thAmer i
cawast hepoorcondi ti
onsoft he
roadsandal soshor tendi st ance.
Theyal sosav escost sbyr educi ngt hedi st ancet hismeanst heyar echeap.
Shipcanal s
It’
sdeeperandcanbeusedbyocean- goi ngv essel s.Theywer econst r
uctedt olinkthe
i
ndust rialcent rest opor tsort oshor tenr out es,liketheManchest er-
Liverpoolcanal,t
heSuez
Canal andPanamaCanal .
Adv antagesofwat ert ranspor t
 I tenhancedt heexpl orat i
onoft hewor l
despeci allyafterthedi scov er
yofthemagnet i
c
compass
 I tpr omot edt radet hrought ranspor tationofbul kygoodsbet weencont i
nents.
 I treducedt hecostoft ranspor tbypr ovidingt hecheapestmeansoft ransporti
ngbulky
goodsov erl ongdi st ances.
 Pr omot edexpl oitationofnat ural resour cesundert hewat er.
Disadv ant agesofwat ertr anspor t
 I tssl owmeansofmov ingpassenger sandcar go.
 Const ruct i
onofpor tfaci l
it
iesi sexpensi ve.
 I tcanonl ybeusedbycount r
iest hatar ebor deredbyoceans,hencel and-l
ocked
count ri
esar edi sadv antaged.
 Mayl eadt opol lut i
onofwat erthr oughoi l spil
ls.
 Del ay s ar e caused by por tcongest ion especi al
ly wher e adequat el oading and
unloadi ngf aci li
t i
esar el acking.
I
mpactofwat ert ranspor t
 I tisaconv eni entmeansoft r
anspor tingbul kygoods
 I tisamaj orsour ceofempl oy ment
 I thasboost edi nternat ional trade
 I tisamaj orsour ceofgov ernmentr ev enue.
 I thasenhancedi nt er -
cont i
nent al connect ions
 I thasexpandedmansknowl edgeaboutt hedeepseas.
 Somet ownsemer gedwher et her ear ehar bour sandpor ts.
Airtranspor t
Thedesi ret of lywasadr eam ofmanki ndf ormanycount r i
es;somepi oneerswer eevenkill
ed
whilet r
y i
ngt ogetai rbor ne.
st
Kitswer epr obabl yt he1 obj ectst obef lown.

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The1st wasahotai rbal loondesi gnedandbui l

tbyt wobr others,JacquesandJoseph
Mont gol fier.I tcov eredonl yei ghtki lomet r
est hatl ast edt went ymi nutes.
st
Brazili
ani nv ent or, alber toSant osdumont , dev elopedt he1 ai rshipin1898.Al thoughi twasa
ball
oon, itwaspower edbyanengi neandcal l
edt her efor ebest eered.
Theaer opl ane.
st
The1 successf ulheav i
ert hanai rpower edf l
ightwasmadebyOr vi
ll
eWr ightatKi t
tyHawk,
Nor t
hCar olinai ntheU. S.A.
Airt ranspor tand ai rcr af tdesi gn adv anced r api dly .By 1909,aer oplanes wer e being
st
commer ciallypr oduced, in1911, the1 ai rmai l serv iceswasi ntroduced.
Thej etengi ne
Thedemandf orhi gherspeedsf ormi lit
ar ypl anespr oducedt hegast urbine,whi chmade
possibl et hej etpl ane.
Thej etengi negav egr eat erpowerandhi gherspeedt oai rcraft.In1970s, thej umboj etswer e
i
nt r
oduced whi ch can cr ui se long di st ances atspeeds ofup t o 1000km/ h wi th 400
passenger sonboar d.
Today ,theConcor dei st hef astestpassengerai r
cr aft; i
tcruisesatupt o2000km/ h.
Impactofai rt ranspor t
 I thaspr omot edi nt er national tradeespeci all
yper i
shabl egoods.
 I tpr ov idest ranspor ttoi naccessi bler emot ear eas.
 I thas r ev olutioni sed war far e as count ries ar e abl et o st ri
ke theirenemi es wi t
h
pr ecisi on.
 I thascont ribut edi mmensel yt ospaceexpl or ationt hroughspaceshut tleandsat el
l
ites.
 Ai rtranspor thasenhancedi nternat ional co- oper ati
onandunder st
anding.
 I thasenhancedemer gencyandr eliefser v i
cesf orexampl e;itisusedbyf lyi
ngdoct or s
inemer gencysi t uat ions.
 Acci dent sthoughr ar ear eof tenf at alforal l passenger sandcr ew.
Spaceexpl or at ion
Thedi scov eryoft het elescopei n1610byGal i
leoGal i
leimadespaceexpl orat
ioneasi er;
astronomer sbegant ost udyt hemoont hroughat elescopei nt heear l
y1600s.
Ther ocket
Itwasi nv ent edand1stusedbyt heChi nesear ound1000ad.Theywer eusedasweaponsand
spaceexpl or ation.
Inasi mpl er ocket ,bur ningf uelpr oducesl argeamount sofgas.Thi sisf r
eedoutofahol eat
back, causi ngt her ockett omov ef or war d.
Satellit
es
It’
sasmal lbodyt hatt rav elsi norbi taroundal argebodyusedasspaceexpl orat i
onmor ethan
ahundr edsat elli
tesar el aunchedi nt ot heor bitar oundt heear thbyv ari
ouscount riesev ery
year.
Theyar eusedt of aci l
itatecommuni cationbet weent hecont inents.

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Theyhel pgeol ogistst oprospectf ormi ner alsandassi stast ronomer sint hestudyoft hesol ar
system.
Spaceshut t
le
Thiscr afti spar t
lyar ocketandpar tlypl ane.I ti spr opel ledi ntospacel ikear ocket,bi tit
returnst oear thl i
keaaer opl ane.Pr esent ly,sev eralr obot i
cmi ssionshav ebeensenti nt o
space.Ther eisaper manenti nt ernat ional spacest ati
onor bi ti
ngt heear th.
Adv antagesofspaceexpl orat ion.
 Ithasenhancedhumanunder standi ngoft heuni v ersel ikePl uto.
 Ithasl edt ot hedev elopmentofadv ancedai rdef encesy stem,l i
ketheAmer icanst ar
war ssy stem.
 Ithasenhancedef fectiv emappi ngandsur veillanceonear ththroughgl obalposi t
ioning
sy stem.
 Spaceexpl orat ionhasencour agedspacet our i
sm.
Disadvant agesofspaceexpl orat ion
 Acci dent st houghr ar ehav ef atal consequences.
 Itisv eryexpensi veandpr eser v eofonl yther i
chnat ions.
 Iti sanact i
vityt hatcont ribut est oenv i
ronment aldegr adat i
one. g.degradationoft he
ozonel ay er.
Impactofmoder nmeansoft ranspor t.
 Anef f
icientt ranspor tnet wor kr eachi ngal lcor ner sofev erycount r
yhasr esultedi n
gr eatexpansi onofbot hi nter nal andext ernal trade.
 Ther eismi grationofpeopl ef rom onepar toft hewor ldt oanot herisfasterandeasi er.
 Adv ancementoft ranspor tmadepeopl eset tl
ei npl aceswher etherewer egoodmeans
oft ranspor t.
 Fast ert ranspor thasr esul tedi nt oaqui ckt ransf erofi deasi ntechnology .
 Far mer scaneasi l
yt ranspor tthei rpr oduceev ent ot hemostdi stantmar ketsany wher e
int hewor ld.
 Rawmat erialshav et obet ranspor tedt of actor ies,whi lef ini
shedgoodshav et or each
mar kets.
 Enhance t our ism as peopl er equi r
e ef f
icientt ranspor tser vices tov isi
tar eas of
at tr
act i
oni not herpar tsoft hewor ld.
 Moder nt r
anspor thascr eat edmi llionsofj obsasaer oplanes, ship,tr
ainsandcar shav e
tobebui ltandser viced.
 It’snewpossi bl etor ushhel pt ov ictimsev eni nv eryr emot eplacesbyai r
.
 Moder nmeansoft ranspor thav eexpandedmansknowl edgeaboutuni verseanddeep
seas.
 Ithasal soencour agedt heexpl oi t
at ionofnat ur al resour ces.
 Gov ernmentbenef itf rom r ev enuecol lectionf ort hei ssuanceofsev eraltypesof
licencesandsal epet roleum.
 Secur i
tyi salsoboost edbecauseper sonnel andof ficialscanbemov edeasi lyfrom one

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parttoanother.
Negat i
veimpact s
 Ther eareaccidentswhi chleadtolossofmanyl i
vesandcausi ngpermanenti
njur i
es.
 I ncr
easingnumber sofv ehicl
eshaver esul
tedinserioustraf
ficjamsinmanycit
ies.
 Vehi cl
esemi tdangerousgasesi ntotheatmospher e.
 Fastandef fi
cientsystemsoft r
ansporthav echangedt henat ur
eofmoder nwar f
are.
Troopscanbemov edquicklytotr
oublespot s.
 Ther apidint
er act
ionofpeopl eencour agesspr eadofdi seasese.g.ai
ds,av ianf l
u,
ebola.
Defi
nitionofcommuni cati
on.
It
’sthesendi ngandr eceiv
ingofmessagest hroughamedi um.Thi sinv
olvesther eceiver
sendingbackar esponset othesender .

Factorstoconsi derf oref fecti

v eness.
 Thel anguagesoft her ecei veroft hemessage.
 I t’
sal soi mpor tantt oconsi derthedi stanceoft her eceiverfrom t
hesender .
 Consi dertheur gencyoft hemessage.
 Thecostofsendi ngmessagesi sal soanot herf actort oconsider
.
 Al soconsi dert hegeogr aphi calfact orsinwhi cht her eceiv
erisoperatingfrom.
Tradit
ionalf ormsofcommuni cation.
Aspeopl ebegant ol ivet oget her ,theyf oundi tnecessar yt oshar ei
deas,i nf
ormati
onand
experi
ences.
a)Fi reandsmokesi gnal s.
Itwaslitonr aisedgr ound, wher ei tcouldbeseenf rom adi stance.Itwasusedt osendur gent
messagei .e.war ningofanappr oachi ngi nvasion.
Advantages
 Theywer ev isible
 Themessagewasdel i
ver edv eryfast
 I twasacheaperwayofpassi ngamessage.
 Themessagewasl i
mi tedt ot heuser sandout sider scouldnotunder stand.
Disadvant ages
 I twasdi fficulttost artfireinwetcondi tions.
 Smokewasnotv isibleonacl oudymi stydayandonawi ndydayitiseasilybl
ownaway .
 Thesi gnalswer eofnousei fnoonewasont hel ookout .
 Messagescoul donl ybesentov ershor tdistance.
 Theyconv ey edl imi t
edr angeofmessages.
b)Dr um beat s
Itwaspal edbyski l
leddr ummer swhocoul di mi t
atet hesoundofspeech.Dr umswer eusedt o
announcev i
llagef est i
v i
ties,weddi ngs,deat hsorev ent osummonwar r
iorstoassemblei na

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squir
e.Dr um si gnal scoul dber elayedf rom onev i
ll
aget oanot her.
Advant ages
 Theycoul dr elayawi der angeofmessages.
 Messagescoul dbeconv ey edov erawi dear ea.
 Coul dbeusedatanyt ime, e.g.dayorni ght ,wetordr yseason.
 Themessageconv ey edf aster .
Disadvant ages
 Themessagecoul dnotbecl earlyint
er preted
 I tneededt heexper tiseofski ll
eddr ummer s.
 Ther ei snopr i
vacyoft hemessagesent .
 Thedi stancecov er
edwasshor t
.
c)Messenger s
Runner swer eof tensentt odel i
vermessagespar ti
cularlyl ongeronest hatcouldnotbe
communi cat edbyf ire, smokeordr um boat s.Conf i
dent i
almessageswer ealsosafel
yderi
ved
bymessenger s.
Advant ages
 Sui tabl ewher et her
ear enoot hermeansofcommuni cat i
on.
 Messageswer edel i
ver edinst antly.
Disadvant agesofmessenger s.
 I ttookal ongt imet or eacht her ecipi
entsi ncet ravelwasbyf oot.
 Themessengercoul df orgett hemessaget heywer etodel iver.
 Thei nf ormat i
oncoul dbedi st ort
ed.
 Themessengercoul dbeat tackedont hewayandki l
ledbywi l
danimals.
 Di st ancecov eredbyt hemessengerwasl imited.
d)Hor nbl owi ng
Av ari
et yofmessagescoul dbesentbymeansofl ongandshor tblastofahor n,suchas
publi
cannouncement s.Suchsoundcoul dalsober elayed.
Advant age
 Awi der angeofmessagecoul dbeconv ey edt hrought ones.
 Coul dbeusedatanyt imeoft hedayorni ghtunderanyweat hercondit
ions.
Disadvant ages
 Thehor ncoul dbebl ownwhennoonewasl istening.
 Themessageswer er estrictedt othosewhoknewt het ones.
 Messagescoul dnott ravel bey ondhillsandmount ains.
 Thepr ivacyoft hemessagewasnotassur ed.
e)Scr eamsandcr ies
Thiswasdonef rom hi l
lsormount aint opsf ormaxi mum ef fectsduet oechoing.
Diff
erentway sofscr eami ngconv eyeddi fferentmessage,wai li
ngsi gnif
iedbadnewse. g.
deathorat tackbyr aider s.
Ulul
ationssi gnifiedgoodnewse. g.bi rt
hofanewchi l
dorf east ing.

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Adv ant ages

 Awi der angeofmessagewasconv ey ed.
 Themessager eachedt her ecipientf ast .
 Messageswer esentatnocost .
Disadv ant ages
 Thedi stancecov eredbyt hemessagewasl imited
 I thadnosecr ecyi nt hemessagedel ivered.
Wr ittenmessages.
a)Scr olls.I t’sar ollofpaperusedf orwr it
ing, twas1stusedi
i nanci entEgy ptbyspl i
tti
ng,
soaki ngi nwat eranddr yingpapy rusr oads-penswer eal somadef rom t her eeds,whi l
e
inkwasder ivedf r
om gl ue,gums, char coal andot hersubst ances.
b)Par chment s.Itwasmadef rom dr iedski nsofgoat sandot herani mal s.Itpr ovedbetter
thanpapy r
usbecausei tcoul dbef oldedandcuteasi l
yi ntopages.
c)St onet ables.I nMesopot ami a,asy stem ofwr iti
ngcal l
edcunei f
orm wasdev el
oped
from about3500y earsago.Wr iti
ngwasdoneonacl ayt abletusi ngawedge- shaped
niberst ylus; t
hi shadt obedonewhi lecl aywaswet .
Adv ant agesofwr itt
en
 Themessagewasr eliableasi tcoul dnotbeeasi l
yf or gott
en.
 I nmosti nst ancest hemessagewasaccur ate.
 Themessagecoul dbest oredf orf utur ereference.
Disadv ant ages
 Thechangei nl anguageusedcoul daf fectt hemessageast hemeani ngofwor ds
woul dal sochange.
 I tisal soef fecti
v eincommuni cationamongt hel iteratepeopl e.
 Ther ear emanyf or msofwr i
ti
ngwhi chcr eateapr obl em ofi nt erpretation.
Dev elopmenti nmoder nmeansofcommuni cation.
Telecommuni cat ion.
It
’ssendi ngandr ecei vi
ngofmessagequi cklyov erv eryl ongdi stance.
a)Thet el ephoneandcel lphone
Thet elephonei st echnol ogi calsy stemst hatsendandr eceiv esv oicemessageov eralong
distancebymeansofwi resconnect i
ngt oal ocal exchange.
Thecel lphonei sal soknownasacel lularormobi l
ephone.acel lphonei sat wo-wayr adio
syst em whi chconnect st hecal l
ert ot het elephonenet wor kusi ngr adiowav esi nsteadof
wires.
b)Tel ev ision.
Itsendspi ct ureandsoundmessagesbyr adi of rom at ransmi ttingst ati
ont oadi stant
telev i
sionset .Thest at i
onchangesl i
ghtandsoundwav esf rom ascenei ntoel ect r
onicsignal
andsendst hem.Thesear er ecei vedi nat elev i
si onsetwhi chchangest hem backi ntopictures
andsounds.
c)Radi o

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Ar adi oseti sadev icewhi chr ecei vesel ectro-magnet icr adiowav esandt hem i ntosound
wav es.
d)Thet elegraph
Thet elegr aphsendscodedel ect roni cmessagesbywi reov erlongdi stances,f orexampl e,
from onecont i
nentt oanot her .Themessagei scalledat elegr am ifitt r
av elsoverl and;ora
cabl eifi ti
ssentorr ecei vedf rom ov erseas.
e)El ectronicmai l
.
Ist heexchangedcomput erst oredmessagesbyt elecommuni cationbet weenconnect ed
comput ers.The comput er s ar el i
nked by t elephone.Localand i nternationalcomput er
st
networ ksenabl ee- mai ltobesent .E- mai lwasamongt he1 andi sst il
lthemostwi delyused
appl i
cat ionont hei nternet .
f) Comput er
Thisr ef erst oanel ectronicdev icet hatwor ksunderacommandorpr ogrammet or eacha
concl usi onbasedondat asuppl i
ed.Acomput erwor ksi nseconds, itismadeupoft wobasi c
par t
s, thebodywor k( handwor k)andt hepr ogrammeofi nstructions( softwar e)
g)Faxsi milet r
ans- receiver( fax)
Thef axmachi nei sal so connect edt o at elephonel ine.I tr esembl esaphot o-copier;it
transmi tsexactcopi esofpi ctur es,l etters,dr awingoranyot herdocument stoanot herfax
machi neany wherei nt hewor l
d.
h)Tel ex
It
’samodi fi
cationoft het elegr aph.I tsendsandr eceivesmessagesel ectronicall
ywhi char e
printedi nor di
naryl anguage.Nei therdoesi tneedt hepr esenceofanoper atortophy si
cally
receivet hemessage.
i
) Pager
Isasmal lreceivert hatdel i
versshor tradiomessages,t hemessagei sr eadont hepager s
screen?I t’
sapor tablecommuni cat ionmessageser vice.

j)Internet
Acomput ermaybel inkedwi thothercomput er
swi thinanor
gani zati
oninordert
oeasil
y
exchangei nf
ormat ion.Thisl inkagef or
msonenet wor k.Thei
nternetisahuge,wor l
dwi
de
system ofmill
i
onsofi nter-
connect ednet works.
Advantagesoft elecommuni cat i
on.
 Theyar ef astandef fi
cientmeansofcommuni cation.
 Theyst oreinf or
mat i
onf orfutureref
erence.
 Theyenabl einstanttransmi ssionofinformati
on.
 Informationcanbet ransmi ttedalloverthewor l
d.
 Theyenabl etransmissionofmessaget omor ethanonerecipientatt
hesameti
me.
Disadvantages

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 Theycanonl ybeusedwher et her

ei sel ect ricity.
 Theyr elyonexper t
st ooper ateandbemai nt ained.
 Theyar eexpensi vet obuyandmai nt ain, hencenotaccessi blet oal l peopl e.
 Thei rusei slimi t
edt opl acewher et her eisnet wor kandr ecept i
on.
Impact
 Theyhav ei ncr easedi nter act i
onsbet weenpeopl ei nmanypar t
soft hewor l
d.
 Theyhav eenabl edpeopl et omanagei nfor mat i
onef ficiently.
 Thedi sposal oft elecommuni cat i
ongadget smayr esul tinenv i
ronment alpolluti
on.
 Somemeansoft elecommuni cati
oner odemor alv aluese. g.por nogr aphy
 Useofsomemeansoft el ecommuni cat i
onmaybecomeaddi cti
v e.
 Cont inuesuseofsomemeansoft el ecommuni cat ionmaybeaheal thhazar d.
 Pr ov idedgov er nmentr ev enuet hr
oughpay ingt axesandr ev enue.
 Pr ov idedempl oy mentt omanypeopl eal l ov ert hewor ld.
 Theyhav epr omot edsecur i
tybyusi ngr adi oandt elephonet of ightcr i
me.
 Theyhav epr omot edent er tainmentt hroughmusi c, fil
msandspor ts.
 Theyhav epr omot edt radeasbusi nesspeopl ear eabl et ocommuni cat einformation
aboutt heirpr oduct sandser v i
ces.
Pri
ntmedi a
I
t’sreferst owr i
ttenandpubl isheddocumentwhi chpr ov i
dei nf ormat i
one. g.newsl et
ters,
newspaper ,magazi nes, journal sandbooks.
a)Newspaper
I
s a documentpr oduced dai lyt o dissemi nat ei nformat ion aboutsi gnificantl ocaland
i
nternational news.
b)Magazi nes
I
sar egul arpubl icat ionpr ovidi ngspeci alisedi nf or mat i
ononapar ti
cul ari ssue?I tisusual l
y
boundwi thincov er sandpubl ishedweekl y ,fortnight lyormont hly.
c)Per iodi cal( jour nal s)
It’
sar egul arpubl i
cat ionissuedatweekl y,mont hlyorquar t
erlyi nterv als.Theyr angefrom
technical andschol arlyjour nal st omagazi nesf ormassci rculation.
Adv ant agesofpr intmedi a.
 Theypr ov ideaper manentr ecordofi nf or mat i
onf orf utur eref erence.
 Pr ov idemat er i
al f
orr eadi ngandr ef erence.
 Theycanbedi stri
but edi nmanypar tsoft hewor l
d.
 Theycanbet ranslat edi ntomanyl anguages.
 Theypr ov idedet ailedi nformat i
on.
Disadv ant ages
 Theycanonl ybeusedbyt heliteratepeopl e.
 Theyar eexpensi vet oobt ain,maki ngi tdi ffi
cul tformanypeopl et oaccesst hem.
 Theycanbeusedt ospr eadmal i
ciouspr opaganda.
Impactofpr intmedi a.

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 Theyhav eenabl edt r

ansmi ssionofi nfor mationallovertheworl
d.
 Theyhav e pr omot ed l i
teracyand educat i
on t hr
ough provi
sion ofreading and
defencemat erial.
 Theyhav ecreat edempl oy mentf ormanypeopl e.
 Theyar easour ceofgov ernmentr ev enue.
 Theyhav epromot edmor al decadencet hroughpubl i
shingofobsceneinfor
mat i
on.
I
mpactofmoder nmeansofcommuni cat ion.
Posit
ive.
 I thasenhancededucat ional andr esear ch.
 I thascr eatedent ertainment .
 I thasl edtospaceexpl oration.
 I thasl eadtoimpr ovementi nai randwat ertransportat
ion.
 I thasl edtoimpr ov ementi ntrade.
 Cr eationofempl oy mentt opeopl e.
 I t’
salsoasour ceofr evenue.
 I thasopenedupr emot ear eas.
 I thasl eadtoweat herf orecast i
ng.
Negati
v eimpact s.
 I thasl edtorisei ngl obal cri
me.
 I thasl edtoer osi onofmor al values.
 I thaspr omot edaddi cti
vet endenci eslike, t.
vpr ogr
ammes.
 Ther ei salsoexposur etor adioact iveray s.
 I thasl eadtonoi sepol l
ution.
 Tel ecommuni cat ionser v i
ceshav ebeenusedgr eatl
yt oimproveweaponr yand
conductwar .
 Ther ehasbeent hei ssueofcul t
ur al i
mper ial
ism.

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DEVELOPMENTOFI NDUSTRY.
Meani ngofi ndust ry.
Industryisthemanuf actureofnewgoodsf rom r awmat erials.
Ear l
ysour cesofener gy
Ener gyisthef orcet hatpr oducesmot i
on, ital sodoeswor k.
Wood.
It’
stheear l
i
estsour ceofener gyusedbymandur ingt hemi ddlestoneage,mani nvented
andusedf ir
ewhi chwasusedt ocookandr oastf ood.
Hel ateusedi ttobur nwoodt ohar dencl aypot sandsmel tmetalsandl at n18thcent
eri ur
y
i
twashar nessedf orheat ingwat ert opr oducest eam.
Adv antages.
 Itwascheapt oobt ain.
 Itwasr eadi l
yav ai
lablefrom ext ensi venat ur al f
or est s.
 Itwasar enewabl esour ceast reeswhi chwer ecutdownr egenerated.
Disadv antages.
 Cont inueduseofwoodf uel resultedi ndeser tif
icat i
on.
 Woodpr oducessmoket hatpol lutest heenv ironment .
Wi nd.
It’
samov ingai rwi tht hecapaci t
yt ocr eat eener gyi nobj ect suponcont act.I
twasusedt o
winnow anddr ygr ains.Itwasal soappl iesf ort urningwi ndmi l
lsandpr opel
li
ngsai li
ng
boat sandshi ps.Asasour ceofpowert opr opeldhows, boatsandshi ps, wi
ndinfluenced
theIndianOceant rade.
Wi ndmi l
lsar est il
lusedt odayt ogener atepowerandpumpwat er.
Adv antages
 Itwascheapt oobt ain.
 Itwasnat urallyavai l
able.
 Itwasar enewabl esour ceofener gy .
Disadv antages.
 Itwasunr eli
abl esincei twasnotal way sav ai lable.
 Itwasi r
regul arasi twasi nf l
uencedbyt hepr evailingweat herandt opography .
 Excessi vewi ndcoul dresul tindest ruct ionofl if
eandpr operty
.
Wat er.
Foral ongt imemanhasusedener gygener at edbywat er, whenwat erdropsf r
om acl if
for
overaf all
, i
tcanbehar nessedt ogener at epowerbecauseofi tshighspeed.
Adv antages.
 Itwasr eadi l
yav ai
lableincer t
ainr egions.
 Itwaseasyt ot r
apanduse.
 Itwasr enewabl eandnon- exhaust ible.
 Whencoastwer ecompar edt oot hersour cei twascheap.
 Itisacl eansour ceofener gy .

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Disadvant ages.
 I tdependedonr i
verlev elswhi chwer ei nf luencedbyr ainfall
.
 Excessi v ewat ercouldr esul tindest ruct ionofl if
eandpr operty.
 I twasr enewabl eandnon- exhaust ible.
Usesofmet alsi nAf rica.
ThenewSt oneAgewassucceededbyt hemet allicage.
Theyusedmet altool sforagr icultureandot herdomest icwor ks.Met al
swerealsousedt o
makeweapons.
Adv ant
agesofmet alsov erst one.
 Themet alswer edur ableandcoul dnotbr eakeasi ly.
 Themet alsmai ntainedt hecut t
ingedgeov eralongper iodoft i
me.
 Met al scoul dbet urnedormadei nv ar i
ousshapes.
 Br okenmet alscoul dbesmel tedandr ewor kedintousef ulit
ems.
Bronze.
It
’sanal loy(ami xture)ofcopperandt in.I tbegani nMesopot amiafrom 3000B. C and
spreadt oEgy pt .
Usesofbr onze.
 Weapons, likedagger s,arrow- heads, spear s,shi
eldsandhel mets.
 Tool sl ikemachet es( pangas)hammer sandaxes.
 Or nament sl i
kebr acelet s,ri
ngsandankl ets.
 Ar tistici temsl ikescul ptures, masks, pl aques, fl
owerv asesanddecor at
ionofkings
palaces.
Disadvant ages.
 I trequi redf requent l
yshar peningast heybecamebl untqui ckly
.
 I twasexpensi vet oproduce.
 Copperandt i
nnecessar yformanuf act ur eofbr onzewer enotalwaysfoundatt he
samepl ace.
 I twasnoteasyt omi xcopperandt ini ncor rectproporti
ons.
 Av ailabi l
ityofcopperandt independedont r
adewhi chwasnotal way spossibl
e
dur i
ngwar .
Gold.
It
’stheear li
estmet alusedbymani nitsnat ur al state.
Usesofgol d.
 Househol di t
ems,i nmanuf actureofv asesandut ensil
ssuchascups,pl atesand
bowl s.
 Jewel lery.Jewel sandot herdecor ativ epr oductswer emadef r
om goldlikesword
handl es, headgearandbangl es.
 Tr ade.I twasusedi ncommer ceasani t em oft r
adeandacur r
ency.
 Cur rency .Itwasusedt omakecoi nsandser vedasmeasur eofwealt
h.
Adv ant
ages.

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 I t’
seasi l
yobt ainedont hesur f
aceoft heear thandr iver–beds.
 I twaseasyt ousei nmanuf acturingoft ool sasi twassof t
.
 Gol dhadadar ky el
lowat tractiveappear ance.
 Gol dwaseasi l
ymoul dedi nt odifferentshapesasi twasmal l
eabl e.
 Gol ddidnotneedmuchsmel t
ingasi twasmi nedi nal mostpur ef or
m.
Disadv ant ages.
 Tool smadef rom gol deasi lybecamebentasgol dwassof t.
 Gol dtoolswer edi f
ficulttousebecauset heywer eheav y.
 Gol dwasnoteasi lyav ailableinmanypar tsoft hewor l
d.
Copper .
I
t’sasof tbr owndur ablemet al.TheEgy pt i
anwasamongt heear liestpeopl et ouset he
miner al i
ni t
srawf orm.
Usesofcopper .
 I twasusedt omakesheet s, pipes,masksandshi elds.
 I twasusedt omakehousehol di temsl ikev ases, mi rrorsandpot s.
 I twasusedt omaket ool slikeaxes, chisels,pins,f i
shhooks, kniv esandot heritems
forusei nt hehome.
 I twasusedt omakeweaponsl ikear row- heads,spear heads,dagger s,swor ds,
helmet sandshi el
ds.
 I twasusedt omakeor nament slikebangl es,rings, beads, ankl etsandbr acelets.
 Tomakeal loys,copperwasmi xedwi thot hermet alstopr oducest r
ongermet al
s
l
ikebr ass.( copperandzi nc)
 I twasusedf ortrade;copperwasusedasani tem oft radeandmedi um of
exchangei ncent r
al Africa.Egy ptandWestAf ri
ca.
Adv antagesofcopper .
 I twaseasyt ousei nmaki ngt oolsasi twassof t
.
 Coppert ool swer edur ableascopperwashar dert hansomeot hermet als.
 Coppermi xedeasi lywi thot hermet alstopr oducest rongeral l
oy s.
Disadv ant agesofcopper .
 Coppert ool sbenteasi lybecausecopperwassof t.
 Copperwasnoteasi lyav ail
ablei nmanypar t
soft hewor l
d.
Ir
on.
I
temsmadef r
om i ronar ebet terandst r
onger .
Originofi ronwor kingi nAf ri
ca.
Ther ear et wotheor i
eswhi chhav ebeenputf orwar dt oexpl ai
ntheor iginofi r
on- workingin
Afri
ca.
a)Di f
fusi ontheor y
Thi
st heor yhol dst hatknowl edgei niron- workingcamef rom out si
det hecont inenti nt
oNor t
h
Afr
icaf rom t heMi ddleEastbyt hePhoeni ciansandAssy ri
ans.
I
nthecour seoft heirmi grati
onandt rade,t heyi ntroducedi ron- workingi ntoanci entcar t
hage

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(nort
hAf ri
ca) ,iron–wor ki ngspr eadt owestAf rica, centralAf ricaandsout hAf rica.
b)I ndependentdev elopmentt heor y .
Ir
on-wor kingemer gedi ndependent l
yati ndependentcent reswi t
hint hecont i
nent
.Thi si s
supportedbyar chaeol ogi cal wor ki nBuhay ai nNor thWestTanzani a.
Factorswhi chf acilitatedt hespr eadofi r
on- wor kingi nAfrica.
 Mi gr at i
onwher eBant uhadacqui redknowl edgeabouti ron-workingmi gratedfrom their
or i
gi nal homel andi nt heCongoandset tledal loverAf rica.
 Tr ader sspr eadt heknowl edgeofi ron- wor kingt otheKushandChadbasi n.
 Ir on- wor kingknowl edgeal sospr eadt hr oughwar far
e.
 Itwasal sospr eadt hr oughi ntermar riages.
Usesofi roni nAf rica.
 Itwasusedf ort hepr oduct ionofst rongerweaponsl ikespear s,daggerandar rows.
 Ir onwasbakedi nt opot sf orv arioususes.
 Itwasusedt omakehousehol di temsl i
kekni v esandbl ades.
 Smel tedi ronwasmadei nt ousabl ef ar mi mpl ement sl ikehoes, axesandmachet es.
 Smel tedi ronwasmadei ntoar ti
st icshapesofi temssuchasscul pt ureandot her
technol ogical l
ydesi gnedgoods.
 wer eusedi nconst r uct i
onandbui l
di ngl iker einforcementofbui ldingsuchaspy ramids,
tombsandconcr ete- bui l
tpal aces
 Themet alswer eusedi nempi re-bui ldingandexpansi onofki ngdoms.
 Theyi ni tsr awandsmel t edst ate, ironwer eusedasani tem oftrade.
Theimpactofmet al si nAf r
ica.
 Itl edt omi grat i
onast hemet alswer eusedt ocl earbushesandf orest.
 Ital soi mpr ov edagr icult ureasl arget ract sofl andwer eputi ntouseasmet hodsof
far mi ngchanged.
 Ital sol eadst ospeci alisat ionlikedi visionofl abour.
 Wi thi mpr ov ed f ar mi ng t ools cr op pr oduct i
on i ncr eased l eading t oi ncreased
popul at ion.
 Theuseofmet alsgai nedf ameast heybecamewi del yusedandr egar dedinr el
igi
ous
ritesandi nt her oy al pal aces.
 Ital sol eadst our bani zat i
onast radi ngandi ndustrialset tl
ementdev elopedi nmaj or
mi ni ngcent res.
 Wi thuseofmet al s, tradi ngpat ternsandmet hodschanged.
Theindust rialr ev olut ioni nEur ope.
Itcanbedef inedaseconomi candt echnol ogi calchangeswhi chsaw t her eplacementof
cott
agei ndust ry .
Chacterist icsoft hei ndust rialr ev olution.
 Inv ent ionofnewsy st em f ormasspr oduct ion.
 Useofmachi nesi nst eadofhumanl abour .
 Ri seoff act or ysy st em whi chrepl acedt hecot tageindust ri
es.

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 Pr oduct ionofgoodsi nlargequant iti

es.
 Cont i
nuouspr oduct i
onwi thworker sorganisedinshi fts.
 Useofnewsour cesofener gye.
g.st eam,coal ,
electricit
yandoil.
Usesofv ari
oussour cesofener gy.
Coal .
It
’sanunder groundor gani cmi neral.I
tisf oundintreestat enamely.
Ant hr
aci t
ecoal .I
t’
sasof tty pethatburnsathi ght emper aturetoproducecoke.
Bitumi nouscoal .Itcanal sobeusedf orcookingandcoalgaspr oduct i
on.Thi
shaslow
heat i
ngpower .
Lignitecoal .Itisli
kedi rt
ybr owncoal wi t
hev enlessheat ingpower .
Usesofcoal .
 I twasusedi ni r
on- smel ti
ng.
 I tprov i
dedlighting.
 Usedasar awmat er iali
nt hemanuf act
ureofdy eandphar maceutical
s.
 I twasusedt oheatwat ert oprovidencest eam whi chwasl aterconvert
edtof
uelfor
drivi
ngl ocomot ives.

Disadv antagesofcoal .
 I twasbul kyanddi fficulttotranspor t.
 I tcausedenv ir
onment alpolluti
onbyr eleasingdar kcarbonandsul phurdioxidesmoke
whenbur ning.
 I tisexpensi vetomi neandt ranspor t.
 Coal mi ningwasr i
skyasmi nerswoul dgetbur iedal ivewhenmi nescollapsed.
 I tisanon- renewabl esour ceofener gy.
Oil.
Iti
sf oundi nat hickaqueousnat ural f
ormat i
on.
Oil
-basedener gywasf oundt obemostconv enientwi t
ht hei nventionofmachi nesand
engines.
Usesofoi l
.
 I tisusedf ordomest icli
ght i
nge. g.kerosene.
 I tprovidesener gyt hatdr i
v esmot orvehicles,aer oplanes,shipse.t.c
 I tisusedt opr ovidepowert opr oducet hermal el ectri
cit
y.
 I tisusedt or unfact oryanddomest i
cmachi nery .
 I tisusedi nlubricat ionofmachi nery.
 I tsby -
product ,
tar, i
susedi nt hetarmacki ngofr oads.
 I tisusedi npet r
o- chemi cal i
ndust ri
est omakepl asticsandsy ntheti
cfibre.
Adv antangesofoi l.
 I tischeapert hant heot hersour cesofener gy.
 I tiseasyt ot r
anspor t .
 I tisconv eni entasi tcanbepur chasedi nv ariousquant i
ti
es.

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 I tcanbeusedf orv ariouspur poses.

Disadvant agesofoi l
.
 I tisnon- renewabl esour ceofener gy.
 I tcausesal otofenv i
ronment alpol l
uti
on.
 I tishighlyi nflammabl eandmaycauseacci dent s.
 Pr ospectingandext racti
onofoi lisexpensi ve.
 I tisexpensi vetot henon- producingcount ries.
Steam.
Wat erasasour ceofpowerwascumber someandunr el i
able,sosteam powerwasdev el
oped.
st
I
nt he1 cent uryB. C,theher oofAl exandr i
ausedst eam powert oopenthemassi v edoor
sof
templesi nEgy pt.
Usesofst eam.
 I twasusedf ordrivi
ng, spi nni
ngandweav ingmachi nesinthetexti
l
ei ndustr
y.
 I twasusedt odr i
veheav i
lymachi neryinf actories.
 Usedi ndr i
vingt urbinest hatgener at
edel ect r
ici
tyf orindust
ri
aluse.
 Usedi ndr i
vingear lylocomot ivesandst eamshi ps.
Adv antagesofst eam.
 I twasr eadilyav ail
ablef rom heat edwat er.
 I tpr oducedal otofener gycompar edt oanyot hersourceofener gyav ai
labl
eatthe
time.
 I twasadapt ablet omanyusesi .
e.dr iv
ingl ocomot i
vesandgener at
ingelectri
cit
y.
 I tdidnotpol lutetheenv ironment .

Disadvant ages.
 I tsgener ationdependedoncoal andthismadei texpensi
ve.
 St eam engi neswer ehugeandcumber somehencenotadapt abl
et omanyuses.
 I twassui t ableonlyforheav ymachi neryinfactori
esmakingitinaccessi
bleforwi
de
domest icuse.
El
ectricit
y.
Thisispowersuppl i
edbyel ectri
call
ychar gedel ect
rons,tr
ansmitt
edthroughcablesi
nvent
ed
byMi chael faradayi n1831.
Usesofel ectri
city .
 I tisusedi nlight
ing.
 Usedi nheat ingandcooki ng.
 Power i
ngmachi nesi nindustr
ies.
 Usedi ntelecommuni cati
onsy stem.
 Usedi nrunni ngelectri
ctrai
ns.
Advant agesofel ectri
cit
y .
 I tiseasi lyandconv enientl
ycont rol
ledf r
om oneswi tchwhereagener at
ordynamoor
mot orisfixed.

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 Iti sf ur thereasi l
ydi st r
ibut edt ov arioususer st hroughr egulatoryorcont rolswi tches
al ongt hecabl el i
neorl ines.
 El ect riccabl esar ef lexibleandcanbei nst all
edasperspeci ficrequir
ement ssuchas
f orcooki ng,l ighting,heat i
ngandt ol i
nkorconnectt r
anspor tandcommuni cation
machi nes.
 It’susedt opr oducedi fferentsi zesandshapesofel ectr
ic-chargedi t
emsi ncluding
heat er sandr efrigerat orsorcool ers.
 Theuseofel ect r
icityi sf ur t
heradv ant ageousbecauseofi tspr oducti
onbyv arious
sour cessuchaswat er,pet rolandmor er ecent l
yt heat omic,nucl earandgeot hermal -
gener at edmachi nes.
 It’sconv enientf ormanyuses.
 Itsusecanbecont rol l
edt hr oughr ationi ngwhennotenough.
Disadvant agesofel ect ri
city .
 Pot ent ial sitesf oritspr oduct ionar el imi ted.
 Thehar nessi ngofel ectricity-gener at i
ngr esour cesi sexpensi veandr equiresheav y
capi tal machi ner ytoi nst all
.
 It’shi ghl ydanger ousandr equi rescar eful handl ing.
 Itr equi reswel lt r
ainedper sonnel f
ori nst allationandmai ntenance.
I
ronandst eel .
I
ronisami ner alobt ai nedf rom f er rousor es.St eeli sapr oductofhi ghlyheat edir
onexposed
ormixedwi thcar bon.
Usesofi ron.
 Maki ngofwat erpi pes.
 Maki ngofox- drawnpl oughs.
 Maki ngofmachi nesf orindust ri
ese. g.t extil
ei ndust ri
es.
 Maki ngofst eam engi nes.
 Const ruct ionoft rains, rail
wayl inesandshi ps.
 Const ruct ionofbr idges.
Disadvant agesofi ron.
 Oni tsown,i ronwasweakandbr ittle.Itcoul dnotber el
iedoni nmaki ngofheav y
machi ner y.
 Onexposur et owat erormoi stai r,ironeasi lyr usted.
 Itwast ooheav yt ot ranspor tthusi tsusagei nconst ructi
onandbui ldi
ngwashamper ed.
Usesofi ronandst eel .
 Const ruct ionofst or agesbui l
dingssuchast hecr y
stal pal
ace.
 Maki ngut ensi ls/
 Const ruct ionofr ailway sandbr i
dges.
 Manuf act ureofmachi ner yandmot orv ehicles.
 Shi p- bui lding.
Advantagesofst eelov eriron.

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 St eel doesnotr ustl i

kei ron.
 St eel i
sst rongcompar edt oi ron.
 St eel i
snotasheav yasi ron.
 St eel canbendwi t houtbr eaki ng.
Disadvant agesofst eel .
 I ronwascombi nedwi thot hermet alsmaki ngst eel product sexpensi v e.
 I twasdi fficul tt omi xt hev ariousmet alsi nt hecor r
ectpr oportiont opr oducegood
qual i
t yst eel .
 Al l ther equi redmet alswer enotal way sav ailable.
Indust
rial i
zat ioni nBr i
tai n.
Upt oabout1670, Br itai nwast hemosti ndust ri
alizedcount ryandamaj orwor l
dpowerwi tha
widetradi ngmar ket .
Factor
st hatf av our edi ndust riasat ioni nBr it
ai n.
 I nv ent ionsi nt heBr iti
sht extilei ndust riespi oneer edt her ev oluti
onar isingi ntheBr i
tish
i
ndust ri
es.
 Br it
ai n har d accumul at ed l arge amount s ofweal thf rom hert radi ng empi re and
col oni es.
 Thr oughcol onisat ionBr it
ainhadacqui redi ndust r
ialr aw mat erialsandmar ketf or
i
ndust ri
al pr oduct s.
 Br it
ai nunder wentaper i
odofdev elopment si nagr i
culture;theseagr arianchangeshad
gr eati nf l
uenceoni ndust ri
alisation.
 I tsl ar gepopul ationpr ov idedamar ketandcheapl abourf ortheindust ry.
 I thadgoodt ranspor tandcommuni cation, herr oadandr ail
waynet wor kf acil
it
atedt he
mov ementofi ndust rial goodsandpr oduct s.
 Thenav alf or ceswer ei mpor tantasi tguar dedsear out esf rom pi r
atesandot her
i
nt ruder saswel l aspr ot ect ingt hemer chant si nt radingpor t
s.
 Usesofsl av el abouri npl antat ionsand mi nesi ncol oniesgr eat l
yi nf l
uenced her
i
ndust ri
al dev elopment .
 Br it
ai nwasandhasbeenoneoft hecount r
ieswi thawel lmai ntainedbanki ngand
i
nsur ancei nf rast ruct ure.
 Br it
ai nhadf oral onghi st oryofi nter nal political stabili
ty.
 Ther e wer e cot t age i ndust r
ies t hatbecame t he pi oneer si nl ar ge-scalef actory
i
nv est ment s.
 Br it
ai nhadanabundantsuppl yofski l
ledl abourf orheri ndust ri
esandeconomy .
 Thecount ryhadadequat eener gyr esour ces.
 Thegov er nmentencour agedaf reeandopen- mar keteconomy .
Indust
rial i
sat ioni ncont inent alEur ope.
Theindust rialr ev olut ionst ar tedf r
om Br itaininabout1750, t
hisspr eadt ocont inentalEurope
by1850.
Factor
st hatl edt oi ndust rialisat i
oni ncont inent al Eur ope.

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 Mostoft hecount rieshadadequat esuppl yofr esour cessuchascoalandi r

on-or eto
prov i
deener gyandnewmat erials.
 Thesecount ri
esal soexper iencedpol it
icalstabi li
ty .
 Thehi ghpopul ationi nt hesecount ri
esof feredbot hski l
ledandunski ll
edl abourf orthe
factor i
es.
 I nall count riest heyst rivedt oi mpr ovetranspor tnet wor kthr oughconst ruct i
onofr oads,
rail
way sandcanal s.
 Mostoft hecount rieshadunder goneagr ari
anr evolution.
 Thesecount ri
eshadcapi talf ori ndustrialdev elopmentt hr oughi nvestmentbyweal t
hy
mer chant s.
 Theyhadv ariedsour cesofener gyf ori
ndust rial dev el
opment .
 Av ail
abi li
tyofnewski l
lsi nsci enceandt echnol ogy .
Eff
ect sofi ndust rialrev ol utioni nEur ope.
Poli
ticaleffect s.
 I tl
eadst ot hescr ambl eandpar titi
onofAf ri
ca.
 I tledt ot hebi rthandgr owt hofmaxi ms.Thi swasi deol ogywhi chwasadv ancedby
karlmar x( 1818- 1863) .Itcondemnedcapi t
alism f ori t
sexpl oitat
iv etendency .
 I tledt ogr owt hofami ddl ecl ass,compr i
singofur banwor kerswhobecamev ocali n
demandi ngf orr ef ormsandt ookonact iverolei nt hedeci sion-maki ngpr ocess.
 Ther ev olutionl edt ot heemer genceoft hetradeuni onmov ement .
 Ther ewer emanyunempl oy edpeopl ewhoof feredaf erti
legr oundf orgr ievancesand
organi sat ionsopposedt ot hest at e.
Socialeffect s.
 I tcreat ednewsoci algr oupsnot ablytheur banandr uralsoci ety.
 I tl
edt or ur al-urbanmi gr ationsasmanypeopl emi gratedt ot het owns.
 I talsol edt opopul at i
ongr owt hi nEur ope.
 I talsol edt oi mpr ov edmedi cal ser vi
ces.
 Hi ghpopul ationi nt ownsl edt oashor t
ageofhousi ng.
 Ther e was gr owt hi n pauper ism or st at e of beggi ng due t o hi gh l ev
el s of
unempl oy menti nt owns.
 Hi ghi ncidenceofchi ldl abour ,wher echi l
dr enandwomenwor kerswer eexposedt o
danger ouswor kingcondi tionsf orl onghour s.
 I tl
edt osoundai randwat erpol lution.
Ecomoni cef fect s.
 I tl
edt oi mpr ov ementi nagr icul t
ur eduet omar ket, f
ertil
izer sandmachi nes.
 Ther ewer emar kedi mpr ov ement si ntr
anspor tandcommuni cati
onpat t ernsi nEur ope.
 I tledt o expansi onofi nt ernat ionalt radeasi ndust ri
alcount ri
eswer el ookingf or
mar ket st osel lthei rpr oduct s.
 Ur banf act oriescoul dnotcopewi ththel argenumber sofr ural-urbanmi grantswho
wer eseeki ngj obs.Thi sledt ohi ghunempl oy mentr ate.

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 Thedev elopmentandspr eadoff act orybasedi ndust riessl owl yf orcedt hedecl i
neand
col lapseofcot tage–basedset -ups.
 Thr ought hei ndust ri
al revol ution, Eur opeannat ionswer eabl et omakeal otofweal th.
 I tal sol edt our bani zat ioni nEur ope.
 I tal sol edt osci ent if
ici nvent ionsr el atedt omachi nery,transpor tandcommuni cat ion.
Thesci ent if
icr ev ol ut i
on.
Itref erst oaper iodi nhi st or ywhenmanydi scov er i
eswer emadeaboutt heuni verse.The
discov eriesanddev elopmenti nsci encei ncr easedhumanknowl edgeandunder standi ng
aboutt heuni verse.
Itbegani nEur opedur i
ngt her enai ssanceper iod( 1400AD) .Thi swasaper iodofr ebi rthof
l
eani ngandexpl orat ion.
Earlysci ent ificinv ent i
ons.
Thewor l
danci entci vil
izat ionscont ribut edi nv ariousf i
eldsofsci encesuchasmedi cine,
biology ,chemi st ryandgeomet r
y .
Anci entEgy pt :Egy ptians wer ef amous mat hemat icians and used t heirknowl edge t o
const r uctwonder fulpy rami ds( tombs)t heyal soi nv ent edgeomet rywhi cht heyusedont heir
farms.
Anci entchi na:t heywer emai ncont ri
but or si nast ronomy .TheChi nesewer et he1stt or ecord
whatcamet obecal led` `Hal ley’sComet ”.Thi si saheav enl
ybodywi thsv erybr ightheadand
l
essl umi noust ai lor bitingr oundt hesun.
ArabandMusl im schol ar s:i nast ronomy ,t heyst udi edt hewr i
tingsofPt olemy ,aGr eek
scient ist ,aboutt hesol arsy stem.I nmat hemat ics,theybor rowedt hei deaofzer of rom t he
Indians.
Anci entI ndia:t heydev elopmat hemat icsbyi ntroduci ngzer o whi chmademul ti
plicat i
on
easier , i
nmedi cine, Indi ansf oundcur esf orsnakebi tesandl eprosy .
Fact or swhi chf aci li
tat edt hesci ent i
ficr ev olution.
 Theneedt of i
ndsol ut ionst odayt odaypr oblemsencour agedsci enti
ficr esearch.
 Ther enai ssanceper i
odi nEur opeencour ageschol arshipi ndi ffer
entf ieldsofsci ent i
fi
c
resear ch.
 Di scov er yoft hepr i
nt ingpr essbyJohannGut enber gofGer manyi n1447enabl edt he
pr inti
ngofbooksandj our nalsandt hisenhancedt hespr eadofsci enti
ficideas.
 Gov ernmentandweal thyi ndi vidual spr ov i
dedf undst osuppor tscientifi
cr esearch.
 Voy agesofexpl or ationl edt odi scov eryofnew l andsandencour agei nt er
esti nnew
spher esofknowl edgeandr esear ch.
Keyper sonal it
iesi nt hesci ent ificr ev olut ion.
Rober tboy l
e:wor kedonanai randdi scov eredt hatai rwasi mpor tantf orcombust ionand
respir ation.He al so est abl ished t hatt he pr essur e and v olume ofa gas ar einv er sel
y
propor tional .
Coper ni cus( 1473- 1543) :hegav eanaccountoft her otati
onoft heear thoni tsaxi sandi t
s
mov ementar oundt hesun.

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Gal i
leoGal il
ei( 1564- 1642) :hedi scov er edf or ceofgr avity.Hepr ovedt hatt hesamef orce
attractedt hemoont ot heear th.Theear thi tselfwassi mi l
ar l
ypul l
edt ot hesun.Heal so
i
nv ent edt her eflect i
ngt elescope.
Ant oineLav oi sier( 1743- 94) :hemadesuccessf ulexper i
ment si nchemi str
yt oshow t he
composi ti
onofai r.Heshowedt hati twasmadeupofdi fferentel ement s,hy drogenand
oxy gen.
JohnDal t
on( 1766- 1844) :hedi scov eredt heat omi ct heor y.Accor dingt ohi m al lsubstance
areupofat omswhi char et hesmal lestpar ti
clesofmat terint heuni v
erse.Heal sodiscov ered
anddescr ibedcol ourbl indness.
Mi chaelf ar aday( 1791- 1867) :pl ay ed akeyr olei nt hef ield ofel ectr
ici t
y.Hepr oduced
electricityf or m amagnetandi nt hepr ocessmadeady namowhi chef fi
cient l
ypr ovided
electricity.
Char lesDar wi n’
s( 1809- 1882) :hei nv ent edav acci nef orsmal lpox.
Loui sPast eur :hedi scov eredt hepr ocessofpast eurisat i
onf ort heconser vat i
onofl iquid
foodssuchasmi lk.
Benj ami nFr ankl in( 1706- 1790) :showedt hatlight i
ngwasaf or m ofel ectri
city.
Wi ll
iam Mer ton( 1819- 1866) :di scov eredt hatet hercoul dkeeppat i
entsasl eepdur i
ngan
oper ationandsomaket hem ei therf eel lesspai nornopai natal l.
Alexandergr aham bel l.Inv ent edt het el
ephonei n1877.
Thei mpactoft hesci ent ifici nvent ions.
Posi ti
v eef fect s
 I thasl edt oi mpr ov ementi nf armi ngmet hodsandani mal s–husbandr y.
 Thei nv ent i
onofmachi nest or epl acehumanl abourhasqui ckenedt heagr i
culture
process.
 Di scov eryoff oodpr eser v at ionmet hodhasmi nimi sedl oseofagr iculturepr oduce.
 Agr i
cul turehasbeent ransf or medf rom smal l
-scal esubsi stencef armi ngt oal arge
scaleeconomi cact ivity.
 I thasl edt of astt ranspor t at i
onoff armi nput s;thishasr educedont i
meandenabl ed
farmer stoear nmaxi mum pr of i
t.
 Mar ket ing off ar m i nput sand out put shasbeen i mpr ov ed bysci entifi
ci nvent i
on
throughav ai l
abi l
ityoft elecommuni cation.
 Sci ent ifici nv ent ion has r esul t
ed i nto set ti
ng up ofi ndust ri
es whi ch consume
agricul tural producedi rect l
yasr awmat erial
s.
Negat iveef fect s.
 Cont inuoususeofar ti
f i
cial f ertil
i
zer shadl edt osi olimpov erishment .
 Cont inuoususeofhy bridspeci eshasl edt olossofsomet raditi
onalpl antandani mal
speci eswhi char emor er esi st antt odi seases.
 Pest i
ci de, fertil
iserandt hef ar mi nput sar eexpensi ve.
 Someagr o-chemi cals,e. g.pest i
ci des,f ungicides,f ertili
ser sar et oxicandt herefore
harmf ul t
obot hpl ant sandani mal sl if
e.

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I
mpactoni ndust ry
Posit
iveef fect s.
 Thei nv ent ionofmachi nesandnewsour cesofpowerhasl edt oemer genceofmor e
factor i
esandmi l
ls.
 Thei nv ent ionofv acci nesanddr ugst ocont rolhumandi seasesl edt opopul ati
on
growt hr ate.
 Thei nv ent ionofpr i
ntingpr esshasl edt omasspr oduct ionofnewspaper s,magazi nes,
per i
odi cal sandbooks.
 Thedi scov eryofst eam powergr eat lyrevol utionar i
est ranspor tindustryasi tledt othe
rail
wayagewi t
ht heinv entionofGeor geSt ephenson’ sr ocket.
 Thedi scov er
yofst eam,el ectri
cityandpet roleum hasl edtot hebui l
dingofnew i r
on
andst eel factories.
 I ndust rial dev elopment shav ecr eat edjoboppor tuniti
esbot hski ll
edandunski ll
ed.
 Pr oduct ionofi ndust ri
al goodsi nl ar gequant iti
eshaspr omot edt hegr owt hint rade.
Negati
v eef fect s.
 Wi despr ead i ndust ri
alisation has l ed t o an i ncreased i ni ndust r
ialaf fluenthence
l
eadi ngt oenv i
ronment alpolluti
on.
 Aut omat ioni ni ndustrieshasl edt ol ossofj obs.
 I nvent i
onandpr oduct i
onofmi li
tar yhar dwar ehasl edt omassi v
el ossofl ivesand
dest r
uct ivewar s.
I
mpact sofmedi cine.
Posit
iveef fect s.
 Sci ent i
f i
ci nvent i
onsl edt oi .
e.eradi cationofki l
l
erdi seasee. g.smal l
pox
 I tl
edt ocl eaner ,saferandl esspai nf ulsurgi cal oper ati
on.
 I thasmadei tpossi blef oronet ohav eanewf aceorl ookt hr
oughpl ast i
csur ger y.
 Thei nv ent i
onofx- rayhasmadei tpossi bl
et oexami net heext entofbr okenbones.
 Thedev elopmentofbabi esi nt het ubest hroughext ernalf erti
li
sat i
onhashel ped
childlesscoupl est ohav echi l
dren.
 I thasmadei tpossi blef oronet ohav eahear t ,l
iverandki dneyt ransplant.
Negati
v eef fect s.
 Someoft hei nventionsar eexpensi veandbey ondt her eachofmanypeopl e.
 Ov erdependence on dr ugshasweekend i mmune sy stem due t o dev elopmentof
resistance.
 I nvent i
onofsaf erabor t
ionshasl edt oimmor ali
tyandl osesofl i
feinsomecount r
ies.
 Thef ailur eofsomesci entif
icinv ent i
onsandr esear chhasl edt oemer genceofsome
resistancest rainsofdi seases.

Emergenceofselect
edworl
dindust
ri
alpower
s.
Theunit
edstatesofAmeri
ca(USA)
I
thas52st at
esthatarei
ntheunionorconf
eder
acy
.Iti
soneoft
hel
argestcount
ri
esoft
he

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world,extendi ngf rom t hewest ernAt lant iccoast li

net ot hePaci fi
cOceani nt hewest .
Itbecamei ndependencei n1776f rom Engl andandr ecogni sedasani ndependentnat i
oni n
1781.
Factorst hatl eadt oi ndust rialr ev olut ioni nU. S.A
 Rawmat erialswer er eadi lyav ailabl elikei r
onor e, oi l
from t heoi lf
ieldsi nTexas, copper
andcoal .
 Ther ewasbot hski ll
edandunski l
ledl abourwhowasEur opeani mmi gr ant s.
 U. S. Agov ernmentdev elopedt ranspor tsy st em andcommuni cati
onl iker ail
way sl i
nes,
telephones, faxandi nt ernet .
 Ther e wer e sci entifi
ci nnov at ions as educat ion sy stem i n U. S.A al so pr omot ed
resear chwi thf urtherboost edi ndust ri
al i
zat i
on.
 Thegov ernmenti nU. S. Aal lowedf oreigni nv est ment sespeci allyfrom Br itainandot her
count r
ies.
 Amer i
cahadr eadymar ket s;Amer ica’shi ghpopul ati
onensur edal argedomest i
c
mar ketf orheri ndust ri
al pr oduct s.
 Ther ewer eent erprisingci tizens.TheAmer icanswer eal way sr eadyt ov enturei nto
busi ness.
 U. S. Ahadl ongper i
odsofpol i
ticalst abili
tysi ncei ndependencyi nt hesecondhal fof
th
the18 cent ury.
 Ther ewasav ailablesour ceofener gyl ikecoal , pet roleum, gasandhy dr oelectri
cpower .
 TheU. S.A phi l
osophyofcapi talism encour agesbot hl ocaland ext er nalinv estors
becausei tallowedpr ivat eowner shipofpr oper ty .
 The gov ernmentoft he U. S.A underpr esi dent s’Fr ankli
n Del ano Roosev eltand
Woodr owWi lsonpr ov idet ranspor tsy st em.
st nd
 Dur ingt he1 and2 wor l
dwar st heEur opeani ndust r
iali
zednat ionswer enotabl et o
producei ndust rialgoodsast heywer ebusyf i
ght ing.Thi senabl edusat oexpandher
mar ketf ormanuf actur edgoodssi nceshei niti
al lydecl i
net okeepof ft hewar .
Germany .
Unti
l1871,Ger manywasnotuni tedasonenat ionwi thasi ngleruler,witht hecompl etionof
thef r
ance- prussi anwarof1870- 1871;t hesesmal lst at eswer euni tedwi t
hPr ussiat of orm
Germany .
Germanyt henbegant odev elopheri ndust riesandbyt hest artoft he20th cent uryshehad
achievedal oti ntermsofi ndust ri
al i
zat ion.
Emer genceofGer manyasani ndust rialpower .
 Est ablishmentoft hecust omsuni on,zol l
v erei n.Thi swasacust omsuni onwhi ch
li
nkedt heGer manyst atest oget herandr emov edt r
adebar riershencel eadingt of ree
tradeandeconomi cgr owt hi nGer many .
 Av ailabili
tyofener gyf orusei ni ndust rieslikecoal .
 Ther ewasnat ur alresour ceswhi chwer eusedi ni ndust ri
eslikewat erandmi neralslike

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i
ronor e.
 Ther ewasav ailabi li
tyofl abourwhi chwaswi ll
ingt owor k.
 Thei ndust rial pr oduct si nGer manyf oundawi demar keti nGer many ’
sl argepopul ation.
 Exi stenceofgoodt ranspor tandcommuni cationnet wor ks.
 Thei rexi stenceal ongper iodofpol iticalst abi li
tyi nGer manyaf tert heuni fi
cati
oni n
1871bypr inceot tov onbi smar k.
 Theav ailabi li
t yoff i
nancef ori ndust r
ialgr owt h, t
hi scapi talwasf rom t her ichGer many
cit
izenswhowentf orl oansf rom l ocal banksandU. S.
Ai n1924.
 Thehar dwor kingandent erprisi ngnat ur eoft heGer mans.
Japan.
Untilthemi ddl eoft he18th cent ur yagr i
cul tur ewast hebackboneofhereconomy ,sheal so
facedy ear sofci vil warandconf l
ict.
Emer genceofJapanasani ndust ri
alpower .
 Shehadent erpr isingci ti
zenswhower ehar dwor kinganddet ermi nedcommuni ty
.
 Japanhasexper iencedal ongper iodofpol i
tical stabilit
yespeci all
yaf terwor ldwar11.
 Thej apanswor kf orl ife.Thi spol icymeanst hatwhenonei sempl oy edi nJapan,t hey
putt hei nter estoft heempl oy erf irst .
 Japanesegoods, e.g.mot orv ehi cl esar ehi ghqual i
tyandhav eawi demar keti nAf rica,
U.S.A, andEur ope.
 Japanhashi ghl ydev elopedr enewabl ehy dro-elect ricpower .
 Ski ll
edandunski lledl abourwasr eadi lyav ailabl e.
 Japandev elopedagoodsy stem oft ranspor tandcommuni cati
on.
 Theexi stingi ndust ri
albasebef or ewor l
dwar11,Japanhadal r eadyat t
ainedacer tain
l
ev elofi ndust rialdev el opment .
 TheJapanesegov er nmenti nv itedf oreignexpat ri
atesanddepl oy edt hem t ol ocal
i
ndust ries.
 Geogr aphi cal f act or sal sof av our edi ndust r i
alizationi nJapan.
 Japanhadanopeni nvest mentpol i
cywhi chencour agedt hewestt oi nv estinher
i
ndust ries.
Industriali
zat ioni nt het hir dwor l
d.
 Thet hir dwor ldr ef er st ot hedev elopi ngcount ri
eswhi chdependonf or eignai dand
grant sf ort hei rdev el opmentv ent ur es.
 Manydev elopi ngcount r
ieshav el aggedbehi ndi nindust riali
zationduet oanumberof
reasons.
 Longper iodsofcol oni zationr el egat edt hem t ot her oleofsuppl i
er sofr awmat er i
als
andasamar ketf ori ndust rialgoodsf rom dev elopcount r
iesatt heexpenseoft hei r
owni ndust ri
es.
 Ther ei spoort ranspor tandcommuni cat i
onhasunder mi nedi ndust rialization.
 Mostdev el opi ng nat ions hav e pooreconomi es whi ch can’ tsuppor tmeani ngf ul
i
ndust rializat ion.

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 Mostoft he dev eloping count ries ar el aggi ng behi nd i nt he use ofappr opri
ate
technol ogyr equi redi nt hemanuf act uringofgoodsandi nt heexpl oi
tationofnat ural
resour ces.
 Al argepor t
ionoft hepopul at ioni ndev el
opi ngcount r
iesi smadeupofi ll
it
erateand
semi -liter atepeopl e.
 Thepr ot ect ioni stpol i
ciesadopt edbydev el opingcount ri
eshav ediscour agedpr i
vate
ent er prisesandf or eigni nvest ment .
 Ther eisl owmar ketduet olowpur chasi ngpowerofmostoft hepopul at i
on.
 Ther eispol i
t i
cal inst abili
tyint hi rdwor ldcount ries.
 Thi rdwor ldnat ionsof tenhav epoordi sastermanagementst rategies.
 Ther eisl ackofski lledper sonnel i
nt hirdwor l
dcount ri
es.
Brazi l.
It’
st he f our thl ar gestnat i
on i nt he wor ld af terCanada,chi na and U. S.A.I tat t
ained
i
ndependency i n 1882 f rom Por tugaland gai ned r epubl i
can st atus in 1889.She has
est abli
shed t echnol ogy , sophi sticat ed i ndust ri
es, especi all
y i n t he f i
eld of
telecommuni cat ions, elect r
oni cdat a-pr ocessi ng,andbi otechnology .
Fourmai nsect or sofBr azili
ani ndust rializat ion.
Pet roleum andpet rochemi cali ndust ries.I thaspr oducedenoughoi ltosuppl y55% oft he
Brazi li
andemand.
Mot orv ehi clei ndust ry.Itpr oducesmor et hant womi l
lionv ehiclesandear nsaboutus$₂
bil
lioni nf oreignexchange.
Aircr aftandaer ospacei ndust ry.
Elect ri
ci tygener at i
oni ndust r
y .
Fact orsi nfluenci ngi ndust ri
alizationi nBr azil.
 Av ailabi li
tyofbot h ski ll
ed and unski ll
ed l aboursuppl yf rom t he count ry’
sl arge
popul ation.
 Ext er nal mar ket swi thot hercount r i
eshav ei ncr eased.
 Enoughnat uralr esour cesar eav ai l
abl el i
kecoal ,ironor e,ur anium,manganese,gol d
andoi l
, prov idedr awmat eri
alsf ori ndust ri
es.
 I mpr ov edt ranspor tandcommuni cat i
onl i
ker ailwayl i
nesandt elephoneandt elegraph
l
ines.
 Dev elopmentofbanki ngf orpr ov i
sionofl oanst oi ndi
v i
dual swhowant edtov enture
i
nt ot hebusi ness.
 Good economi c pol icies whi ch encour aged dev el
opment of t ransport and
communi cat ion, HEPandoi l expl or ation.
 For eigncapi tal whi chwasusedt oest abl i
shi ndust ri
esint hecount ry.
 Thecount riesi ndust ri
al i
zationwasboost edbyt heHEPandcoalwhi chwer er eadily
av ailabl e.
 Themai nobst acl esofi ndust ri
al izat ioni nBr azil.
 Hi ghpov ertyl ev elsasmor et han40% t heBr azi l
ianpopul ati
oni spoorandt herefore

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hasl owpur chasi ngpower .

 I nabi li
tyt of ullyex ploithernat ur al resour ces.
 St iffcompet i
tionf rom al readyi ndust rializednat ionsf ormanuf act uredgoods.
 Hugef orei gndebt sasal otofmoneyar eusedt oser v i
cet hesel oansi nsteadof
invest ingi ti ni ndust r
ies.
 I thaspoort echnol ogyt oal lowf ort heef fectiveexpl oi
tationofherr esour ces.
SouthAf rica.
I
thasst r
uggl eal ongt i
meagai nstt hepol icyofapar thei dwhi chhadsubj ectedt hebl ack
major i
tyint hecount ryt oeconomi c,pol iti
cal andsoci al har dshipupt o1994.
Manyi ndust r i
esdur ingt heapar thei dper iod,t hemai ni ndust ri
esi ncludedi ronandst eel
i
ndust ri
es, engi neer ing, l
ocomot i
v e,chemi cal ,tex ti
le,cement , l
i
ghti ndust riesandt ourism.
Factorsinf luenci ngi ndust ri
al izat i
oni nSA.
 Av ailabi l
ityofnat uralr esour cesf orpr ocessbyheri ndust ri
esl i
kei r
on and st eel
indust ri
es, l
ead, zinc, bauxi teandt in.
 Thei ndust rialgoodsf rom SAar eofhi ghqual ityandcant heref orecompet ef av ourabl y
wi t
ht hosef rom t hedev elopednat ions.
 Thehi ghpopul at i
onpr ov idedbot hski l
ledandunski ll
edl abourf ort hei ndust ry .
 Dev el opmentofsour ceofener gyl ike( HEP) .
 Road, wat erandr ai l
wayt r
anspor tsy stem ar egreat lydev elopedi nSA.
 Ai rt ranspor ti sal so wel ldev eloped.Thei nternat i
onalai rpor tsenhancebusi ness
oper at ion.
 Av ailabi l
ityofcapi tal.Thegov er nmentofSAget shercapi talmai nlyf r
om t radei not her
mat erials.
 Pol i
tical st abi lity,especi allyaf t ert heendofapar thei drule.
 Thegov ernmentofSAhasadopt edgoodpol ici
esofpr omot i
ngi ndust ri
alizat i
oni nt he
count rybyput tingt ari
ff sont hei mpor tedcommodi ti
es.
 SAi sal soendowedwi thav ariet yofwi ldlif
eandsceni clandscapet hatat tract stourists
tot hecount ry .
Challengesf aci ngi ndust rializat i
oni nSout hAf ri
ca.
 Thedi scrimi nat or yapar thei dpol i
cyt hatdi scri
mi nat edAf ri
cans.
 Theapar thei dpol icyembr acedbyt hemi norit
ywhi t
er uleof tenmetst i
ffr esi st
ance
from t hemaj or itybl ackpopul at i
on.
 Compl etionf rom t hemor edev elopedcount r
iesl ikewest ernEur opeancount rieswi t
h
super iorgoods.
 Ther ewer er ampanti ndust r
ialst rikesi nt hecount ry,especi allydur ingt heapar theid
per i
ods.
 Hi gh pov ertyl ev el s,a bi g numberoft he SA popul at i
on ar e poor ,t her efor elow
pur chasi ngpower .
 SAhasahi ghl ev el ofinsecur i
tywhi ch, att imes, discour agesf or eigni nv estors.
 TheHI VandAI DSscour gehasr av agedt hecount rieslabourf orce, especi allyindust r i
al

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labour .
India.
Indust ri
aldev elopmenti sassoci at edwi thEur opeanent ryi ntot hecount ryf r
om t he15th
centur y.
Duringt hemi ddl eages, Eur opeant radesest ablishedt radi ngpost sal ongt hecoastofI ndi a.
Indiaat tainedheri ndependencef rom Gr eatBr i
taini n1947,si ncet hensheembar kedon
th
vigorousandambi ti
ousi ndust rializat ionpr ogr ammes, byt heendoft he20 cent uryIndiahad
emer gedasoneoft hemostsuccessf ulst or i
esofi ndust riali
zedst atesi nt hedev elopi ngor
thir
dwor ld.
Fact orsthatcont ri
but edt oi ndust r i
al i
zat i
oni nI ndia.
 Thr oughcol onizat i
onandcol oni ser sindust r
ialisat ionwasbr oughti nI ndi a.
 Ther ewasgoodt ranspor tandcommuni cati
onl i
ker ailwayandr oads.
 Ther ewer ecot tagei ndust ri
esl ikeweav ingofcot tont omakecl oths.
 I ndianhadr awmat er i
alsl ikecoal , i
ron0or eandmanganese.
st
 The1 i ndependentgov er nmentofpr imemi nisterpandi tnehm,embar kedonpol i
cies
tomoder niset heeconomyandexpandest ablishedf act ories.
 Thei ndependentgov ernmentf or mul atedf ive-yearpl ant oboostheri ndustriesl i
ke
agricul turesect or.
 I ndiansadopt edauni quef or eignpol i
cyoni ndust rial
isat ion.
 I ndia’sl argepopul at ionhasbeenagr eatassetf ort hesuppl yofl abourandt he
prov isionofr eadymar ketf ori ndust ri
al product s.
 I ndiadev elopedhercoalr esour cesf ort hesuppl yoff uelt olocomot i
v esandi ndust ri
es
insuppor tofheri ndust rial est abl ishment .
 Dualst at epr ivatei nv estmentwher eI ndiangov er nmenthassuccessf ull
yusedasduel
appr oacht oindust ri
al i
se.
 I ndiani ndust r
iesenj oyal ar gedomest icmar ketwi thf oreignmar ketwi t
hint het hi
rd
wor ld.
 Ther ewasgoodent repr eneur shi pwi thgoodi nv estmentl ar gelyi nI ndiaandagood
numberoft hebusi nessorcommer cial acumenhaspenet ratedt hirdwor ldciti
es.
Chal lengesf aci ngi ndust rialisat i
oni nI ndi a.
 Nat ur aldi saster ssuchasf loods,ear thquakeswhi chdest royi nf rastruct ur
e,leadi ngt o
economi cl osses.
 Hi ghpov ertyl evelamongt heI ndi anpopul at i
onhasr esul tedi ntoal ow pur chasi ng
power .
 I ndiansuf fersmassi vebr ain-dr ai n.
 I ndiahasonmanyoccasi onsf oughtwi thPaki stanandsect ar i
anunr ests.
 TheHI V/ AIDSpandemi csar espr eadi ngataf ast err at einI ndi a.
 I ndianpr oduct sfacest i
ffcompet iti
onwi t
hot herpr oduct sf rom dev el opingcount ri
es.
 Pr obl emshi nder i
ngi ndust rializat ioni nthet hirdwor l
d.

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 Lackofadequat ef undst oi nvesti nt hei ndust r

ialsect ori scausedbyhi ghr at
eof
popul ationgr owt handr ampantpov er t
y .
 Lackski ll
edmanpowermai nlybecauseoft hepooreducat ionsy stem thatlayless
emphasi sonsci ent ifi
c, techni cal andv ocat i
onal tr
aining.
 Poormeansoft ranspor tandcommuni cationi nt hir
dwor l
dcount r
ieshav egreat l
y
hinder edt r
anspor tofr awmat erials.
 Ther ei s stiffcompet ition f rom hi gh qual ity and cheapl y produced goods f rom
dev elopedcount r i
es.
 Ther ei saf reeopenl ocalmar ketbutt hepur chasi ngpoweri sl ow becausei sl ow
becauseofpov er ty.
 Pol iti
cali nst abilitydoesnotof feraconduci veandenabl i
ngenv ironmentt oattract
foreigni nvest ment .
 Thei ssueofcol oni alandneo- col onial legaci es.
 Ther ear er api dpopul ationgr owt hr at esduet oi mpr ovedmedi calandheal t
hservices;
thisef fecthascal ledf ormassi veexpendi tureonf oodi mpet ration.
 Thi rdwor ldcount ri
eshav ebeensubj ect edt oepi demi ccat ast rophes.
 I ndust ri
ali
zat ioni nt het hirdwor l
di sgr eat l
ycheckedbyl argeexpendi turesonmi l
itary
hardwar efordef enceandsecur ity.
Sol
uti
onst ochal l
engesf acingt hirdwor l
di ndust ri
alpr ogrammes.
 Pr ov isi
onofcapi tal andcr editt ot heirpeopl et or educepov erty.
 I mpr ov ethepur chasi ngpoweroft heirpeopl ebyi ncreasingi ncomes.
 Encour age i ndust r i
al i nv estment by gi vi
ng i ncent i
ve and pr otecti
on to local
manuf acturingsect ors.
 Dev elopandext endt het ranspor tandcommuni cationinfrast ructure.
 Di versificationoft heeconomyandmanuf act uringi ndustries.
 Pr omot eandpr ov i
desci ent i
ficandt echnol ogi cal educat i
ont ot hepeopl e.
 Reducemi li
t aryexpendi tur esanddi v ertf indsf ort hemanuf actureofpr oductsforwi de
domest i
candext ernal mar kets.
 Boostandencour ager egi onal co- oper at ionf orawi derindust r
ialmar ket.

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URBANI ZATI ON.

It
’st hepr ocessbywhi chpeopl ear eat tract edt oset tl
ement sofl argehumanpopul ation.I t
maybedescr i
bedasaci tyort own; itmayhav emor et han20, 000peopl e.
At own: ov er20, 000peopl eandupt o100, 000peopl e.
Aci tybet ween100, 000- 500, 000peopl e.
Anur bancent rewi thpopul ationofov er500, 000.
Ther ear ev ar i
ousf act or st hatdet ermi net hel ocat i
onofur bancent r
esl i
kecommer cial
activiti
es, li
ket radeandt ranspor t;ot her swer est rategi callypl acedf ordef ence.
Admi nistrativ ecent reswoul dal sogr owanddev elopi ntour bancent r
e.
Earlyur bani zationi nAf rica.
Thepr ocessofur bani sat iondat esbackt ot henewSt oneAgeandi toccur redduet oav ari
et y
ofreasons.
Fact orst hatl edtoear l
yur bani sat ioni nAf ri
ca.
 Thepr esenceofmaj orcent resofeducat ionsuchasuni v er
si ti
escont ri
but edt ot he
gr owt hofur bancent res.
 Thei ssueofr eligional sol edt our bandev el opmentl iket i
mbukut u.
 Ur bancent resgr ewar oundf reshwat ersour cesl iker ivers, springsandoases.
 Ther ewer eadmi ni str
at ioncent resl ikeemper orsandki ngdom.
 Mi ner al deposi t
sl ikei ron- or e, goldandsal tledt our bani zat ion.
 Ther ewasal sot radei nAf ri
cat hisl eadt our bani zation.
 Rout ej unct i
onsal sol edt our bani zation.
Cairo.
It
’st hecapi talci t
yofpr esentdayEgy pt.Itwasf oundedi n969AD.I t’
sl ocatedonanol dGr eek
settlementt hatwaspr otect edbyt heRomansagai nstanyext ernal attacks.
Egy ptf acednumberofi nv asi onsonanumberofoccasi on’ se. g.byt heSy rians( 1171- 1249)
Turki shmamal uks( 1249- 1517) ,ot tomanTur ks( 1517- 1798)andt heFr ench( 1798- 1801) .
Egy ptacqui redsel f-gov er nancei n1922butt heTur kishdy nast ycont inueddomi natingt hem
until1936whent heywer eov er thrown.I tat tai nedi n1952af tert hemonar chwasov erthrown
byCol onel Abdel Nasseri n1952.
Fact orsf ort hegr owt hofCai ro.
 I twascent ref oreducat ionandmedi ci nel ikeuni versityofCai ro,Amer i
caUni v ersity
andAzharUni v ersi ty.
 The dev elopmentofv arious i ndust ries i n Cai roi ncludi ng f ood pr ocessi ng and
const ruct i
onat tract edpeopl et oCai ro.
 I t’
s a cul turalcent re bei ng home t ot reasur e pr eser v ed f rom t he ear l
yEgy ptian
civ i
lizat i
onandI slami ccul turei nt hei rmuseum.
 I nter nat i
onal tradebet weenEgy ptandot herr egi onswasdi srupt eddur i
ngt het wowar s.
 TheAswanhi ghdam wasopenedi n1902whi chenhancedf oodpr oduct i
ont hrough
irri
gat i
on.
 TheSuezCanalwasopenedi n1869andopenednew t rader out ewhi chencour aged

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thear rival oft housandsofEur opeans.

 Tr anspor tser vicesdur i
ngt he19th cent uryi mpr ov edduet otheconst ructi
onofr ai
lway
li
nesandr oads.
 Thr oughNi l
e, thet ownat tr
actedcar avanswhi chwoul dpasst hr oughCai r
of rom nor th,
westandcent ral Africa.
 Cai rohascont inuedt oexpandal ongt her i
v erNi let ot henor thandt hesout h,t heNi l
e
notonl ypr ov ideswat er,fordomest icuse, butasal soameansofcommuni cation.
FunctionsofCai ro.
 I twasanat ional capital andapol i
ticalcent reoft heAr abwor l
d.
 I tser vesast het ranspor tandcommuni cat i
oncent re.
 I thasmanyr ecr eational facili
tiesl i
kest adi umsandent ertai
nmenthal ls.
 Cai rohasbeenahi stor i
cal cent r
ebei nghouset ot heEgy pti
anci vil
i
zat i
onf orov er5000
year s.
 I talsoser vesasani ndust r
ialcent re.
Problemsf acingCai ro.
 Ther ei shighpopul ationpr essur e.
 Duet opopul at iont her eisscar cityoff ood.
 Ther ei sunempl oymentamongt hepeopl e.
 Housi ngpr obl ems.
 Ther ei straf ficjams.
 Ther ei sindust rialpol lution.
 Hi ghcr i
mer at eduet ounempl oy ment .
 Sol uti
onst ot hepr obl ems.
 Foodshor tagehasbeenaddr essedbyr eclai mi ngl andf oragr icult
ur eandwat erfor
irr
igationf rom Aswanhi ghdam.
 Housi ngpr obl em ast hegov ernmenthasdev el opedi ndustri
esi nt hesubur bs.
Mer owe/Mer oe.
I
twassi tuatedont hebankoft her i
verNi leabout130mi lesnor thofmodem Khar toum;i tis
beli
evedt ohav eemer gedatar ound350AD.
I
twasf oundedbyt heNubi anor igins, andt hattheywer et hef or merrul ersofEgy pt.
Meroei ncr easingl ybecameani mpor tantcent ref ori r
onwor king,ani mpor tantindust rythat
producednotonl yweapons, butal sohunt i
ngandf ar mi ngt ools.
Factorsforgr owt h.
 I thadabundantwoodf uel ,
whi chwaskeyt ot hepr osper ityofthei r
onwor kingi ndustry,
becauset het ownwasl ocat edatt hemeet i
ngpoi ntofbl ueandwhi teNi le.
 I twas st rategi callyl ocat ed att he int ersect i
on ofdi ff
erentt r
anspor t
ation and
communi cat ionr outes.
 I twasl ocat edi nar egi onwhosesoi l
swer er ichi ni ron; indeed, archaeol ogical evidence
hasshownt hati ronwor kingst artedasear lyas500BC.
Socialeffect sofgr owt h.

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 Mer oit i
cl anguagewasdev eloped.
 Newar chi tect ural dev elopment stookpl acei nt her egion.
 I naddi ti
ont oironwor kingot herindust riesalsodev eloped.
Functi
onsofMer oe.
 I tserv edasacapi t aloft heki ngdom ofKush.
 I twasamaj ori r
on- smel tingcent reint her egion.
 I tser vedasamaj orcent ref oragr icul tureandt radei nt heKushki ngdom andupper
Ni l
e.
 I twasar eligiouscent r ewher et hel ion-god-Apedemekwaswor shippedi nt helion
templ e.
Decli
neofMer oe.
 Ther iseoft heAksum ki ngdom i nmoder nEthiopia.
 Thei ncr easi ngdeser tificat i
onoft her egi on,perhapsduet ot her api ddef orestr at
ion
alsol edt omer oesdecl ine.
 I ron-smel tingconsumedal otofwoodf uel.Thi sexposedt hesoi lstosoi lerosion
throughcl ear ingoff or est .
 At t
ackandconquestofki ngEzanaofAxum i n350AD
Kil
wa.
I
twasl ocat edont heeastcoastofAf ri
cabet weent hemaf i
aislandsandt hemout hoft he
RuvumaRi v er.I twasest ablishedbySwahi li-speakingMusl imswhohadmi grat
edf r
om t he
nort
hernci tiesofshunway aandl amut omaker oom formi grantsf rom Per siaandt hegul f.
I
twaspr osper ousandpower fulaut onomousci t
yandhadconquer edmostoft heset tl
ement s
betweenZanzi barandsof ala.
Factor
sf ort hegr owt hofki lwa.
 I twasst rat egical l
ypl acedf ortheI ndianOceant r
adeandshi pcoul dsai l.
 I tpar ticipat edi nt heI ndi anOceant radeandbecamebot hweal thyandpower fulasa
result.
 Themaj or ityoft hepeopl eont heislandwer eMusl ims, thust her egionwasusedbyt he
rulerst ouni fythepeopl e, especi al
lyint imesofwar .
 Gol dwasoneoft hemaj orcommodi tiesoft heIndianOceant r
ade.
 Theshi r
azi leader sf oundedady nastywhi chprov i
dedabl eleader shi p.
Functi
onsofki l
wa.
 Ki lwaser vedasamaj ort radingcent rei nt heIndianOceant rade.
 I twasacent reofI slami cr eli
gionint hesout herncoastofeastAf rica.
 I twasamaj orAr abandMusl i
m set t
lemental ongt heeastAf ri
cancoast .
 I tserv edasal i
nkbet weent hecoastandsout hernTanzani ahinter l
and.
 I twasanadmi nistrativecent rewhi chhousedpal aceoft her ulers.
Factor
sf ordecl ineofki l
wa.
 Thedi srupt ionoft hegol dt r
adeduet oci vi
lwar s.
 Ther ewer edy nast icrev el ri
escausedbycompet i
ti
onf orpowerbysomer oyalfami li
es.

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 Const antrebel lionbyv assal statesweakenst heci tyst ate.

 At tack, conquestandev entual occupationbyt hePor tuguese.
Earlyurbani zat i
oni nEur ope.
Earlyur banizat i
oni nEur opedat esbacksev eralt housandy earsandhasi t
scr adleint he
Greco-romanci vi
lisations.
Theear l
yi nhabi tant soft hecont inentwer emai nl yr uralf olkwhoengagedi nsubsi stence
far
mi ng, hunt i
ngandgat her i
ng.
Therewasal socr af ti
ngsuchasbl acksmi t
hsandcar pent ers.
London
Backgr ound.
Isthecapi tal cit
yoft heUni tedKi ngdom andi slocat edont hebanksoft heThamesRi v
er.
Romansol dier soccupi edt hecur rentl ocati
oni n43ADandbui l
tanear l
ypr ecur sortot he
LondonBr idgei n50AD.
Factorsf ort hegr owt hofLondon.
 Thel ocat i
onofLondonont hebanksofr iverThamesenabl edt hecitytoaccessbot h
thei nter i
orandt hesea.
 Tr adehast akenpl acei nt heLondonsi ncet her omant imes.
 Londonwasacul t
ur al f
ocal pointforthewhol eofBr it
ai n.
 Londonwasal soar eli
giouscent r
ef r
om 597ADwhenst .Paulscathedralwasbui lt.
 Ther ewaseducat ionalcent r
ef i
nancedbyt heci t
yt obui l
dpubl icschool ssuchas
char terhouseandst .Paul s.
 Londonhadgoodadmi nistrationwhi chwasl aiddownbyRomans.
 Londondev elopedi ntoat radingcent r
e, t
heci t
yal sogr ewi ntofi
nancialhubofBr i
tai
n.
 Thr oughoutt hehi stor yoft heci t
y,thebui l
dingi ndust r
yhaspl ayedasi gnif
icantr ol
e.
 Ther ewer ei ndust riesl i
kecl othpr oduct i
onwasEngl and’sbiggestindust ryandv ast
amount swer eexpor tedt hroughLondon.
 Londonhadanef f
ect iveandef fi
cientcityadmi nistration.
FunctionsofLondon.
 Londonser vedasani mpor tantpar toftheUni tedKi ngdom f orexportsandi mpor t
s.
 I twasamaj ortradi ngandcommer ci
alcent re.
 Theci tywasamaj orr eli
giousandcul t
uralcent rewi thmonast eri
es,cat hedralsand
chur ches.

 I twasaf i
nanci
al centr
e.
 I tservedasthecapitalci
tyoftheUni t
edKingdom andt
headmi
nist
rati
vecent
reofthe
cit
ygov er
nmentofLondon.
Athens.
I
t’
soneoft heearlyst
atesinancientGreece.
TheAt henianswer et
hinkersandl i
kedtot al
k.Theyspentmuchti
medevelopi
ngtheor
iesof

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thewho’ sandwhy soft hewor l

d.
Athenswasabeaut i
ful city ; itismostf amedf oritscar v ings, potteryandbui ldi
ngswhi chwer e
donebyv eryf i
newor kmanshi p.
Athenianswer edi v i
dedi nt of ourcl asses.
st
The1 cl asswasmadeupoft her i
chestt hatwer et hemostheav il
yt axed.
nd
The2 cl asspr ov idedcav al ryf orthear my .
rd
The3 cl asspr ov idedsol di er sfort hei nfant ry.
th
The4 consi st edoft hepoor estandwhopai dnot axes.
Factorst hatl edt ot hegr owt hofAt hens.
 Thet ownengagedi nt rade,sel l
ingwi ne,ol iveoi l,woolandcer ami csi nexchangef or
grain.
 Theci tyhadgoodsecur i
tyl ocat edonahi ll
,maki ngdi screetascentbyenemi es
diffi
cul t
.
 At henswasani mpor tantcul tural cent reint heanci entwor ld.
 Ther ewasgoodeducat i
onl ikemat hemat ic,ast ronomy ,medi cineandphi l
osophy .
 I twasar el igiouscent rewi t
hal ar get empl e, thePar thenon.
FunctionsofAt hens.
 I twasamaj ortr adi ngcent ref orwi nes, oil
, andwool ,cerami candagr icul
turalproducts.
 I twasser vedasamaj orcul turalandar tscent rewi thwel ldev elopedt heatreandpl ay
grounds.
 I tserv edasaneducat ionalcent rewi thwel ldev elopedacademi ccent reledbygr eat
philosopher sandsci ent ist.
 I twasar eligiouscent reoft r
adi ti
onalGr eekgoddessAt henaandl atert otheGr eek
OrthodoxChur ch.
Emer genceofmoder nur bancent resi nAf ri
ca.
Nairobi .
I
t’sthecapi t alci tyoft her epubl i
cofKeny asi t
uat edont heAt hipl ai
ns.Or i
ginall
yitwasa
meet i
ngpoi ntoft heki kuy uandmaasai communi t
ies.
Thear eawasi nhabi tedbyt hemaasai whocal leditenkar eNai robi ``
thepl aceofcool water
s”
I
nJune1899, ther ailwayr eachedt heAt hi plainsandNai robi .
Factorsf ort hegr owt hofNai robi.
 Nai r
obi hadahi ghat titudewhi chl edt ocool andpl easantt emper atures.
 Thepr esenceofNai robi Riverensur edaboutwat ersuppl y
.
st
 Tr adingact ivi
ties,1 bet weent hemaasaiandt heagi kuyuandl atertheSwahi l
i
-Arab
carav ant radeenhancedt hegr owt hoft heci ty .
 Thet ransf eroft hecol onialgov er nmentheadquar tersfrom Mombasat oNai robiin
1907f ur therl edt ot hegr owt hoft heci ty.
 Thesi tewasal ev el gr oundorpl ainwhi chf av ouredt heconst ructi
onofbui l
dings.
 Thear eaar oundNai robi hadgr eateconomi cpot ent ial.

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Functi
onsofNai r
obi .
 Nai robi istheadmi ni
strativeheadquar t
ersofKeny agov ernment .
 I t’
sat r
anspor tandcommuni cationcent ref ortheeastandcent ralAfricawi t
hr ai
lway,
roadandai rlinks.
 Theci tyi sat our i
stcent rewi t
hv ariousat tractionsl i
keNai robi nationalpar k.
 Nai robii sacommer cialandf inanci alcent r
ewi t
hv ar i
ousf i
nanci alinst i
tuti
onse. g.
banksandst ockexchange.
 I ti
sar esident ialcentrewi thschool s, polytechnics, collegesanduni versit
ies.
 I ti
sacul t
ural cent r
ewi t
ht heKeny anat i
onal theat r
eandbomasofKeny a.
Probl
emsf acingNai robicity.
 Theci ty’swat erandsewer ageser viceshav ebeenov erstretched.
 Ther eisani ncreasei nsl ums,wher et hehousi ngandsani t
ationcondi t
ionsar epoor ,
mai nlydueov ercrowding.
 Theci t
yi sf acedwi t
ht hedaunt i
ngt askofpr ov idi
ngsoci alser vicesuchaseducat i
on
andheal thf acili
ti
es.
 Ther eispopul at
iongrowt hwhi chl eadst ot r
afficcongest ions.
 Thewast edi sposal,asi tgeneratesmount ainsofgar bageonadai lybasis.
 Ther eisal argenumberofunempl oy edpeopl ethatar edr awnt oitdai l
yinsear china
betterlife.
Solut
ionst opr oblemsf acingNai r
obi.
 Expansi onofwat erproject stosuppl ywat ert other isingpopul ati
onoft heci ty
.
 Thegov ernmentshoul d par tnerwi tht hepr ivatesect ort o pr ov i
desewer ageand
garbagecol lect i
onser vi
ces.
 Bui ldingofaf fordablehousi ngtor eplacet hesl ums.
 Dev elopmentofi nfr
astructuresuchasr oadby passesandf l
y overstodecongestt he
cit
y.
 I mpl ement at i
onofcost ,shar i
ngpr ogr ammest oexpandsoci alser vi
ces.

Johannesbur g.
I
t’
slocatedont hehighl
andplateauoft heGaut engpr ovi
nce.
I
n1886gol dwasdi scoveredintheWi twater
srandr egionoftheprovi
nce.
Thisprompt edt hegov er
nmentt osendt woof fi
cialstogoandi nvesti
gat
et hecl
aimsand
i
dentit
yasui tablesit
eforsettl
ement .Thesewer eJohannr iskandJohannesJoubert.
I
tisfrom theirnamest hatthecit
ygoti tsname.
I
tisnicknamedEgol i
,whichmeans` `
placeofgol d’
’,as40%oft heworldsgol
disfoundthere.
Factorsforgrowt hofJohannesbur g.
 Thedi scov er
yofgol dl
edt oitsgrowth.
 Ther ewasl argenumberofpopul at
iont opr ov
idelabourwhichwast obeusedi n
i
ndustriesandmi nes.
 The gov ernmenti ni
ti
ated polici
es thatf av our
ed indust
ri
es and encour
aged thei
r

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establ i
shmenti nJohannesbur g.
 Thel ocat ionoft het ownonav eld( plain)neart heVaalRi vermadeconst ructi
onwor k
easyanddev elopment .
 Theav ailabi t
yofcoal whi chser v edast hemaj orsour ceoft heci ty’sener gy
.
 Ther ewasav ar i
et yofi ndust r iesl ikei ron, di atomi t
eandchl or i
de.
 Ther ewasav ailabi li
tyoff oodst uf f
sgr owni nt hepr ov i
ncet hatensur edfoodst abil
it
y.
 Thebanki ngser viceswer ei nt roducedi nJohannesbur gt oser vet hemi nes.
Functi
onsofJohannesbur g.
 I ti
sat ranspor tandcommuni cat ioncent rewi thr oad, r
ailandai rlinkst omaj ortowns.
 I t’
sani ndust rial cent rewi thmaj ormanuf act ur i
ngi ndust ries.
 I thascommer cial, f
inanci al i
nst it utionsandcompani esf rom ot herpar tsoft hewor l
d.
 I ti
saneducat ional cent rewi thmanyeducat ional i
nst it
ut i
ons.
 Theci t
yi sat our istcent reandat tract smanyt our istsf rom v ar iouspar tsoft hewor l
d.
Probl
emsf acingJohannesbur g.
 Ov erpopul ationhasr esul tedi ntoshor tageofhousi ngandgr owt hofsl ums.
 Ther ei sahi ghl evelofunempl oy mentduet ot hei nf luxoft hepeopl ef rom the
neighbour ingcount ri
es.
 Theci t
yhashi ghcr i
mer at ewhi chmaybeat tri
but edt ounempl oy ment .
 Heav yconcent rationofi ndust r i
eshasl edt oi ndust rialpol lut ion.
 I nadequat esoci al ameni ti
esl ikeschool s, hospi talsandsani tat ion.
Solut
ionst opr obl emsf aci ngJohannesbur g.
 Dev elopmentofi nf r
ast ruct ur e.
 Encour agementofi nv est or st ost ar tbusi nesssoast ocr eat eempl oyment .
 I mpr ov ementofr ev enuecol lect ioni nor dert o pr ovidebet terser vi
cest otheci ty
resident s.
 Bui ldingofbet t erandaf for dabl ehousest or epl acet heshant i
es.
 Par t
ner shipbet weent hepol i
ceandt hecommuni tyt or educet hehi ghrateofcrime.
Impactofagr ar i
anandi ndust rialdev el opmentonur bani zat i
on.
 Thepr act i
seofagr i
cul t
ur ef or cedhumanbei ngst oadoptasedent aryli
festyl
east hey
hadt oset tleatspeci fi
csi test oat tendt ot hei rcropsandl iv est ock.
 I tl
edt ogr owt hofur bancent res.
 Ther ewasi ncr easedf oodpr oduct ion.
 Ther ewaspr omot i
onoft radeduet osur pl uspr oduces.
 Ther ewasal sopr oduct ionofr awmat erialsf ori ndust r
ieswhi chl edt ogr owthoft owns
ast hei ndust r i
esat t
ract edset tlement .
 Expor tandi mpor t sofagr icul tur alpr oduceandmanuf act ur edgoodsl edtoexpansi on
andgr owt hofpar ttowns.
 Ther ewasr ural -
ur banmi grat ionwhi chr esul tedi nt oov ercr owdi ngandcongest ioni n
urbancent res.
 Hi ghconcent rationofi ndust ri
esi nt heur bancent resl edt oai r,noiseandwat er

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pol
luti
on.
 Therewasal
soi
ncr
easei
nunempl
oymentr
ates.

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SOCIAL,ECONOMI CANDPOLI TICALORGANI SATI ONOFAFRI CANSOCI ETI ESINTHE19TH

CENTURY.
BAGANDAKI NGDOM.
Fact
orsf oritsgr owt h.
 Har dst rongr uler st hati ski bugwa, kat erreggaandmut ebi.(buny ore-kit
ara).
t
h
 Hadgood, strongandabl er ulersi nt he19 cent ury,whower eabl etouni tetheirpeopl e
andr estruct ur et heexi st i
ngadmi nist rationsy st em.
 Itwasasmal landcompactki ngdom whi chwast ohol dtoget her.
 Itenj oyedst rategi c,soci alandpol iticaladv ant agesl ikegeogr aphicallyitli
esnextt ol.
Vict ori
awi thgoodmeansofi nt ernalcommuni cationandnat uraldef enceagai nst
neighbour s.
 Ital sot radedwi t hwaswahi liandAr abt r
ader sf orcommodi ti
esl i
kepl ates,cups,
saucer sandgl asswar ewhi chl eadt oar msacqui r
ement .
 Ital soenj oy edgoodcl imat ewi thampl er ainf allf ort hegr owt hofbananaswhi chwas
stabl efood.
 Ithadgoodsecur itywhi chmadei tconcent ratedonpol it
ical organization.
 Ithadast rongar mywhi chwasl oy alt ot heki ngasheappoi ntedhi sownl oy alchi efs
withr oy al nav yt hatkeptguar dov erl .Vi ctori
a.
 Thegandat radi ti
onal socont ri
but edt ot hegr owt hoft heki ngdom,f ar
mi ngdoneby
women, meni nact ivi
t i
esofpol i
tics, car pent ry, war ,bar k-clothmaki ngandsmi ting.
 Theyal so acqui red a l otofweal thf rom ar eassheconquer ed likei v
ory ,sl aves,
li
vest ockandi ronor eusi theldt heki ngdom t obest rong.
 Thecent ralizedgov ernmentt hatwasi ntroducedi nBugandaenhancedhergr owt h.
 Ithadacent ralizedki ngdom l eadbykabakawhohadabsol ut epowerandkabakawas
her editaryupt ohi sdeat handi nher itedbyt heson.Kabakascour twasner vecent reand
allsy mbol sofr oy alaut horitywer ekepti ncour t,liket het hrone( namulondo)r oyal
drums, spear sandst ool s.
Workofkabaka.
 Headoft r
adi t
ional religi on(t hel ubaal e)
 Har dsuper nat ur al power .
 Hewasj udi ciar yheadandf i
nal cour tofappeal .
 Hewast hecommander -i
n–chi efoft hear medf orces.
 Hehadawi fef rom ev er yclani nt hecommuni ty .
 Hecoul dappoi ntandt ransf erordi smi sswhoev erhewant ed.
 Ther ewer eof ficialsl ikequeenmot herandqueensi st er( ubanga) ,katiki
ro( prime
mi nister),omul amuzi (chi efjust ice) ,omuwani ka( treasur er)andmugama(haedsof
clans) .Ot her swer emusener o(t hechi efbut ter )andmf umbi ro(t hechi efbaker) .
Kati
kir
o.
 Heor gani sedt axcol lect ions.
 Plannedwar si nkabakasname.

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 Pr
otect
edkabakadur
ingwar.
 Hewastoinf
ormthekabakaoft
hedeci
sionshemadeoncour
tissues.

Lukiko.
 I twasanassembl yofchi efsandkabakahad69member s.
 I twasal awmaki ngbody .
 I twasnomi nat edbykabaka.
Hadt hefollowi ngr oles.
 Adv isedkabakamai nlyonmat tersaf fectingthecount r
y.
 Theyr epr esent edt hepeopl e’sconcer nsandneedst ot hekabaka.
 Act edasf i
nal cour tofappeal i
nset tingdi sputes.
 Theydi rect edcol l
ect i
onoft axesi nt heki ngdom andpl annedexpendit
ure.
 Theyhel pedt hekabakai ngener aladmi nist
ration.
Bataka.
 Theywer emi norchi efsi nchar geofcl ansandanswer abletomugema.
 Theywer eguar di ansoft hecl ansl and.
 Theyi nher it
edt heirposi tions.
 Theycol lect edt ributesandmai ntainedl awandor der .
 Theywer er ewar dedl andduet ol oyalty.
 Thei rsonsappoi ntedt oser vethekabaka(bagal agala)
Poli
ticalorganizat ion.
 I twasheadedbykabaka( ki
ng)whowasr espect edast hesuprimejudge.
 Theki ngdom hadcount iescal l
edsazasl eadbyasazachi ef
.
 Thecount i
eswer esub- div i
dedi ntosub- countiescal ledgombol ola.
 Thegombol ol awer edi v i
dedi ntosmal lerdivi
si onscal ledmi l
ukawhichwerepr esided
overbymul ukachi ef .
 Kabakaal soappoi ntedsomel eader st ogov er
nt hev assalstat
es.
 Thekabakawasher editary.
 Ther ewer ecour t
st oj udgeandsy mbol si ntheki ngdom.
 Kabakahar dsuper humanpower s.
Socialorganizat ion.
 Thoswasbasedoncl answhi chhadi tsownt radi t
ions.
 Theywer edi videdi ntocl asses( 4classes) .
 Theybel iev edi nsupr emecr eator,kat ondat owhom t heheadoft hehomesteadpr ayed
everymor ning.
 Theybel iev edi not hergods, balubaal e.
 Theyhadpr ophet swhoconsul tedbal ubaale.
 Theyhadr oy al shr i
neswhi chopposi tekabakaspal ace.
Economi cor gani zat ion.
 I twas based on t he agr i
cul t
ure,peasant s cultivated mill
et,sweetpotatoes and

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veget abl es.

 Themosti mpor tantcr opwasbanana.
 Ther ewasal soot hereconomi cact ivi
tiesl ikecanoebui lding,bar k-clot
hmanuf acture,
fi
shing, sal tmi ning, her ding, iron- wor ki
ngandbasket ry
.
 Ther ewascr opr ot ationsy st em.
 Tr adehadbecomev eryi mpor tanteconomi cact iv i
ti
esandmar ketswer ear egularpar t
oflif
e.
 Ther ewasf or eignt r
adewi thSwahi liandAr abt rader s.
Factorsfort hedecl i
ne.
 Kabakamwangawasi nconsi st entandi ncompet entinpol icymaki ng.
 Ther ewer er eligi ousconf l
ict sbet weent heChr isti
ans,Musl imsandt radi tionalistall
whower ecompet i
ngf orinf luenceatt hekabakascour t.
 Theaut hor i
tyoft hekabakawasunder mi nedbyt heChr i
stianscour toffi
cials.
 Theki ngdom cameunderBr iti
shcont r
ol af terangl o-
bugandaagr eement .
 Daudichwabei ngani nfantcoul dnotexer thi saut horit
yaski nghencet heki ngdom
wasmanagedbyt hecour tof ficialscol l
abor at i
ngwi thBritish.
THEASANTE/ ASHANTI .
Theyar et hel argestgr oupofakan- speakingwhomakehal fofGhanapopul ation.They
t
h
migratedf rom t henor thbet ween1000AD and1300AD,byt he16 cent uryt heakanhad
createdstatesl ikedenby na, akwamuandf ante.
TheAsant eki ngdom emer gedi nt hel ate17th cent ur yoccupy i
ngt hecent ralpar toft he
presentdayGhana.I tgr ew sopower f
ult hatf ort henextt wocent uriesi tdet ermi nedt he
poli
ti
csandt radeoft her egi on.
Factorsforgr owt hoft heAsant eEmpi re.
 Thegol denst ool broughtuni ty.
st
 The1 t hr eer uler sorasant ehenewer eabl e, shrewdandcour ageouspol iticians.(obi ri
yoboa, oset ut uandopukuwar e) .
 Thegr owt hoft het rans- Atlant icsl avet radebr oughtal otofweal th.
 Sev er al city -
st at esemer gedar oundKumasi andsuppor t
edeachot her.
 Theki ngdom al sohadast rongagr i
cultur al base.
 Thecent ralizedpol it
ical sy st em underasant ehenepr ovidedst abi li
ty.
 TheAsant eki ngdom hadal argeef f
icientst andi ngar myusedgunandgunpowder .
 Theodwi raf est iv al t
hatwashel dannual l
yhel pedt omaket hest atemor ecohesi ve.
 Theasant ewer ebar veandpr oudpeopl eandt heneedt ofreet hemselv esf r
om t he
oppressi ver ul eofdenky ria.
Polit
icalorgani zat i
on.
 TheAsant eEmpi rewasr uledbyt heasant ehenewi ththeadv i
ceoft heconf eder acyor
unioncounci l.St ateki ngswer ecal ledt heomanhene.
 TheAsant ehadacent rali
zedpol i
ti
cal sy stem.

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 Theyhadt henucl eusoft heAsant eEmpi rewasmadeoff ivecitywhi chwer eKumasi,

dwabenbekwel ,kokofuandnsul a.
 TheAsant eEmpi redemonst ratedhighstandardofpol it
icalorganizati
on.
 Theempi r
ehadt hreeparts,Kumasi (metropoli
tan) ,
amat roandpr ov i
ncialAsante.
Met
ropoli
tanAsant e.
 Itwasr ul
eddi rectlybytheasant eheneassupr i
meaut horit
y .
 Thegol denst ool.Itwasintroduceddur ingther eignofoseit utupr ovidedasolidbase
forunit
yamongt heAsant e.A pr i
estcal l
edokemf oanoky ei scr edit
edashav i
ng
i
ntendedthei deaoft hegoldenst oolwhi chcamef r
om t heskyi n1695.I tmadet he
off
iceofasant ehene,whichwasconsi deredsacr edaccept abl
e,itwasasour ceofunit
y.
 Thegov ernmentoft hemet ropoli
tanAsant econsi st
edoft heconf ederacycouncil
madeupofki ngs( omanhene) .

Workofomanhene.
 Givet her ightofdecl aringwaronot heromanhene.
 Recogni zet her ightofasant ehenet oimposenat i
onall evies,especial
lyduringwars
andnat ional cal
ami ti
es.
 Attendedt heannualodwi raf est i
v al,topayal legi ancet ot heasant ehene,honourthe
deadandset tl
edi sput es.
 Grandownsubj ectst her i
ghtt oappealt ot hehi ghcour tsetupbyt hef ouruni
onsin
thecapi tal.
 Provinci al Asant e.Thesecompr isedofal l t
hest at econquer edbyt heAsant einthe18th
centur y.
 Thesest atespl edgedl oy al
tytot heasant ehenebypay i
ngt axes.
 Theyal sohadmember si ntheasant ehensar my .
Economicf act or s.
 Itwasl ocat edi nar i
char eaint er msofl andf ertilityandr ainfall
.
 IthadAt lant i
ct rader out esconv er gedi nt hi
sr egi on.
 Itprov i
dedgol d,slav esandi vor yt ot het r
ans- At lant i
ctrader s.
 Theyal sor ecei vedcot toncl ot h, gunsandgunpowder .
 TheAsant eal soser vedasmi ddl emenandcar riedgoodsf rom CapeVer deandBenin
tothegol dcoasti nexchangef orgol dandi vor y.
 Slavesbecameav eryimpor tanti tem oft rade.
 Asant eal sokeptl ivestocksuchascat t
le.
 Asant egr ewmanycr opsi nthei rrichagr i
cultur al land.
 Theypr act isedi r onwor kingandmadeot hercr aft ssuchasbasket sandpot s.
Soci
alorgani zat ion.
 Theyar epar tofakan- speaki ngpeopl e.
 Theyobser v edaf orty-daycal endarandhadt hesamemar riageandnami ngrit
es.
 Theyhadmat ri
linealt abooagai nstmar r y
ingf r om wi thinonesmat ernalorpaternal

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clan.
 Theyhadodwi raf esti
val
s.
 Theyal sohadt hegol denstoolcer emony .
 Ther ewer eal
sosl aveswhopr ov idedlabour.
 Theyal sohardpol ygamousf ami li
es.
Decl
ineoft heasanteempi re.
I
nternalf actors.
 Opukuwar e,whowassucceededoseit utuin1720, f
ail
edtoincorporat
et heconquer
ed
areasi ntheAsant eunionashi spr edecessorshaddone.
 Af t erhi
sdeat hin1750,t herewasnoi mmedi ateper sonal
it
yt ounifytheempi r
eafter
thedeat hofopukuwar e.
 Ther efoll
owedal ongperiodofr ebell
ionsafter1750.
Ext
ernalf actors.
 I n1896, t
heBrit
ishoccupi edAsant eandar restedtheasantehene.
 Thet r
aditi
onalrivalsoftheAsant e,thefante,enlistedthesuppor toftheBrit
ishina
t
h
numberofwar si nthe19 cent ur y.
 I n1894, t
heAsant ewer edefeated.Thesubj ectstatestookadv antageandbrokeaway .

THESHONA
Theshonear eabant u-speaki nggr oupt hati nhabitedthehi ghfert
il
epl at eaubet weent he
Li
mpopoandZambezi rivers.Thi sar eaispar tofmoder nZimbabwe.
Factorsf orthegr owt hofshoneki ngdom.
 Theki ngdom wassi t
uat edi nar egi ont hatwaswel lendowedf orcat tleandcr op-
growi ng.
 Ther ewasal sodev el
opmentoft r
ade.
 Ther ewasabl eleader shipbypower ful kings.
 Theki ngdom hadast rongst andingar mywhi chenabl edhertoconquerhernei ghbour s.
 Ther ewasav ail
abi l
ityofmi ner alresour cessuchasgol dandcopper .
 Rel i
gionbr oughtuni tytot heki ngdom wher ebyt hekingactedast hechi efr el
i
gious
leader .
 Theshoneacqui redf irearmst hrought r
adewi ththeeastAfri
cancoast .
Poli
ticalorgani zation.
 Byt hebegi nni ngoft he19thcent ur y
, theshonedi dnothav east r
ongcent rali
zedst at
e.
 Theyf ormedaconf ederationknownast heRozwi Empire.
 Theempi rewasheadedbyanemper or ;theseatwasher edi
tarywhi chcr eateduni t
yi n
theempi re.
 Thef ol l
owinghel pedt heemper orrunt hest ate.
 Queenmot her,queensi st er,kingsni newi ves,headdoorkeeper ,chi efjustice,mili
tary
commander ,headdr ummerandchi efcook.
 Thet itleoft heki ngwasmwenemut apaandhewast hechiefreli
giousaut horit
y.

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 Religionandpol it
icswer eintertwined.
 Thespi rit
swer ebel i
ev edt oenhancepeaceandst abilit
yi ntheempi re.
 Ther ewast her oyalf ir
e.Thi swasl i
tatt hecour tofmwenemut apaandwoul dnotbe
al
lowedt ogoof fordwi ndleunt il
theendoft heki ng’ sreign.
 Eachv esselchi efcar riedaf l
amef rom t hisf i
ret ohi sownchi efdom todemonstrate
l
oy altyt omwenemut apa.
 Theempi rewasdi v i
dedi ntopr ovinceswhi chwer er uledbyl esserchi ef
s.
 Thechi efssentt heirsonsy earl
yt opl edgel oyalt
yt othemwenemut apa.
 Theki ngdom hadast rongst andingar my .
 Rev enuef rom t radewasusedt or unt heempi reandsust aint hearmy .
Soci
alorgani zation.
 Theshonewer epol ygamousandor gani zedintocl ans.
 Theyhadapar t
rili
neal inherit
ancesy stem int heirkinshi p.
 Theywer ei nfluencedbyr eli
gion.
 Theki ngwasr egar dedasadi vinekingandwasv ener ated.
 Ther eli
gionwasbasedont hemwar i cult.Whowassupr emeandcr eator.
 Sev eral priestsl edt hepeopl einwor shi pofmwar i
.
 Theybel iev ed int he exi stence ofancest ralspi ri
ts who act ed as inter
medi
aries
betweent hepeopl eandGod.
 Wor ki nshonecommuni t
ywascommunal anddi videdaccor dingtosex.
 Theyl i
v edi nst onehouses.
 Thei reducat ionwasi nformal .

Economicorgani zati
on.
 Theywer emi xedf armers.
 Theywer ehunt er sandgat herer
s.
 Theydidf ishi
ngar oundriverZambezi .
 Theymi nedgol dandcopper .
 Wereironwor kers.
 Pract
isedt radel ongdi st
ancewi thArab–Swahi l
iandPor tuguese.
 Madecl othesf rom wi l
dcot t
onandbar ksoft r
ees.
 Pract
isedcar vingpr oducingv ar
ietyofitemsf ordecorati
onf r
om ivoryandsoapstone.
Thedecli
neoft heshoneki ngdom
 Thegr eatZi mbabwedecl inedbecauseofl ackofsaltandt hetraderoutesthatpassed
inthekingdom hadshi ft
edt onorthtowar dstheZambezi v al
l
ey.
 Therewasani ncr easeinpopulationwhi chexert
edpr essureonl andforcul
tiv
ati
onand
pasture.
 Kingmut apawhosucceededmut ot
aaski ngofmwenemut apawasnotaspower ful
ashisf ather.

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 ThePort
uguesepresenceint
hekingdom resul
tedi
nchaosi
ntheki
ngdom.
 TheRozwiEmpirewasconquer edbyt heNdebelefr
om SouthAf
ricawhor
uledt
he
shoneuptothet
imeoft heBri
ti
shinvasi
on.

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CONSTI TUTI ONANDCONSTI TUTI ONMAKI NG.

Meani ngofconst itut i
on.
It
’sasetofpr inciplesandr ul eswhi chst at eshowacount r
yi sgov er ned, i
tsor ganizati
onand
aspirationsandest abl i
shest hest ruct ureofgov ernmentanddi stributesofpoweramong
vari
ousar msofgov ernment .
Italsospel lsoutt her i
ght soft heci tizensaswel last heirr esponsi bili
ti
esanddut i
esi n
rel
ationt ot hest ate.
Typesofconst itutions.
Wr i
ttenorunwr i
tten
Wr i
ttenconst i
tut i
ons.
It
’swher et hef undament alpr i
nci plesandr ulesoft hest atear econt aini nonedocument .
It
spr epar edbyadesi gnat edbodyt henenact edandadopt edt hr oughacl ear
lydefined
procedur el iket heAmer icanconst i
tutiont hatwaswr itt
enin1789andenact edi n1789.
Advant agesofwr ittenconst itution.
 Thedocumenti sr eadi l
yav ailablef orr eferencei nt i
mesofcr i
sis.
 I t ’
sr igidandnotpr onet ot amper i
ngwi t
h.
 I ti scl earanddef i
nitei naddr essi ngv ariousi ssues.
 I tcl earlyout li
nest he power s,t er ms,r elat i
onsand dut iesofdi fferentor gansof
gov er nment ,ensur ingt heydon’ tcomei nt oconf li
ctwi t
heachot her.
 I thel pst opr omot enat ional uni tyinacount ry .
 I thel psinsaf eguar dingt hei nterest sandr ight sofmi noritygr oups.
Disadv ant ages.
 I tsomet imesf ail
st or espondt oemer gingi ssueduet oitsr igidness.
 Thepr ocedur eofamendmenti ssl ow andcausedel ay swhi chcoul dl eadt ocivi
l
disor der
 Somear edet ailedandr arel yunder st oodbyor dinaryci t
izens.
 I tt endst omakej udiciar ytoopower fulasi tist heor gant hati nt erpretsthedocument .
Unwr itt
enconst i
tution.
It
’swher ef undament alpr i
nci plesandr ul esofast atear enotcont ainedi nasi ngl edocument
butar edr awnf rom v arioussour ces.
Exampl esofunwr it
t endocument s.
Const it
ut i
onalmi lest one:l i
kemagnacar te( 1215)t hiswasagr eedbet weenki ngj ohnandt he
nobilit
yt hatguar ant eedcer tainpr ivil
egesf oral l
Engl i
shmen.
Legislation:Thesear epar toft hef undament alpr i
nciplesoft hest at eandcont ri
butetoits
aspirationsl i
ke.
i) Thepet iti
onofr ightact( 1628)t hatpr ev ent edthest at efrom r aisingt axeswithout
theconsentofpar l
iament .
ii
) The habeas cor pus act( 1679)t hatest abli
shed t he r ightofpr isonerst o an
i
mmedi atet r
ial.
ii
i) Thebi l
lofr i
ght sact( 1689)t hatl imitedt hepoweroft hemonar chy.

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i
v) Theactofset tl
ement( 1701)t hatgr antedi ndependencyt ot hejudiciary .
v
) Theactofuni on( 1707)t hatuni tedt hepar liamentofScot landandEngl and.
v
i) Thepar l
iamentact s( 1911,1949)t hatl i
mi tedt hepower soft heHouseofLor dst o
del ayl egisl ation.
vii) Par l
iament ar yact( 1918, 1928)t hatal l
owedwoment ov ot e.
viii) Thepeer ageact( 1963)t hatpr ohi bit
eddi scr iminat i
onont hebasi sofr ace,col our
oret hni cor igin.
ix) Repr esent at ionoft hepeopl eact( 1969)t hatl ower edt hev otingaget oei ghteen.
Casel aw:t hisr eferst ospeci fi
cr ul i
ngsmadebyt heBr iti
shcour tst hathav ehadani mpacton
thepr incipl esoft hest ate.
Parliament arycust oms:Thesear et raditions,cust omsandr ulesofBr it
ishpar l
iamentf orm
partofconst i
tut i
onandar econt ainedi nt hehansar d.
Comment ar i
es:t hesear et hewr itings, opini onsandasser tionsofr espect edschol ars.
Const i
tutionalconv ent i
ons:t hesear epol i
ti
calt r
adi ti
onsoragr eement swhi chhav ebeen
foll
owedorappl i
edov eraper iodoft i
me.
Adv ant agesofunwr ittenconst itution.
 Theyar esi mpl et oamendast heyar eal t
eredl ikeor dinaryl aw.
 Theyar eaccept ableduet oi tshome- grown.
 Theyar ef lexibl eandeasi lyadopt abl et oprevai li
ngsi tuationsi nt hest ate.
Disadv ant agesofunwr i
ttenconst ituti
on.
 I ttendst obei ndef i
niteandi mpr eci sei ncompar isont ot hewr i
ttenones.
 Theeaseandsi mpl icitywi thwhi chsuchconst ituti
onscanbeamendedl eav est hem
opent omani pul ationbyt hel egislator .
 Toomuchpoweri sgi vent ot hej udiciaryt hathasr esponsi bili
tyofi nt erpreti
ngt he
const itution.
 I tdoesnotguar ant eesuf fi
ci entpr ot ecti
onoft her ightsofci ti
zens.
 I tt endst oov erloadt hej udi ciaryast heylookf orconst itutionalpr inci
plesnotonl yin
judi cial decisionsbuti nst atut es.
Char act eristicsofagoodconst itution.
 I tmustdef i
nei tscont entcl ear l
y.
 Compr ehensi v esoast ocov eral laspect sofgov ernment .
 Abl et opr otectt hef undament alright sandf reedomsoft heci ti
zens.
 Dur abl eandel ast ic.
Const i
tutionmaki ng.
Thei ndependenceconst i
tutionwasnotmadedi rect l
ybyt hepeopl e.Itwasnegot i
atedi n
LondonatLancast erhousebet weent heBr i
ti
shgov ernmentandr epr esentativesofKeny a’s
poli
tical par tieswhower emember soft hel egislati
vecounci l
.
Sincei ndependencemanyamendment st ot heconst i
tutionhav ebeendone.
Thei nt erpar tiespar l
iament arygr oup.( IPPG)
Thepar l
iamentf ormedaf or um aspar tofconst i
tutionchangesi naugust1997,t hisf orum

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agreedonl i
mi tedr efor mst oensur ef reeandf airgener alelecti
onsi n1997.
Constituti
onofKeny ar ev iewact .
Thiswaspassedi n1997.
Itwast opr ovideal egi slativef ramewor k,st ructureandv i
sionoft heconst it
utionr eview
processaf tert he1997el ect i
ons.
Theact ,howev erdi dnotsat isfyal l,stakehol dershel daser i
esofmeet ingsin1998atbomas
ofKeny aandatsaf aripar khot eli nNai robit ot ryandf i
ndaconsensuswhi chl eadt o
amendmentoft heacti n1998.
Themaj orpar tiesdi dnotagr eeont henomi nationoft hemember st otheconst it
ut i
onof
Kenyar eviewcommi ssi on.( CKRC)
Thisledt oest abl i
shmentoft wopar all
elr ev i
ew pr ocesses,one,t heCKRCappoi nt edbyt he
parl
iamentandt hepr esi dentundert her ev iewactandt heot herl edbyacoal i
tionofr eli
gious
andciv i
lorgani sat ion, wi thsuppor tofpol itical parti
es.
This was cal led uf ungamano i nitiativ
e hel di n ufungamano house,t o avoid st alemat e,
negotiati
onswer ehel dbet weenNov ember2000andMay2001,r esulti
ngint heamendment
ofther evi
ewactmay2001.
The2001actest abl i
shedanumberofor ganst ogui dether eviewpr ocesslike.
 Theconst i
tutionofKeny ar ev i
ewcommi ssion.(CKRC)
 Theconst i
tuencyconst i
t utional f
or um. (
CCF) .
 Ther eferendum.
 Thenat ional assembl y.
Theconst itut i
onofKeny ar ev i
ewcommi ssi on.
 I thad29commi ssioner snomi nat edbyt henat i
onalassembl yandpoi ntedbyt he
president .
 I tsmai nf unct ionwast of acili
tatet hecompr ehensiv er eview ofconst it
utionbyt he
peopl eofKeny a.
 I twaschai r
edbypr ofessory ashpal ghai .
Constituencyconst itutional for um.
 I twasbasedatev eryconst ituency .
 I twast ocol lectanddebat et hev iewsoft hemember soft hepubl ic.
Thenat ionalconst itut i
onal conf er ence.
 I twast odebat e, amendandadoptt hedr aftconst i
tuti
on.
 I thad629member sasshownbel ow:
 222member sofnat i
onal assembl y.
 210r epresent at ivesofdi strict select edbycount ycounci ls.
 29member soft heCKRC.
 42member sr epr esent ingpol it
icalpar ti
es.
 125r epr esent ativ esofr eligious,pr of essionalwomensgr oup,tradeuni onsandot her
non- gov er nment al organi sat ions.
 I tdiscussedt hev iewsoft hepeopl eandcameupwi thadr aftconstit
ut i
on,f amousl y

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knownasbomasdr af t.
Ther efer endum.
Itprovidedf orar eferendum t obehel dwi thinonemont hi ftherewasnoconsensusonany
i
ssuedur ingt henat i
onal const i
tutionconf erence.
Thenat ionalassembl y.
Theactempower edt henat ionalassembl yast hesol ebodyt oenactt hebi l
ltochanget he
constitution.
Oncet heNCChadadopt edt hedr af tbillandt hepeopl ehadappr ov edi tatt herefer endum, the
CKRCwoul dpr epar et hef inaldr aftbi lltobepr esent edt otheat t
or neygener alf ortabling
beforet he nat ionalassembl ywhi ch wi llenactt he bi l
lundert he par l
iament arysel ect
commi ttee.
Reconv eni ngoft henat i
onal const itutional confer ence.
Thenat i
onal const i
tutionconf erencewasr econv enedaf terthe2002el ect i
ons.
Inmar ch2004,t heconf er enceadopt edt hedr af tconst ituti
on,howev erpr ofessory ashpal
ghaiwasst oppedbyt hecour tfrom pr esent i
ngt hedr aftt otheat torneygener alf ort abli
ngi n
parli
ament .
Thepar li
amentwentaheadandr ev isedt hedr aftinnai vashaandki l
ifi.Thesecameupwi tha
draftwhi chwashar moni sedbyt heat torneygener al.Itwascal l
edwakodr aftwhi chwas
present edt oar ef erendum i n2005andmaj or i
tyofKeny ansr ej
ectedi t.
Thecommi tteeofexper ts.
 Theconst itutionofKeny ar ev i
ewbi l
l waspassedi n2008; itest ablishedacommi t
teeof
exper tsheadedbynzambaki tonga.It smandat ewast o:
 Har moni set hepr ev i
ousdr af tconst i
tut ionandcomeupwi t hanagr eeabledocument .
 Conductci v i
ceducat ionont hepr oposednewconst i
tuti
on.
 Or gani senat ional discussi onofdr aftconst i
tution.
 Oncompl eti
onofi t swor kt hecommi tteeofexper t
spr esent edt heirdr aftt ot he
par li
ament arysel ectcommi tteewhi cht abledi tinpar l
iament .
t
h
 Thedr af twast henpubl ishedbyt heat torneygener alon6 may ,2010.
t
h
 Itwassubj ectt oar ef erendum on4 august ,2010andpassedov erwhelmi ngl y.
Promul gat ion.
Itwaspr omul gatedbyt hepr esidenton27th august ,2010.Thi smeansbei ngadopt edand
madeef fect i
v e.
Amendmentt ot heconst i
tut ion.
Theconst itutionpr ov i
dest woway st hroughwhi chi tcanbeamended.Ther eare:
Amendmentbypar liament ar yinitiative.
Abi l
lisi ntroducedi nbot hhouset hesenat eandpar l
iament .
Ifthebill ispassed, thespeaker soft het wohousessubmi tittothepr esidentf orassent .
Amendmentbypopul arinitiat ive.
 Apr oposalt oamendt heconst i
tutionmaybesi gnedbyatl i
st1mi ll
ionr egistered

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v ot
er sinf orm ofgener alsuggest i
on.
 Thei niti
ativeisdel iveredt ot hei ndependentel ectoralandboundar i
escommi ssi
ont o
v er
ifyt helistofv otersandsubmi tittot hecountyassembl i
es.
 I fthedr aftbi l
lisappr ov edbyamaj ori
tyoft hecount yassembl ies,iti
sintr
oducedi n
par l
iament .
 I fpassedbypar l
iament ,
thebi llispr esentedtot hepresidentf orassent .
 I fei therhouse orpar l
iamentf ail
st o passt he bill
,t he proposed amendmenti s
subj ectedt oar ef erendum.
Aspect soft hei ndependenceconst itutionofKeny a.
Thisinv ol
v eddecol onisat ionofKeny a.Keny againinternalself-
gov ernanceon1stJune,1963
wheret hemai nchar acteristi
csoft henewconst i
tut
ionwer eaWest minst ergover
nmentwi t
h
afeder alormaj i
mbosy stem.
a)Theexecut ive.
Theheadoft hest atewast hegov ernor -gener alacti
ngonbehal foft hequeen.Heenj oyed
wider angingpower sconcer ningi nternal ,secur i
tyandf oreignaf fair
s:i nadditi
on,hecoul d
votelegislation.
Thegov ernmentofKeny awasheadedbyt hepr i
memi nister,appoint edbyt hegov ernor-
general.Thepr i
memi nisterwast obechosenf rom amongt hemember softheHouseof
Represent ativesandwasexpect edtoenj oyt hesuppor tofmaj orit
yoft hemember s.

b)Thel egi
slatur e.
Ther ewer et wohousest hesenat eandnat ionalassembl ywhodi dthel egi
slat
ivework.
TheHouseofRepr esent ativ
eshad112di rectl
yelectedmember s,representi
ngconstit
uencies
andser v edforf i
vey ear s.
Thesenat eorupperhousecompr isedof41di rectl
yel ectedmember s,eachrepresent
inga
distri
ctandonef orNai robi.
c)Thej udi
ciar y.
Theconst i
tuti
on est ablished an i ndependentj udiciary,accor
ding t othej udgesand t he
attorney-general secur i
tyoft enur e.
d)Feder al
ism.
Keny awasdi v
idedi ntosev enr egi
ons,eachofwhi chhadi tsownl egisl
ativeandexecut i
ve
structures.
e)Ri ghtsandf reedoms.
Ther ewasasect i
ont hatspel toutt herightandf r
eedomsofal loft heKeny a’
sciti
zensi.e.a
bil
l ofri
ght s.
f) Citi
zenship.
Member sofal lthei ndi genousKeny ancommuni t
ieswer eenti
tl
edt oKeny anciti
zenshi
p,as
wer especi fi
cmember soft hemi gr
antcommuni ti
es, especial
lyt
heEur opeanandAsi an.
Italsospel toutthenecessar yconditionsfortheacqui sit
ionofcit
izenship.
g)Democr acy .

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I
tprovidedf ormul t
i-par tydemocr acyi nKeny a.
Theissueofi ndependentel ect oral commi ssionandcompet iti
veelector
alprocess.
Consti
tut i
onalchangessi ncei ndependenceupaugust2010.
Changesi nt hel egislatur e.
 1965.
 I famemberofpar l
iamenti ssent encedt opr i
sont erm ofsixormor emont hshewoul d
l
osehi sseat .
 A MemberofPar liamentwho mi ssed ei ghtconsecut i
ve parli
ament arymeet i
ngs
withoutt hespeaker ’
sper mi ssionwoul dlosehi sseat .
 1966.
 A memberwhor esignedf rom t hepar tyt hatsponsor edhi mt opar l
iamentwast o
vacatehi sorherseat .
 Thebi camer all egi slat ure,wer emer ged,est abli
shingauni camerallegisl
aturecall
ed
thenat ionalassembl y .
 Al lcandi datesv yingf oranel ectionwer etobenomi natedbyapol i
ti
calpar t
y.
 The12speci allyel ect edmember swer esubst it
utedwi th12member snomi natedby
thepr esident.
 1975.
 Engl ishandKi swahi liwer eusedasameansofcommuni cation.
 1982.
 Sect ion2Aoft heconst ituti
onwasamended.
 1986.
 Thenumberofpar li
ament aryconst i
tuenci eswasr aisedt oamaxi mum of188.
 1991.
 Sect ion2Awasr epeal edmaki ngKeny aamul ti
-partystate.
 Thenumberofpar li
ament aryconst i
tuenci eswasf ixedatamaxi mum of210.
 1997.
 Thepowert oappoi ntnomi nat edmember soft henat ionalassemblywaspassedt othe
polit
ical parti
es.
 2010.
 Member sofpar li
amentwer ei ncreasedf rom 210t o290.
 Bi camer all
egi slatur ewasi ntroduced.
 Count yassembl ieswer ei ntroducedi nt hecount i
est opasslegisl
ati
ons.
Changesi nt heexecut i
v e.
 1964.
Thepostofexecut ivepr esidentwhowast heheadofst ateandgov ernmentwascr eated.
Theposi ti
onoft hepr imemi nisterandgov ernor-gener alwasabol i
shed.
 1966.
Thepubl i
csecur it
yactwaspassed, all
owi ngt hepr esi
dentspeci alemergencypower ssuchas
det
ainingpeopl ewi thoutt rial.

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Presidentel ect eddi rect l

ybyal l v ot ers.
Thev ice-pr esi dentwoul dactf or90day si ncaseav acancyi nt heof fi
ceoft hepr esident .
 1969.
Allmember sofel ector al commi ssi onmember swer eappoi ntedbyt hepr esident .
 1975.
Presidentwasal lowedt opar donel ecti
onof fenders.
 1979.
Publ i
cser vant swhodesi redt ov i
ef orposi ti
onsi ngener alel ect i
onswer er equiredt or esi
gn
si
xmont hsbef or et hegener alel ect ions.
 1982.
Theposi tionofchi efsecr etaryast heheadofci vil
servicewascr eated.
 1985.
Member shi pt ot hepubl icser vicecommi ssionwasi ncreasedf rom 7t o17member s.
 1986.
Thesecur it
yoft enur eoft heof ficesofat torney -
gener al,cont rol
lerandaudi tor-gener alwas
l
ift
ed.
ChiefSecr etar yPosi ti
onwasabol ished.
 1990.
Thesecur ityoft enur eat torney-gener al,
cont rollerandaudi tor-gener alwasr est ored.
 1992.
Thepr esident ial ter m ofof ficewasl imitedt ot wo.
 1997.
Thenumberofel ect oral commi ssi onerwasi ncreasedt o24.
Detent ionwi thoutt r
ial wasabol ished.
Publ i
cor deractwasamendedt oal lowmeet i
ngswi t
houtseeki ngper missionf rom t hepol i
ce.
Thechi ef s’actwasamended,l i
mi tingthechi ef’spowert oar restpeopl e,compelat t
endance
atbar azasandpr ocur elabour .
 2008.
National accor dcr eatedt heposi tionofpr i
memi ni
sterandt wodeput yprimemi nister.
Acoal itiongov er nmentwascr eat edandpr esidentt oshar epowerwi t
hthepr imemi ni
ster.
President ialappoi ntment swer et obemadei nconsul tationswi ththepr i
memi nist er.
 2010.
Dev olut ionofpowert hroughcr eat ionofcount ygovernment s.
Theposi tionofdeput ypr esi dentwascr eat ed.
Posi ti
onofcabi netmi nisterswasr enamedt ocabi netsecr etarieswassett oami nimum of14
andamaxi mum of22.
Cabi netsecr etar ieswer enott obemember sofpar l
iament .
Allpr esi dent i
al appoi ntment swer et obeappr ovedbyt henat ional assembl y.
Changesi nt hej udi ciary.
 1965.

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Thet it
leoft heSupr emeCour twaschangedt ot hehi ghcour t.
 1977.
TheKeny acour tofappealwasest abl i
shedt or epl acet heeastAf ri
cacour tofappealwhi ch
hadcol lapsedal ongwi tht heeastAf ricancommuni ty .
 1985.
Thehi ghcour tbecamet hehi ghestcour tofappeal forel ecti
onpet i
tion.
 1986.
Allcapital offenceswer emadenon- bail
abl e.
 1988.
Theper i
odofdet ent ionbef orechar gingcr imi nal swasi ncreasedf r
om 24hour st o14day s.
Thesecur ityoft enur eoft hej udgeswasr emov ed.
 1990.
Thesecur ityoft enur eoft hej udgeswasr est or ed.
 2010.
TheSupr emeCour twasest ablishedast hehi ghestcour t
.
Theposi t
ionofdeput ychi efjust i
cewascr eat ed.
The j udiciary ser v ice commi ssion was r econst i
tut ed toi ncl ude represent ati
ves oft he
public,j
udges, magi st r
at esandt hepubl i
cser vicecommi ssion.
Appoi ntmentoft hechi efj usticewast obemadebyt hepr esidentwi thr ecommendat ionof
thejudicial commi ssionandsubj ectt otheappr ov aloft henat ional assembl y.
Changesi nci ti
zenshi p.
 1986.
Section89oft heconst i
tutiont hatpr ovidedf ort heacqui siti
onofci ti
zenshipbyev eryonebor n
i
nKeny aaf t
erDecember1983, wasr epeal ed.
 2010.
Dual cit
izenshi pwasi ntroduced.
Citi
zensoft hecount riesappl y i
ngtobeKeny anci tizenswer enotr equi
redt orenouncet hei
r
citi
zenshi p.
.Changesi ncommuni cat i
on.
 1997.
Keny abr oadcast i
ngcor porationactwasamendedt ocompelKCBt ogivef aircoveraget oall
polit
icalpar ties.
Thef il
m andst agepl ay sactwasr epeal edhencel i
censi ngofst agepl aysabol ished.
 2000.
Thecommuni cationcommi ssionofKeny aactwaspassedwhi chal l
owedt heest abli
shment
ofmor eradi oandt elevisionst ati
ons.Mobi l
ephonecompani eswer ealsoal l
owedt ooper ate.
Changesi nel ector allaws.
 2008.
Electoralcommi ssi onofKeny awasr eplacedbyi nter i
mi ndependentel ectoralcommi ssion.
Thei nterimi ndependentboundar i
escommi ssi onwasest abli
shedt orev iew electoraland

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admi nistrat iveboundar ies.

 2010.
Thei ndependentel ect or alandboundar iescommi ssionwasest abl i
shed.
Feat ur esoft heconst itut i
onofKeny a.
TheKeny aconst itut ioni sawr itt
enconst itution.I thas264ar ti
cleswhi char edivi
dedi nt
o18
chapt ers.
a)Sov er eignt yoft hepeopl eandsupr emacyoft heconst itution.
Theconst itut ioni st hesupr emel aw oft her epubl icwhi chbi ndsal lper sonsandal lst
ate
organsatnat ional andcount ylev els.
b)Ther epubl ic.
Keny ai sademocr aticst atewi thmul ti
-par ty.
c)Ci tizenshi p.
Itout l
inest heent i
tlementofci t
izens,r etent ionandacqui siti
onofci tizensandst ateshow
cit
izensmayber ev oked.
d)Bi llofr ight s.
i
tcont ai
nst her ight sandf undament al f
reedomsoft heci ti
zens.
e)Landandenv ironment .
Itout l
inest hepr inci pl esofl andpol i
cy,pr ov idesacl assif
icationofl andandest abl i
shesa
national landcommi ssi on.
Itgiv est heobl i
gat ionsoft hest atei nrespectoft heenv i
ronmentandnat i
onal r
esour ces.
f) Leader shi pandi ntegr ity.
Itst atedt her esponsi bi li
ti
es.Conduct ,financi al ,probi tyandr est r
icti
onsonact i
vit
iesofst ate
officer s.
g)Repr esent at i
onofpeopl e.
Itout linest hegener al pr i
nci plesoft heel ect oral sy stem andpr ocess.Li ke:
 Legi sl at iononel ect i
on.
 Vot err egi st rat i
on.
 Codeofconductf orcandi dat es.
 Vot ingpr ocess.
 Mechani sm ofdeal ingwi thel ector aldi sput es.
Ital soest abl ishest hei ndependentel ect oralandboundar iescommi ssionandpr ov i
desfor
290 const ituenci esf orel ect i
on ofmember st ot he nat ionalassembl y.I tregul atesthe
establ ishmentofpol i
t i
cal par ties.
h)Legi sl at ur e.
Itest ablishedt hebi -camer al legislature.
Ittoucheson:
 Composi tionandmember shi pofpar liament .
 Qual ificat ionsf orel ectionasamemberofpar liament .
 Repr esent at ionofmar ginal i
sedgr oups.
 El ect ionofmember sofpar l
iament .

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 Cl er ksandst af fofpar liament .

 Ter msofpar l
iament .
 Vacat ionofof ficeofMemberofPar l
iament .
 Par li
ament ’sgener al procedur esandr ules.
 Bi llsconcer ningcount ygov er nment .
 Of fi
cer sofpar l
iament s.
 Ri ghtt or ecal l.
 Pr ocedur ef orenact ingl egisl at i
on.
i
) Theexecut i
v e.
I
thast hepr esi dent ,deput ypr esidentandcabi net.
Thepr esi denti st heheadofst ateandgov ernment .
j
) Judi ci ar y.
I
tcreat esandi ndependentj udi ci
ar y .
I
thassy stem ofcour tswi thsuper iorcour tsandsub- ordinat ecour t
s.
Thesuper i
orcour tsar etheSupr emeCour t ,
thehi ghcour tandt hecourtofappeal.
Subordi nat ecour tsar et hemagi str at eandkadhi scour t.
Thereist hej udi cial ser vicecommi ssi onandt hejudiciaryf und.
k)Dev ol ut ion.
I
t’
st heshar ingofpowerbet weent henat ional andcount ygov er
nment .
l
) Publ i
cf inance.
Thereisequi tabl eshar i
ngofnat ional rev enue.
Thereisanequal isat ionf und, consol idat ionf undandr evenuef undsforcountygovernment.
Thereisacommi ssiononr ev enueal locat ionandacent ralbank.
m)Nat ionalsecur ity.
Thereisest abl ishmentofapubl icser vicecommi ssionandt eachersser v
icecommi ssi
on.
Thev aluesandpr inci plesofpubl icser vicear eout l
ined.
n)Nat ionalsecur ity.
TheKeny adef encef orces.
Thenat ional i
nt el l
igenceser vice.
Thenat ional pol ice.
Thereisal sot heSecur i
tyCounci l
.
o)Commi ssi onsandi ndependentof fices.
Thesear eest abl ishedconst itutionalcommi ssionsl i
kej udi cialservi
cecommi ssion,nat
ional
pol
iceser vicecommi ssionandnat ional landcommi ssion.
I
ndependentof fi
cesar ealsoest abl ished, e.g.audi t
or -gener al andcontrol
lerofbudget.
p)Amendmentoft heconst itut i
on.
Amendmentbypar l
iament ar yinitiat ive.
Amendmentbypopul arini ti
at i
v e.
q)Gener alpr ov i
si on.
Mechani sm f orenf orcementandi nt er pr etat i
onoft heconst ituti
on.

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r
) Transit
ionalandconsequent
ial
provi
sions.
Outl
inesthelegisl
ati
onsrequir
edtoef f
ecttheconst
it
uti
onandgi
vest
het
ransi
ti
onaland
consequent
ialprovi
si
ons.

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DEMOCRACYANDHUMANRI GHTS.
Thet erm democr acyi sder ivedf rom t heGr eekwor ddemocr atia;whichi sf ormedf rom twp
wor dsdemos, (peopl e)andkr atos(powerorr ul e).Thi st heremeansr uleoft hepeopl e.
Democr acyi saf or m ofgov ernmentwher et hepol i
ticaldeci sionsar edi rect l
yi nthehandsof
theci ti
zens.
Abr aham Li ncol n,hedef initei tasagov er nmentoft hepeopl e,fort hepeopl eandbyt he
peopl e.
Aspect sofdemocr acy .
a)Pol iticalaspect s.I tswher et herei sshar ingt heconsentoft hegov ernedi ssought
whenmaki ngpol i
ticaldeci sionswhi chi sexpr esseddi rectl
yori ndi r
ect lythr ought heir
elect edr epr esent atives.
b)Soci alaspect s.Isst resst hev al
ueofhumandi gnity,peopl ear ef reet oor gani zetheir
ownl ifest y l
e, hol dandexpr essopi ni ons, mov eaboutandenj oythecompanyofot hers.
c)Economi caspect s.I tai msatpr ov i
di ngequaloppor tuni ti
estoal lcitizensandseekst o
eli
mi nat eexpl orationofhumansbyf el lowhumans.
Typesofdemocr acy .
Direct( pur e)democr acy .
Thisi swher eal ladul tmemberoft hesoci et yar ef reet opar ticipatedirect lyint heaf fair
sof
statel i
kel egi slat i
on, pol i
cyandappoi ntmentordi smi ssal ofpubl i
cof f
icials.
Iti
spr actisedt hr oughv ariousway sl iker ef er endum, plebi sciteandi niti
at i
ver ecall.
a)Ref er endum:t hismeansmustber ef er redt ot hepeopl e.
b)Pl ebi scit e:i ti sadev icet o obt ainadi rectpopul arv oteonamat terofpol i
ti
cal
impor tance.
c)I nitiat i
v e:t he peopl ei ni
tiatet he l egi sl
ation and r eferi tt ot he l egislat uref or
consi der at ion.
d)Recal l:t hisi samet hod bywhi chand el ect ed r epr esentativesorof fi
cialcanbe
remov edordi smi ssed.I talsof eatur esi nt heconst i
tutionofKeny a.
Indirect(r epr esent at ive)democr acy .
Thisi sasy stem wher et hemember sofast at echooser epr esent ati
vest or unt heiraf f
airs.
Char acter ist i
csofi ndir ectdemocr acy .
Univ ersalsuf frage.
Ever yper sonofage18andabov ehasar ightt ov ote.
Freeandf ai rel ect i
on.
Ther eshoul dbeat ranspar encyi nel ection.
Peopl esupr emacy .
Thesupr emecont rolli
ngpoweri sv est edi nt hepeopl eandt heyexer cisei tt hroughv oti
ngat
regularel ect ion.
Principlesofdemocr acy .
Consentoft hepeopl e.
Thesupr emecont roll
ingpoweri st hepeopl e;l eader shipi nademocr aticsoci et yshoul d

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accommodat epeopl e’sneedsandaspi rat i

ons.
Equal ity.
Ther ei sneedf orequal ityamongt hepeopl er egar dlessofcol our ,sexorcr eedandpr ovi
des
everypar ti
cipantwi thequal oppor tunityt opar ticipat eint hepr ocessofai ringt hei
rv i
ews.
Peace.
Thel ocat i
oni nwhi chdemocr acyi sexpect edt of l
our i
shshoul dbef reeofal lf ormsof
i
ntimi dat ionandunr estt hatwoul ddet erpeopl ef rom f reelyexpr essingt heiropi nionson
variousi ssues.
Ther ul eofl aw.
Democr acyr ecogni sesequal it
yofev eryonebef or et helawwi t
hf airandout comeaccept able
tothemaj ori
t y.
Balanceofl i
ber ty.
Thest atemakest hel awsbasedont heconsentoft hepeopl ewhoar eobl igedt oobeyt hel aw
withoutf eel i
ngt hatt heirlibertyisundul yr estricted.
Transpar encyandaccount abil
ity.
Ther ei sopennessandaccount abi l
ity;t hisgi vest heci t
izenst heconf idencet ot r
ustt heir
i
nst i
tut i
ons.
Compet ition.
Indemocr acy ,differenti deascompet ef ort heci tizens, attentionandopi nion.
Freepr ess.
Ar esponsi bl
e, free,independentandobj ect ivepr essi soneoft hepi ll
arsofdemocr acy.
Regul arandf reeel ect i
ons.
Theel ect i
onsshoul dbef reeandf air,thisal l
owsci tizenst oexpr esstheirwi l
l.
Mul ti
-par tysm.
Ther eisneedt ohav emanypol i
tical par t
iesi nt hecount ryduet odemocr acy.
Economi cal freedom.
Ther ei s economi cf r
eedom t hrough pr i
vat e owner ship ofpr opertyand a f ree mar ket
economy .Citizensar ef reet opur suepr of essi onsoft heirchoi ce.
Bil
lofr ight s.
Thisi swher ebi ll
sofr ightsandf reedom oft hei ndiv i
dualsar espel toutwhi chformspar tof
const itution.
Adv ant agesofdemocr acy .
 I ti swi del yaccept edf orm ofgov er nment .
 I tal lowsf aircompet it
ionf orpowerbet weenal lpeopl e.
 Pr omot esasenseofaccount abili
tyandr esponsi bil
ityamongl eaders.
 Pr omot esf undament alri
ght sandf reedoms.
 Enabl esci ti
zenst opeacef ullychanget hei rgov ernment sr egular
lyandt hismi nimi ses
chancesofpol i
tical i
nstabi l
ity.
 I tpr omot esco- exi stencet husencour agei nter national co-oper ati
on.
 Ser vesasameansofpol i
t i
caleducat i
onsi nceci v i
ceducat ioni scar ri
edoutbef ore

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elections.
Di
sadv
antagesofdemocr acy .
 Itdisregar dstheinterestoft hemi nority.
 Itisexpensi v
et oi mpl ementsi ncebot hciviceducat
ionandgeneralelect
ionsrequi
re
fundi ng.
 Theweal thyuset hei
rr esourcest oi nfluencet hevot
ersattheexpenseoft hosewith
li
mi tedr esources.
 Itstimeconsumi ngsi ncecer tainprocedur esmustbef ol
lowedandt hev i
ewsoft he
maj or i
tysoughtbef orei mpor tantdeci sionsar emade.
 Itmaypr omot eineff
icientleader ship.Ast hoseelect
edarethemostpopul arbutmay
notpossesst hebestl eadershi pqualities.

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HUMANRI GHTS.
Theyar epower soff reeact i
on, whi chev er yindi vi
duali sendowedwi thbyv ir
tueofbel onging
tot hehumanr ace.
TheUni tedNat i
onschar teronhumanr ight s.
Thi swasf or medaf tert heSecondWor ldWari naconf erencei nSanFr anci scoin1945.
Itemphasi sedr espectf orbasi chumanf r eedomsandsetdecl arat
ionongener alprincipl
esof
t
h
humanr i
ght sandaconv ent iont odef inespeci fi
chumanr i
ghts.On10 December1948,i t
adopt eduni v er saldecl ar ationofhumanr i
ghtwhi chwasknownasUN Char teronhuman
rights.
Al lcountrieswhi chsi gnedt hechar terunder tookt opr omot ehumanr ightswhi chthechar ter
out l
inesas:
 Ri ghtt osel fdet er mi nat i
on.
 Equal i
tyamonggender .
 Ther ightt owor k.
 Ther ightt ojustandf av ourabl ewor kingcondi ti
ons.
 Ther ightt oandadequat est andar dofl ivi
ng.
 Ther ightt ophy sical andment alheal th.
 Ther ightt olife.
 Ther ightt of airtrial.
Thei mpor tanceofUNChar teronhumanr ight s.
 Pr ot ect ionofv ener abl egr oupst hati st hemi nor itylikechildren,women,t hedi sabled
fr
om di scr iminat ionandexpl oi tation.
 Pr ov isionofheal thcar etot heci tizenbyt hegov ernment .
 Thechar terguar ant eest hei ndi vidual ’
sr ighttoaf i
artr i
al.
 Itpr omot eshumandi gni tybyemphasi singt hepr otectionoff undament al humanr ights.
 Ther ei spr otectionofgenderbyequaloppor tuni t
iesandt r
eat mentf orbot hmenand
women.
 Ithel pst opr omot et hesecr et arial integr ityandsov ereigntyofnat i
ons.
TheKeny anbi llofr i
ght s.
Thebi l
lofr ight si sanexpr essi onoff undament alhumanr i
ght sandf reedomsspel touti na
conv entionorconst itutionofast at ewhi chi scont ainedi nchapt erfouroft heconst i
tuti
onof
Keny a.It’
sdi videdi nt ofivepar t
s.
 Gener al pr ov i
sionsr elat i
ngt ot hebi l
l ofr i
ght.
 Ri ght sandf undament al fr
eedoms.
 Speci f i
cappl i
cat ionofr i
ght s.
 St ateofemer gency .
 TheKeny anat i
onal humanr ight sandequal it
ycommi ssion.
Pur poseoft hebi llsofr ight s.
 Topr eser vet hedi gni t
yofi ndi vidual sandcommuni ti
es.
 Topr omot esoci al just i
ce.

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 Tor eal i
set hepot ent ial ofal lhumanbei ngs.
Generalappl i
cat ionofbi l
lsofr ights.
 Thi sappl iest oal l l
awsandbi ndsal lst ateor gansandal lper sons.
 I t
’st he dut y oft he st at et o obser v e,r espect ,pr otect ,pr omot e and f ul
f i
lthe
fundament al right sandf reedoms.
 Ev eryper sonhasar i
ghtt oi nstitutecour tpr oceedi ngsi faf undament alri
ghtof
freedom i sdeni ed, v i
olat edort hreat ened.
 I nt heenj oy mentoft hef undament al ri
ght sandf r
eedoms, oneshoul dnotbr eakt helaw
ofi nfr i
ngei ntoot her sr ight s.
Appli
cat ionofKeny anbi l
lsofr ightst ospeci ficgr oupsofpeopl ei nKeny a.
Chil
dren.
 TheKeny anbi ll ofr ight sguar ant eesev er ychi ldther ight:
 Toanameandnat ional ityfrom bi rth.
 Tof reeandcompul sor ybasi ceducat ion.
 Tobasi cnut rition, shel terandheal thcar e.
 Tobepr ot ect edf rom abuse,negl ect,har mf ulcul turalpr acti
ces,i nhumant reatment
andex ploi t
at ion.
 Topar ent al car eandpr ot ection.
 Vot et obedet ai nedexceptasameasur eofl astr esor t
.
 Per sonswi thdi sabi li
ties.
 Tobet r
eat edwi thdi gni tyandr espect .
 Toaccesseducat ional inst it
ut ionsandf acilit
ies.
 Tor easonabl eaccesst oal lpl aces, publ i
ct ranspor tandi nf ormation.
 Tousesi gnl anguageBr aill
eorot herappr opr i
atemeansofcommuni cati
on.
 Toaccessmat er ialsanddev icest oov ercomeconst rai
nt sar i
singf rom theper sons
disabi l
it
y .
Youth.
 Accessr elev anteducat ionandt r
aining.
 Hav eoppor tuni tiest oassoci at e,ber epr esent edandpar ti
ci pateinal lspheresofl if
e.
 Accessempl oy ment .
 Ar epr otect edf rom har mf ulcul tural pract i
cesandexpl oitation.
 Mi nor iti
esandmar ginal isedgr oups.
 Par ticipat eandar er epr esent edi ngov er nanceandot herspher esofl ife.
 Ar epr ovidedwi thspeci al oppor tunitiesi neducat ional andeconomi cf i
elds.
 Ar epr ovidedwi thspeci al oppor tunitiesf oraccesst oempl oy ment.
 Dev el opt heircul tural v alues, l
anguagesandpr actices.
 Hav er easonabl eaccesst owat er,heal thser vi
cesandi nfrast r
ucture.
Oldermember sofsoci ety .
 Tof ullypar ti
ci pat ei nt heaf fai rsofsoci ety.
 Topur suet hei rper sonal dev elopment .

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 Tol i
v ei ndi gni t
yandr espect .
 Tobef reef r om abuse.
 Tor ecei ver easonabl ecar eandassi stancef rom thei rfami l
yandst ate.
Rightsofar rest edper sons.
 Tobei nfor medpr ompt l
y,inl anguaget hatt heper sonunder st andsof :
 Theper sonf ort hear rest.
 Ther ightt or emai nsi lent .
 Theconsequencesofnotr emai ningsi l
ent.
 Tor emai nsi lent.
 Tocommuni cat ewi thanadv ocat eandot herper sonswhoseassi stancei snecessar y.
 Nott obecompel ledt omakeanyconf essi onoradmi ssi ont hatcoul dbeusedi n
evidenceagai nsttheper son.
 Tobehel dsepar atelyf rom per sonswhoar eser vi
ngasent ence.
 Tobebr oughtbef or eacour tassoonasr easonabl ypossi bl ebutt ol aterthant wenty
fourhour saf terbei ngar restedunl esst het went yf ourhour sf allonadayout sideof
cour thour s.
 To bechar gedori nf ormedoft her easonsf ort hedet ent i
oncont inui
ngort o be
rel
eased.
 Tober eleasedonbondorbai lonr easonabl econdi tion.
 Nott ober emandedi ncust odyf oranof fencewhi chi spuni shablebyaf i
neonl yorby
impr i
sonmentf ornotmor et hansi xmont hs?
Rightsofper sonsdet ained, heldi ncust odyori mpr isoned.
 Ret ent ionofal lfundament alr i
ght sandf r
eedomsexceptt hosei ncompat iblewith
beingdet ainedhel di ncust odyori mpr isoned.
 Ent itl
ementt or ightsofhabeascor pus.
 Tohumanet reat mentasspel touti napar liament ar ylegislation.
 Tr eat menti nkeepi ngwi thr elev anti nternational humanr ight si nstrument s.
Keny anationalhumanr ight sandequal itycommi ssi on.
I
twasconst it
ut edbyt heconst itutionandhasatl eastt hreeandnotmor et hanni nemember s.
Thechai r
per sonandmember sar ei dent i
fiedandr ecommendedt hroughnat ional l
egislati
on.
I
tsf uncti
on.
 Topr omot egenderequal i
tyandequi t
ygener all
y.
 Topr omot et hepr ot ect i
onandobser vanceofhumanr i
ghts.
 Topr omot er espectf orhumanr i
ght sanddev elopacul tur eofhumanr ightsi nthe
republ ic.
 Tomoni t
or ,inv estigat eandr epor tont heobser vanceofhumanr i
ghts.
 Tor ecei veandi nvest igatecompl aint saboutal l
egedabusesofhumanr i
ghts.
 Tot akest epst osecur eappr opriater edresswher ehumanr ightshav ebeenv i
olated.
 Toi nv est i
gat eorr esear chonmat t
er sofhumanr ight sandmaker ecommendat ionsto
thest at e.

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 Toensur
estat
ecompl
i
ancewi
thobl
i
gat
ionsundert
reat
iesandconv
ent
ionsr
elat
ingt
o
humanri
ght
s.

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