UNI

T2CHEMI
CALHAZARDS
2.
1Chemi
calexposur
e&t
oxi
cmat
eri
al:
Chemi calhaz ardsmaybedef inedast hosewher ethepot ent iall
yhazar dousener gyi sreleased
throughdi srupt i
onoft hemol ecul arbondi ngasar esul tofchemi cal react ion( usual lyar eact ive
chemi calhazar d).Chemi calr eactionsmaygetoutofcont r olduet o:- Wr ongr aw mat er i
als-
Raw mat erialswi thi mpur it
ies- Changedoper ati
ngcondi ti
ons- Timedel ay- Equi pmentf ailur e.
Incont rast,t oxicchemi calsar edef i
nedbasedont heiref f ect;f orexampl e,BHOPALGAS
TRAGEDYt heNat ionalTr anspor tCommi ssiondef inedt oxicchemi calsas“ subst ancesl i
abl e
eithert ocausedeat horser iousi njur yort ohar m humanheal t
hi fswal l
owedori nhal edorby
skincont act ”
.Bhopalgast ragedy ,consi der edasoneoft hewor ld’swor sti ndust r
ialchemi cal
hazar d.Itoccur redont heni ghtofDec2- 3,1984atuni oncar bideI ndi al imitedpest i
ci depl anti n
Bhopal.Wat erent eredTank610cont aini ng42t onsofMI C.Ther esul tingexot her mi cr eact ion
i
ncr easedt het emper atureinsi det het ankt oov er200° C( 392° F)andr aisedt hepr essur e.
About30met ri
ct onsofmet hy lisocy anat e(MI C)escapedf rom t het anki ntot heat mospher e
i
n45t o60mi nutes.Al eakofmet hyl isocy anat egascauses8000deat hs,5,58, 125i njuri
es.
Chemi calhaz ardsmaybedescr ibedundert hreebr oadheadi ngs–f lammabi li
ty ,react i
v i
tyand
health.Becausei twasr ecogni zedear lyt hatsomesubst ancesar eunst ablebyt hemsel vesor
highlyr eact iv
ei ncombi nati
on,andsomesubst ancesar epoi sonousornar cotic,t hehi stor yof
chemi calhaz ardsmaybeconsi deredi nt ermsoft hesepar allelst reamsofchemi calsaf et y
(react i
vityissues)andchemi cal hy giene( toxi cit
yissues) .
Flammabi l
ity
Flammabl esubst ancesar et hoset hatr eadi lycat chf i
reandbur ni nai r.Af lammabl el i
qui d
doesnoti t
sel fbur n; i
tist hev apor sf rom t hel i
quidt hatbur n.Foral i
qui d,thef l
ashpoi nt,aut o-
i
gni ti
ont emper at ur e,expl osivel imi t
s,v apordensi tyandabi li
t yt oaccumul at eanel ect r
ost at ic
char gear ei mpor t
antf actorsi ndet ermi ningt hedegr eeoff irehazar d.
React ivi
ty
React ivechemi calhazar dsi nvar i
abl yi nv olv et her el easeofener gy( heat )inr elat i
velyhi gh
quant iti
esoratar api dr ate.Ift heheatev olvedi nar eactioni snotdi ssi pated, ther eact i
onr ate
cani ncreaseunt ilanexpl osi onr esul ts.Somechemi calsdecomposer api dlywhenheat ed.
Lightormechani calshock can al so i ni t
iate expl osi ver eact i
ons.Some compounds ar e
i
nher ent lyunst abl eandcandet onat eundercer t
aincondi t
ionsofpr essur eandt emper at ur e,
whi l
eot her sr eactv iolentlywi thwat erorwhenexposedt oai r.
Heal th
Cont actwi thmanychemi calscanr esul tinadv erseheal thef fects.Thenat ur eandmagni tude
oft oxicef fect swi lldependonmanyf act orsi ncludi ngt henat ureoft hesubst ance,r outeof
exposur e,magni tudeoft hedose, dur at i
onofexposur e,andi ndi v i
dual suscept i
bi li
ty.
Rout
esofexposur
e:
Therearet hreepr i
mar yr outesofent ryi ntot hebody :ingesti
on,ski norey eabsor pti
on,
i
nhalat
ionandi njection.
 Ingest ion-Thismeanst akingamat er i
alintothebodybymout h( swall
owing).Ingestion
oft oxicmat erialsmayoccurasar esul tofeati
nginacont aminatedwor karea.
 Absor pti
onorcont act-Subst ancest hatcontacttheey eandt heskinmaybeei ther
absor bedi nt ot hebodyorcausel ocalef fect
s.Forthemaj ori
tyofor ganiccompounds,
thecont ri
but i
onf rom skinabsor pti
ont othetotal
exposureshoul dnotbenegl ected.
 Inhalat i
on-Thi smeanst akingamat eriali
ntothebodybybr eathingitin.Inthel ungs,
veryt inybl oodv esselsar ei nconst antcont actwiththeairwebr eat
hei n.Asar esult
,
airbornecont ami nantscanbeeasi l
yabsor bedthroughthistissue.Intheoccupat i
onal
 envir
onment ,thisisgener all
ythemosti mport antrouteofent ry.
 I nj
ecti
on-Thi smeanst akinginbi ol
ogicalorchemi calsubst ancesi ntothebodywhen
theskinisaccident al
lypunct uredwithashar pobj ect( e.g.contaminatedneedle).
TOXI CMATERI AL:
Toxici ndustri
alchemi cals ar ei ndustr
ialchemi calst hatar e manuf actured,stor
ed,
tr
anspor t
ed,andusedt hroughoutt hewor ld.Toxi cindust r
ialchemicalscanbei nthegas,
l
iquid,orsoli
dst ate.Theycanbechemi calhazar ds(e.g.,car ci
nogens,reproducti
vehazards,
corrosi
ves,oragent sthataf fectthelungsorbl ood)orphy si
calhazards( e.
g.,fl
ammabl e,
combust i
ble,explosive,orr eacti
ve).Thefollowingt ableliststhemostcommonTI Csli
sted
bytheirhazardindex.

HealthEf f
ect sofToxi cChemi cals
Therear emanymat er i
alsusedi nthewor kplacet hatcanbehazar dous.Howev er,inorderf or
them toaf fecty ourheal th,theymustcomei ntocont actwi t
ht hebodyorbeabsor bedi ntothe
body.Whenassessi ngt hepot enti
alhealtheffectsf r
om wor kingwi thapar t
icul
armat erial
,i
ti s
necessaryt ounder standt hediffer
encebet ween“ t
oxicit
y”and“ hazard”
.
PhysiologicalCl assificati
onofMat eri
als
Thisclassificati
oni dent i
fiestoxicmaterial
sont hebasi sofbiologicaction.
 I rr
it
ant s–r eferst osomesor tofaggr av ati
onofwhat evert i
ssuet hemat erialcomesi n
cont actwi t
h.e. g.ammoni a,ni
trogendi oxide.
 Asphy xi
ant s– exer ttheireff
ectst hroughadepl eti
onofoxy gent othet issuese. g.
simpl e asphy xiant s – car bon di oxide, ni t
rogen, met hane, hy drogen chemi cal
asphy xi
ates–car bonmonoxi de,hydrogency ani
de, hydrogensul phide.
 Nar cot i
csorAnaest heti
cs–t hemai nt oxicact i
oni st hedepr essantef f
ectupont he
 Cent r
al Ner vousSy stem.e. g.–manyor gani cs, chl orofor m, xylene.
 Sy st emi cPoi sons–t hemai nt oxicact ioni ncl udest hepr oduct ionofi nternaldamage
e.g.Hepat otoxicagent s–t ox icef f
ect spr oducel i
verdamage.eg.car bont etrachl oride.
 e. g.Nephr otoxicagent s–t ox i
cef f
ect spr oduceki dneydamageeg.somehal ogenat ed
hy dr ocar bons
 Car cinogens– agent s/ compoundst hatwi lli nducecanceri nhumans.e. g.benzene,
ar seni c, inor ganicsal tsofchr omi um, ni ckel ,ber ylli
um.
 Mut agens–agent st hataf f ectt hecel lsoft heexposedpeopl einsuchawayt hati tmay
causecanceri nt heexposedi ndividualoranundesi rabl emut at iont ooccuri nsome
l
at ergener ation.e. g.r adi at i
on,v ariet y ofchemi calagent st hatal t
ert he genet ic
message.
 Ter atogens–Agent sorcompoundst hatapr egnantwomant akesi ntoherbodyt hat
gener atedef ectsi nt hef et use. g.Thal idomi de, possi blyst er oids
 Sensi ti
zer s–Agent st hatmaycauseal l
er gicoral l
ergic-l
iker esponsest ooccur .
Afterani ni ti
al exposur et oasubst anceani ndi v idual maybecomesensi tizedt othatsubst ance.
Subsequentexposur est ot hesamesubst ance,of t
enatamuchl owerconcent rat i
ont han
befor e,pr oduceanal lergi cr esponse.Thi sr esponsemaybeaski nr ash( der mat itis)oran
asthmat ic-likeat tack,dependi ngont her out eofexposur e.e. g.cut tingoi l
s,i socy anat esi n
polyur et hanef oam oper at ionsandpai ntspr ay i
ngoper at i
ons, somel abor at orysol vent s.
TOXI CI TYi st heabi l
ityofasubst ancet opr oduceanunwant edef fectwhent hechemi calhas
reachedasuf fi
ci entconcent rat ionatacer t
ai nsi t
ei nt hebody .Themor et oxicamat erialis,
thesmal lert heamountofi tisnecessar yt obeabsor bedbef orehar mf ulef fectsar ecaused.
Thel owert het oxi cit
y ,thegr eat ert hequant ityofi tisnecessar yt obeabsor bed.Gener all
y,the
toxicityofachemi cali sdet er mi nedt hroughexper i
ment sonani mal s( quiteof tenr at s)
,and
measur edi nt er msoft heamountofmat er i
alnecessar yt ocausedeat hi n50% oft het est
animal s.Thesev aluesar ecal ledLD50( l
ethaldose)orLC50( let halconcent ration) ,andar e
usual lygi veni nwei ghtofmat er i
alperkgofbodywei ghtorai r
bor neconcent r
ationofmat er i
al
persett imeper iodr espect iv ely.
HAZARDi st hepr obabi li
t yt hatt hisconcent rat ioni nt hebodywi lloccur .Toxi cityisani nherent
proper tyoft hemat er i
al .A mat er i
almaybev eryt oxi c,butnothazar dous,i fi tishandl ed
proper lyandi snotabsor bedi nt ot hebody .Ont heot herhand, amat erialmayhav eav eryl ow
toxicity, butbev er yhazar dous.
Exampl e:Anopencont ai nerofanaci di smuchmor ehazar doust hanacl osedcont aineroft he
samemat er i
al .Twol iqui dsmaypossesst hesamedegr eeoft oxi citybutpr esentdi ff
erent
degr eesofhazar d.Onemat er ialmaybenon- irritatingt otheey esandnoseandodor less.The
othermaybei rritati
ngt ot heey esorr espi rat orysy st em andpossessapungentodor .The
l
attermat er i
al ,becauseofi tswar ni ngpr oper tiespr esent sal esserdegr eeofhazar d.
Inor derf ort oxi cant st oaf fectt hehumansy st em ei thert heymustcausedamaget oext er nal
ti
ssues, suchast heski norey es, ort heymustbeabl et oent ert hebodybysomemechani sm.
Heal thEf fect s–Chr onicv sAcut e
Onceat oxicsubst ancehascont actedt hebodyi tmayhav eei theracut e( immedi ate)or
chroni c( l
ongt er m)ef f
ect s.Exampl e:Spi l
li
ngaci dony ourhandwi llcausei mmedi at ehar m, i.
e.
abur nt ot heski n.Exposur et oasbest osort obaccosmokemayr esul tinl ungcanceraf t
eras
muchast went yy ears( thi si sal ongt erm ef fect ).
Exposur e–Chr oni cv sAcut e
Exposur ecanbecl assi fi
edaschr oni coracut e.I nchr oni cexposur es,t hedosei sdel iveredat
somef requency( dailyorweekl yusual ly)ov eraper iodoft i
me.I nacut eexposur es, t
hedosei s
deli
v eredi nasi ngl eev entandabsor pt i
oni sr apid.Usual ly,achr oni cexposur eoccur satl ow
concent rat i
onandacut eexposur eathi ghconcent ration.Somemat erialsmayonl ycausehar m
i
fgi v enacut ely ,nothav inganyef fecti nt hel ongt erm.Ot hermat eri
al smaynotexhi bitan
effecti nt heshor tt erm, butmaycausepr obl emsaf terpr olongedexposur e.
Exposur eLi mi ts
Exposur el imi tsar eest abl ishedconcent rat ionswhi ch, ifnotexceeded, wi llnotgener allycause
adv erseef fect st ot hewor kerexposed.Howev er ,becauseofwi dev ar i
ationi ni ndi vidual
suscept i
bi li
ty,a smal lper cent age ofwor kers may exper i
ence di scomf or tf rom some
subst ancesatconcent rat ionsatorbel owt heest abl ishedl imi t;asmal lerper cent agemaybe
affect ed mor e ser i
ousl ybyaggr av at ion ofa pr e-exi st i
ng condi ti
on.Exposur el ev els ar e
i
ntendedf oruseasgui del inesorr ecommendat i
onsi nt hecont rolofpot ent i
alheal t hhazar ds
andar enotf inel inesbet weensaf eandunsaf eexposur es,norar et heyar elativ ei ndexof
toxicity.
Thel i
mi tsar ebasedoni ndust rial exper ience, andhumanandani mal exper i
ment alev idence.
Exposur el ev elsf ormanyhazar douschemi calsar ei ncl udedi nt heRegul ationr espect i
ngt he
Cont rolofExposur et oBi ologi calorChemi calAgent s–madeundert heOccupat ionalHeal th&
Safet yAct( Forheal thhazar ds, measur ement sofchemi calconcent rationsi nwor kpl aceai rar e
compar edt oOccupat ional Exposur eSt andar ds( OESs) )..Thesear eexpr essedast hef oll
owi ng:
 TWAEV–Ti me- Wei ght edAv er ageExposur eVal ue:Theav er
ageai rbor neconcent rati
on
ofabi ol ogi calorchemi calagentt owhi chawor kermaybeexposedi nawor kdayora
wor kweek.
 STEV –Shor tTer m Exposur e Val ue:The maxi mum ai r
borne concent r at i
on ofa
chemi cal orbi ol ogicalagentt owhi chawor kermaybeexposedi nany15mi nut eper i
od,
pr ov idedt heTWAEVi snotexceeded.
 CEV–Cei lingExposur eVal ue:Themaxi mum ai rbor neconcent rationofabi ologi calor
chemi cal agentt owhi chawor kermaybeexposedatanyt ime.
 SKI N –Thi snot ationi ndi cat est hatdi r
ectorai rbornecont actwi tht hepr oductmay
resul tinsi gni fi
cantabsor pt ionoft hepr oductt hrought heski nmucousmembr anesor
ey es.I ncl usi onoft hisnot ationi si nt endedt osuggestt hatpr event at i
veact ionbet aken
agai nstabsor ptionoft heagentt hr ought heser out esofent ry.
GENERALPRI NCI PLESFORCONTROLLI NGCHEMI CALEXPOSURES
Thehi er archyofhazar dcont rolsi ncludes:
 El imi nation( incl udi ngsubst i
tut ion) : remov et hehazar df rom t hewor kplace.
 Engi neer ing cont rol si ncl ude desi gns ormodi fi
cations t o equi pment ,v entilati
on
sy st ems, andpr ocessest hatr educet hepot ent i
al f orexposur e.
 Admi nist rativecont r olsal tert hewayt hewor ki sdone, includingt i
mi ngofwor k, policies
andot herr ules, andwor kpr act icessuchasst andar dsandoper atingpr ocedur es.
 Per sonalpr otect iveequi pmenti swor nbyi ndi v i
dualst or educeexposur esuchas
cont actwi thchemi cal sorexposur et onoi se.
Engi neer ingCont rols
Theuseofengi neer i
ngcont rol si st hepr ef erredmet hodf orr educi ngwor kerexposur et o
hazar douschemi cals.Exampl esi ncludebutar enotl imi tedt o:
 I sol at i
onorencl osur eofapr ocessoroper ation.
 Useofwetmet hodst or educegener at ionofdust sorot herpar ti
cul ates.
 Gener al dilutionv ent il
at ion.
 Local exhaust ,incl udi ngt heuseofv ent il
at ionhoodsandgl oveboxes.
Eval uat ionofcont rolmeasur es:
 Ai rsampl ing f orev aluat i
ng exposur et o chemi calsubst ances shal lbe conduct ed
per iodi cal lyorasr equi redbyr egul at ion.
 Ai rsampl ingshal lbeconduct edi ft her ei sr easont obel ievet hatexposur el ev elsf or
 regul atedsubst ancesexceedt heact ionl ev el ,ori nt heabsenceofanact ionl ev el,the
per mi ssibleexposur el ev el (PEL) .
Wor kPr act iceandAdmi nist rat i
v eCont rols
Usi nggoodl abor ator ywor kpr act i
ceshel pt oel imi nat et her iskofexposur et ochemi cals.
Exampl esi ncl udebutar enotl imi tedt o:
 Li mi taccesst ol abwhenhazar douswor ki sbei ngconduct ed.
 Tr aini ngofl abper sonnel .
 Admi nistrativ econt rol si nv olv er otatingjobassi gnment sandadj ustingwor kschedul es
sot hatwor ker sar enotov erexposedt oachemi cal .
 Admi nistrativ econt r olscanbeusedi nconj unct i
onwi thengi neer ingcont rolsandPPE
cont rolst omi nimi zeexposur es
Per sonalPr otect i
v eEqui pment( PPE)
Whenengi neer i
ngandadmi nistrat i
v econt rolsar enotf easi blet omi nimi zeexposur e,per sonal
prot ect iv e equi pment ,i ncl udi ng gl oves,ey e pr ot ection,r espi rator s and ot herpr ot ect i
ve
clot hingshal lbeused.Hy gienePr act i
cesshal lbeusedt or educet hel ikel i
hoodofacci dentor
chemi calex posur e.Handsshal lbewashedaf terr emov inggl ov esandbef or el eav i
ngt he
l
abor ator yar eaassoonasr easonabl ypossi ble
2.2PHYSI CALHAZARDS
Phy sicalhazar dst hatempl oy eesi nt hewor kplacef acei ncl udeexcessi v el ev elsof
i
oni zi ng and noni oni zing el ect romagnet icr adi ation,noi se,v i
br at ion,i llumi nat i
on,and
temper at ur e.
Inoccupat ionswher et her ei sexposur et oi onizingr adi ation,t ime,di st ance,andshi eldingar e
i
mpor tantt ool sinensur ingwor kersaf ety.Dangerf rom r adi ationi ncr easeswi tht heamountof
ti
meonei sexposedt oi t;hence,t heshor tert het imeofexposur et hesmal l
ert her adi ation
danger .
Dist anceal soi sav aluabl et ooli ncont roll
ingexposur et obot hi oni zingandnon- i
oni zing
radi at i
on.Radi ationl ev elsf rom somesour cescanbeest i
mat edbycompar ingt hesquar esof
thedi st ancesbet weent hewor kerandt hesour ce.Forexampl e, atar efer encepoi ntof10f eet
from asour ce,t her adi ationi s1/ 100oft hei ntensi tyat1f ootf rom t hesour ce.Shi eldingal so
i
sawayt opr otectagai nstr adi ation.Thegr eat ert hepr otect iv emassbet weenar adioact i
ve
sour ceandt hewor ker ,thel owert her adiationexposur e.
Noni oni zing r adi at i
on al so i s deal twi th by shi eldi ng wor ker sf r om t he sour ce.
Somet i
mesl imitingexposur et i
mest ononi onizingr adiationori ncr easi ngt hedi stancei snot
effect i
v e.Laserr adi at ion, forexampl e,cannotbecont r
olledef fect i
vel ybyi mposi ngt imel imi ts.
Anexposur ecanbehazar doust hati sf astert hant hebl i
nki ngofaney e.I ncr easingt he
dist ancef rom al asersour cemayr equi remi l
esbef or et heener gyl ev elr eachesapoi ntwher e
theexposur ewoul dnotbehar mf ul.
Noi se,anot hersi gni ficantphy sicalhazar d,canbecont roll
edbyv ar i
ousmeasur es.Noi secan
ber educedbyi nst allingequi pmentandsy stemst hathav ebeenengi neer ed,desi gned,and
bui l
tt ooper at equi et l
y ;byencl osi ngorshi eldingnoi syequi pment ;bymaki ngcer taint hat
equi pmenti si n good r epai rand pr oper l
ymai nt ained wi th al lwor n orunbal anced par ts
repl aced; bymount ingnoi syequi pmentonspeci al mount st or educev ibrat i
on; andbyi nst all
ing
silencer s, muf f
lers, orbaf fles.
Subst it
utingqui etwor kmet hodsf ornoi syonesi sanot hersi gni f
icantwayt or educe
noi se,f orex ampl e,wel di ngpar tsr athert hanr i
v et i
ngt hem.Al so,t reat i
ngf loor s,cei li
ngs,and
wal lswi thacoust i
calmat er i
alcanr educer efl
ect edorr ev er ber antnoi se.I naddi tion,er ecting
soundbar rier satadj acentwor kst at i
onsar oundnoi syoper ationswi llr educewor kerexposur e
tonoi segener atedatadj acentwor kst ations.I tisal sopossi bl et or educenoi seexposur eby
i
ncr easi ngt hedi stancebet weent hesour ceandt her ecei ver ,byi sol at i
ngwor ker si nacoust i
cal
booths,limiti
ngwor kers'exposuret i
metonoise,andbypr ovidi
ngheari
ngprotect
ion.OSHA
requi
rest hatwor kersinnoi sysurr
oundi
ngsbeper i
odical
lytestedasapr ecauti
onagainst
heari
ngl oss.
Anotherphy si
calhazar d,r adi
antheatexposureinf act
ori
essuch asst eelmi l
ls,can be
control
ledbyi nst
all
ingreflectiv
eshiel
dsandbyprovi
dingprotecti
vecl
othi
ng.
2.2.1Ionizing&Non- IonizingRadiati
on

Ther eisagr eatdealofi nfor mat ionont heabov echar t.Oneoft hemosti nterest ingt hingsi s
thatthev isiblespect r
um i sessent iall
yt hedi videbet weeni onizingandnon- i
oni zingr adiat i
on.
Thismakessensecl i
ni callywhenwet hinkofUVr adi ati
oncausi ngski ncancer .
 Radi ation-Ener gyemi tt
ed f rom a bodyorsour ce t hati st ransmi tt
ed t hr ough an
i
nt erveningmedi um orspaceandabsor bedbyanot herbody .Tr ansmi ssi oni si nt he
form ofwav esbutwav e/par t
icledual it
yunderquant um phy si
cs.Radi ati
oni scl assified
asbei ngei t
hernon- ioni zi
ngori oni zing.
 Non- i
onizi ng r adi at i
on i sl ongerwav elengt h/lowerf requency l owerener gy .Whi l
e
i
oni zingr adiationi sshor twav el
engt h/highf requencyhi gherener gy .Ioni zingRadi ation
hassuf ficientener gyt opr oducei onsi nmat teratt hemol ecularlev el.Ifthatmat terisa
humansi gnificantdamagecanr esul ti ncl udingdamaget oDNAanddenat ur ati
onof
prot eins.Thi si snott osayt hatnon- i
oni zingr adiat i
oncan’ tcausei njuryt ohumansbut
thei njuryi sgener allylimi tedt other mal damagei .e.bur ns.
Radiat i
onhav ing awi der angeofener giesf or m t heel ect romagnet icspect r um,whi chi s
i
llustratedt ot her i
ght .Thespect rum hast womaj ordi visions:
 Non- i
onizi ngr adi ation
 I onizingr adi ation
Non- i
oni zingRadi ation
Non- i
oni zingr adi ationr angesf rom ext remel yl ow f requencyr adi ati
on,shownont hef arleft
throught heaudi ble, mi cr owav e,andv i
siblepor tionsoft hespect rum intot heul t rav i
ol etr ange.
Extremel yl ow- frequencyr adiat i
onhasv er ylongwav elengt hs( ont heor derofami ll
ionmet ers
ormor e)andf requenci esi nt her angeof100Her tzorcy clespersecondorl ess.Radi o
frequenci eshav ewav el engt hsofbet ween1and100met er sandf requenci esi nt her angeof1
mi l
li
ont o100mi ll
ionHer t
z.Mi cr owav est hatweuset oheatf oodhav ewav elengt hst hatar e
about1hundr edt hofamet erl ongandhav ef r
equenci esofabout2. 5bill
ionHer tz.
Wet akeadv ant ageoft hepr oper t i
esofnon- ionizingr adi ationf orcommont asks:
1.Mi crowav er adi ation- -telecommuni cat i
onsandheat ingf ood
2.I nfraredr adi ation- -i
nf raredl ampst okeepf oodwar mi nrest aurants
 3.r adiowav es--br oadcast i
ng
IonizingRadi at ion
Radi at i
ont hatf allswi thint hei oni zingr adi at ionr angehasenoughener gyt oremov et ight ly
boundel ect ronsf r om at oms,t huscr eat ingi ons.Wet akeadv antageofi tspr opertiest o
gener ateel ect ricpower ,toki llcancercel l
s, andi nmanymanuf act uringpr ocesses.
Ther ear et hr eemai nki ndsofi oni zingr adiat ion:
1.Al phapar t i
cles, whi chi ncl udet wopr ot onsandt woneut r ons
2.Bet apar ticl
es, whi char eessent iall
yel ect rons
3.Gammar ay sandx- ray s, whi char epur eener gy( phot ons) .
Higherf r
equencyul trav ioletr adi ationbegi nst ohav eenoughener gyt obr eakchemi calbonds.
X-rayandgammar ayr adi ation,whi char eatt heupperendofmagnet icr adi ati
onhav ev er y
high f r
equency- -
int her angeof100 bi llion Her tz--and v eryshor twav elengt hs- -
1 mi ll
ion
mi l
liont hofamet er .Radi at ioni nt hisr angehasext r
emel yhi ghener gy .I thasenoughener gyt o
stripof fel ect ronsor ,int hecaseofv er yhi gh- ener gyr adi ati
on, br eakupt henucl eusofat oms.
Ty pesofNon- Ionizi ngRadi at ionandThei rCl inicalEf fect s
Ref erringagai nt ot hechar tabov ewecanseet hatNon- I
onizingr adi at i
oncomesi nt hef or ms
of:
1.ELF( extr emel yl owf requency )
2.Radi oFr equenci es
3.Mi crowav eFr equenci es
4.Laser s
5.Inf rared
6.Vi sibleSpect rum
7.Ul trav i
olet
Thi slistisi nor derofl owestt ohi ghestf requency .
 ELFPowerpl antorl inewor kersI nconcl usi veev idenceofl eukemi al ink
 Radi of requencyandMi crowav eFr equencyExposur es:Occupat ionalExposur es- Radar
andcommuni cat i
onsequi pment ,indust rialandcommer cialov ens.Ot herExposur es-
Cel lPhones. Cl i
ni calEf fect s- Ther ei sagr eatdealofcont rov ersyr egardi ngpot ent ial
cancerr isks,par ticul arlywi thcel lphoneuse.Weknow t hatexposur et or adioand
mi crowav ef requencysour cescancausebur nsandcl inical lythi si swhaty ouar emost
li
kel yt osee.
 LASER( LightAmpl ifi
cat i
onbySt i
mul atedEmi ssi onofRadi ation)Beamsofcoher ent
li
ghtwi thsi ngl ewav elengt handf requencyMaybei nt heI R, Visi bleorUVspect rum Ey e
ismostsensi tiv et oi nj uryf rom LASER11Fourcl assesbyr i
skofi nj ury :1.Nodamage2.
Low chancef ordamageduet obl ink3.A) Causei njurywi thdi rectexposur eB) Cause
inj
ur yev enwhenr ef lect ed4.Requi r escont rolstopr eventi njur y
 I nfrar edPenet rat essuper fi
ciall ay er soft heski n,causest her mali njury,pot entialf or
damage t ot he cor nea,i ri
s,l ens oft he ey e Wel ding,gl assmaki ng,heat i
ng and
dehy dr at i
ngpr ocesses
 Vi sibl eSpect rum 400t o750nm wav elengt hsROYGBI V( Red, Or ange, Yel l
ow, Green, Bl ue,
Indigo, Vi olet )Possi bi l
ityofr et i
nal inj ur yf rom 400- 500nm bl uef requenci es
 Ul trav iol etRadi ation 200nm t o 400 nm Br idge bet ween Non- Ioni zing and I oni zing
Radi at ionThr eer egi onsUV- A315nm- 400nm UV- B280nm- 315nm UV- C 280nm AandB
bandspr oducebi ol ogi cef fectsont heski nandt heey es.Phot oker atiti
s,conj unct i
v i
tis,
sunbur n,phot osensi tizat i
on r eact ions,ski n cancer s Maj or i
ty ofexposur es ar et o
out doorwor ker s, ot herexposur esi ncl udewel der s,peopl ewhowor ki ndr yingandcur ing
indust riesandl abor at or y,kitchenormedi cal indust r
iesexposedt oger micidal ultraviolet
Ty pesofI oni zi ngRadi ationandThei rCl inicalEf fect s
Ionizing r adi at ion i s emi tted f rom r adi oactiv e at omi c st ruct ur es as hi gh ener gy
elect romagnet icwav es( gammaandx- r
ay s)orasact ualpar ticl
es( alpha,bet a,neut rons)1.
GammaRay s2.X- Ray s3.Al phaPar ticles4.Bet aPar t
icles5.Neut r
ons
Penet rationofRadi ation
 GammaRay s,Xr ay sand Neut ronsPenet rateBodyEasi l
y ,Need l ead t o shi eldf or
gammaandx- ray s, massi v eshi eldingf orNeut rons
 Al pha and Bet a Par ticles ar e essent i
all
ybl ocked byt he ski n wi t
h Bet a Par ticles
penet rat ingmor edeepl ywi tht hepot enti
alt ocausebur ns.Al phapar ti
cl escanbe
stoppedbypaper ,Bet abypl ast i
c
 Al phaPar ti
cl escancausesi gni f
icantdamagei ft akeni nternally, seef ormerSov ietSpy
Radi at i
onMeasur ement
 Roent gen( R) -Descr i
besar adi ationf ieldint er msoft heamountofi onizationspr oduced
inai r,noti ncommonuset oday
 Rad-Conv ent i
onal unitofabsor beddoseofr adi ationperuni tmass.
 Gr ay( Gy )–1Gr ay =100Rads
 Rem-Absor ption measur et o whol e bodyorspeci fi
ed or gan,t akes i nt o account
radi ation qual it
y ,Rem=r adsxqual it
yf actor ,each t ypeofi oni zi
ng r adi ation hasa
differ entqual i
tyf act or
 Si ev er t( Sv )-1SV=100Rem
FourI oni zingRadi at i
onExposur eCat egor i
es
1.Radi oact i
v eCont ami nat esonI nt actSki n
2.Local Radi at i
onI njur ies
3.Whol eBodyExposur e
4.Int ernal Deposi tion
1.Radi oact i
v eCont ami nat esonI nt actSki n-Washski n, donotbr eakski n
2.LocalRadi ationI nj ur i
es-Est imat ewhol ebodyexposur e,woundcar e,nut r
it
ionalsuppor t
,
anal gesi cs, inf ect ioncont rol,consul tation
3.Whol eBodyExposur e100r em orl ess-Compl et ehi st oryf orr ecor dAdv iser egardi ng
pot ent i
all at eef fect s( cancer s)Fol lowasout patient ,counsel i
ng100r em t o200r em Compl ete
exposur ehi st or yr adi at ionsour ceandst rengt hConsi derLabt est i
ngCBCwi t
hdi ff200r em t o
300r em Hospi talize300r em ormor eTr ansf ertoTer tiaryCar eCent erSupr alethalexposur eof
mor et han5000r em Suppor ti
v ecar eatanyhospi tal wi lldowi lldieinaf ewday s
4.I nter nalDeposi ti
onReduceAbsor ption-Bi ndingAgent s,Ant acidsExpedi t
eEl i
mi nation-
Cat har ti
csOr ganSat ur at ion-Pot assi um I odi deDi spl acement -Cal ci
um, Iodi deChel ation
Princi plesandMet hodsofRadi at ionPr otect ion
Aim ofr adi at ionpr otect i
on-
•t opr otectmanandhi sdescendant s
•t heenv ir
onmentagai nstt hehar mf ul effect sofi onizi ngr adiat i
on
Prot ect i
onmet hods-
•Ext ernal exposur e-
1.l imi tat i
onoft hedur ationoft hest ayi nt her adiationf i
eld
2.t hehol dingoft hegr eatestdi st ancet othesour ce
3.t heuseofshi el dingbet weent hesour ceandt heper son
•Exposur eduet oi ncor por ation–
1.i sol ationoft her adi oact ivesubst ance( useofv ent i
lationhoods,gl ov e
boxesandr ecov erycont ainerset c. )
2.i sol ationoft heper son( useofl abor atorycl oths,gl ov esand•masks)
i
sol atet hesubst ance- i
sol atet heper son.
Legi slation( radi oact ivepr otect i
on) :Compr ises–
-I
nternati
onal r
ecommendat ions
-Nationall
awsandi nt ernal r egulat i
onsoft hecompany
Object
iveoft hel egi slat i
on:
a.Pr ot ect ionofmanandt heenv i
ronment
b.t hepr inci plesofaut horizat i
onf ort heuseofi onizingr adiati
onsandoft he
sur veillancebyt heaut hor iti
es
c.Managementofr adioact ivewast e
d.Managementoft heor gani zationi ncaseofar adiologi calemer gency
Byanoper ati
oni nsuper v iseorcont roll
edar eat hef oll
owi ngpracti
cal r
ul esareappl i
cable:
a.t oli
mi ttheaccesst ot hesear eat ot hewor knecessit
ies;
b.t oreducet henumberper sonsi nt hecont roll
edarea;
c.t oprepar et heoper at i
onbef oreent eri
ngt her egul
atedar ea;
d.t oweart hei ndi vidual dosi met erand, ifnecessar y
,anoper ati
onal dosimeter;
e.t o use t he r adioact ive wast e cont ainerf orsmal lquant i
ti
es ofwast e as
mentionedont hecont ainers;
f.t oletcont rolbyt her adiati
onpr otectiongr oupt hecont aminationofmat er
ial
beforer emov ingi toutoft hear ea;
g.t oobtainaspeci alaut hor i
zationf orwor ki ntheacceleratort unnels;-nottodri
nk
oreati nt her egul atedar ea;
h.nott or emov eordi splacewar ningpanel s.
Par
ticularrul
esmustappl iedi nt hef ollowingsi tuations:
a.intervent ionwi tht her iskofcont ami nation;
b.useofr adi oact iv
esour ce;
c.indust ri
al radi ogr aphyi nthesect or ;
d.managementofr adi oact i
vewast e;
e.t r
anspor tofr adi oact ivemat erialf r
om t heexper i
ment alsite
Handhel
dSur
veyMet
ers

Handheldsurv
eymet ersarethemostwi del
yusedandr ecogni
zableinstr
umentsf ormeasuringionizi
ngradiat
ion.Thesemet er
sare
typi
cal
lyusedtomeasur eradiati
onexposur erate,doserat
e,orevaluatelev
elsofradiol
ogicalcontaminati
on.Theset ypesof
i
nstrumentsi
ncludeionizat
iondet ect
ors,Geiger-
Mul l
er(
GM)det ect
or s,
proport
ionaldetect
ors,orscint
il
lat
iondetectors.Eacht
ypeof
i
nstrumenthasuniquecharact er
isti
cs,andar adiat
ionprof
essi
onal shouldbeconsultedtoselectahandhel dsurveyinstr
umentbest
suit
edtotheappli
cation.

Radi
oisot
opeI
dent
if
icat
ionDev
ices

Radi oisot
opeIdenti
fi
cationDevi
ces(
RII
D)ar ehandhel
dradiati
oninst
rumentsdesi
gnedtoidenti
fyt
heradioact
ivei
sot
opesina
radiationsour
ce.ARI IDisoft
enasmallhandhelddevi
cedesignedtobeeasytooperat
e.Theseinst
rumentsuseascint
il
lat
ion
detect ori
nordertoev al
uategammaenergiesemitt
edbyaradioacti
vesourceandcompari
ngt hemeasuredgammaspect r
um to
l
ibrar i
esofcharact
eristi
cgammaspectra.

Per
sonalRadi
ati
onDet
ect
ors

PersonalRadi
ati
onDetectors(
PRD)ar
esmal lelect
roni
cdevi
cesdesi
gnedtoal
ertt
hewearertothepresenceofr adiat
ion.These
devicesareof
tenusedtomonitorf
ori
ll
ici
tradioact
ivemater
ial
s.Aty
peofPRD,aSpect
roscopicPer
sonal Radiati
onDet ector
s
(SPRD),canal
someasur ethegammaspectrum oftheradi
ati
onsource,
whi
chcanbeusedtoidenti
fytheradioisotopespresent
.

2.
3Indust
ri
alHy
giene
Definition:“ Thesci enceandar tdev ot edt ot heant icipat ion, recogni ti
on, ev aluat i
onandcont rol
off act or sandst resses( ar isingi norf rom t hewor kpl aces) ,whi chmaycausesi ckness,
i
mpai redheal thandwel lbei ngorsi gni fi
cantdi scomf ort,andi nef f
ici encyamongwor kersor
amongt heci ti
zensofacommuni ty”.
Dev elopi ng and set t i
ng mandat ory occupat ionalsaf et y and heal th st andar ds inv olves
deter mini ngt heext entofempl oy eeexposur et ohazar dsanddeci di ngwhati sneededt o
cont rolt hesehazar ds,t her ebypr otect i
ngt hewor ker s.I ndust rialhy gieni stsar et r
ainedt o
anticipat e,r ecogni ze,ev aluat e,and r ecommend cont rolsf orenv ironment aland phy sical
hazar dst hatcanaf fectt heheal thandwel l-bei ngofwor kers.
Impor t
antI Hr esponsi bi l
itiesi ncl ude:
 I dent ifying,measur ing and anal yzi ng wor kplace heal t
h hazar ds and exposur es
(chemi cal ,phy sical ,bi ologi cal ,er gonomi c)t hatcancausesi ckness,i mpai r
edheal th,or
si gni fi
cantdi scomf ort.
 Recommendi nghazar dcont r
olst rat egi est oel imi nat e/reducehazar dsandempl oy ee
exposur et ohazar ds.
Wor ksi teAnal y sis
 Tobeef fect i
v ei nr ecogni zingandev aluat i
ngon- t
he- jobhazar dsandr ecommendi ng
cont rol s,indust rialhy gi eni stsmustbef ami li
arwi tht hechar act eri
st icsofal lhazar ds.
Maj orj obr i
skscani ncl udeai rcont ami nant s,andchemi cal ,bi ologi cal,phy sical,and
er gonomi chazar ds.Awor ksi teanal y sisi sanessent ialf i
rstst ept hathel psani ndust rial
hy gi eni stdet er mi newhatj obsandwor kst ationsar et hesour cesoft hesepot ent i
aland
exi st i
nghazar ds.
 Dur ingt hewor ksiteanal y sis, thei ndust ri
alhy gieni stmeasur esandi dent if
iesexposur es,
pr obl em t asks,and r i
sks.The mostef fect i
v e wor ksi te anal yses i nclude al ljobs,
oper at ions, andwor kact iviti
es.
 Thei ndust ri
alhy gi eni sti nspect s,r esear ches,oranal yzeshowt hepar t
icularchemi cal s
orphy sicalhazar dsatt hatwor ksi teaf fectwor kerheal th.I fasi t
uat ionhazar doust o
heal thi sdi scov er ed,t hei ndust ri
alhy gienistr ecommendst heappr opriatecor r
ective
act ions
SomeOccupat ionalHazar ds Chemi calagent s–Gases,v apor sandpar ticulateaer osols
Physi cal( ener gy )agent s–Noi se,i oni zing/non- ioni zingr adi ati
on,heatandcol dst r
ess and
Biological agent s–I nf ect iousagent s, aller gens
Evaluat ion ofenv i
ronment alf act or st hrough:– Measur ementofexposur ei ntensity–
Deter mi nat ionofexposur ef requency , anddur at i
on–Compar i
sonwi thr egul at ory,professi onal,
andi nter nal standar ds–Judgment :wei ghal lfact or s
Usual lyr equi res adv anced educat ion i n engi neer ing and t he bi ologi calsci ences A
combi nat ionofeducat ionandexper iencei snecessar yi nor dert ot aket heAmer icanBoar dof
Indust ri
alHy gi ene( ABI H)exam f orcer tificat ioni ni ndust ri
alhy giene( CI H)Amer icanBoar dof
Indust ri
alHy giene Est abl ishedt oi mpr ov et hepr act iceandeducat ionalst andar dsoft he
professi on Pr i
mar yi nf l
uencet hroughcer tifi
cat ion– CI H bywr ittenexam andf i
vey ear s
pract i
ce–Notr equi redf orpr act ice( nol i
censi ng)–Fi ve- yearr ecertificat ioncy cle
Riskassessmenti susual lyconsi der edt obeanenv ironment alt erm,buti tisanessent ialpar t
oft hei ndust rialhy gienepr of essi on.Br oadl ydef inedast hemet hodol ogyt hatpr edictst he
l
ikelihoodofunwant edev ent s( expl osi ons, inj uries, nat ur alcat ast r
ophes, diseases, deat h)
Ai
rcont
ami
nant
s
Aircont aminantsarecommonl yclassif
iedasei therpar t
iculateorgasandv aporcont aminant s.
Themostcommonpar ti
culatecontami nantsincludedust s, fumes, mists,aerosol
s, andfiber s.
Dustsar esol i
dpar t
iclesthataref or
medorgener atedf r
om sol i
dor ganicori nor
ganicmat erials
byr educing theirsi zet hroughmechani calpr ocessessuchascr ushing,gr i
nding,dr il
ling,
abradingorbl ast
ing.Fumesar eformedwhenmat er
ialfrom av olat
il
izedsol i
dcondensesi n
coolai r
.Inmostcases,t hesol i
dpar t
icl
esr esulti
ngf rom t hecondensat i
onr eactwi thai rt o
form anoxi de.Mistsar ef i
nelydivi
dedliquidsuspendedi nt heat mospher e.Theyaregener ated
byliquidscondensi ngf rom av aporbackt oal i
quidorbybr eakingupal i
quidintoadi sper sed
state such as byspl ashing,f oaming orat omi zing.Aer osolsare also a f orm ofa mi st
characterizedbyhi ghlyr espir
able,minutel i
qui dpar ti
cles.Fi bersaresol idparti
cl eswhose
l
engt hissev eralt
imesgr eaterthantheirdiameter .
BI
OLOGI
CALHAZARDS
Biologicalhazar dsi ncl udebact er i
a,v iruses,f ungi ,andot herl i
v i
ngor ganismst hatcancause
acuteandchr onicinf ect ionsbyent er ingt hebodyei therdi rectlyort hroughbr eaksi nt heski n.
Occupat ions t hatdealwi th pl ants orani mal s ort heirpr oducts orwi t
hf ood and f ood
processi ngmayexposewor ker st obi ologi calhazar ds.Labor ator yandmedi calper sonnelal so
canbeexposedt obi ologi calhazar ds.Anyoccupat i
onst hatr esulti
ncont actwithbodi lyfl
uids
posear iskt owor ker sfr om bi ological hazar ds.
Inoccupat ionswher eani mal sar ei nv olved, biol ogicalhazar dsar edeal twi thbypr ev entingand
cont roll
ingdi seasesi nt heani malpopul at ionaswel laspr operlycar i
ngf orandhandl i
ng
i
nfect edani mal s.Al so,ef fect iveper sonalhy giene,par t
icular l
ypr operat tenti
ont omi norcut s
andscr at chesespeci allyont hehandsandf or ear ms, hel
pskeepwor kerriskst oami nimum.
In occupat ions wher et her ei s pot ent i
alexposur et o bi ologicalhazar ds,wor ker s should
pract i
cepr operper sonalhy gi ene,par ticular l
yhandwashi ng.Hospi talsshoul dprov idepr oper
ventilation,pr operper sonalpr ot ectiveequi pmentsuchasgl ovesandr espi r
ators,adequat e
i
nfect iouswast edisposalsy stems, andappr opr iatecont rolsi ncludingi solati
oni ninst ancesof
particular lycont agiousdi seasessuchast uber cul osis.
Reduci ngNoi seHazar ds
Engineer ingcont rolsar et hef irstl i
neofdef enseagai nstexcessi venoi seexposur e.Theuseof
thesecont rolsshoul dai mt or educet hehazar dousexposur et ot hepoi ntwher et her i
skt o
hear i
ngi sel iminatedormi nimi zed.Wi tht her educt ionofev enaf ew deci bels,thehazar dt o
hear i
ngi sr educed,communi cat i
oni si mpr ov ed,andnoi se-relat
edannoy ancei sr educed.
Exampl esofi nexpensi v e, effect iveengi neer ingcont rolsincludesomeoft hef oll
owi ng:
 Choosel ow-noi set ool sandmachi ner y( e.g.,BuyQui etRoadmap( NASA) )
.
  Mai nt ai
nandl ubricatemachi neryandequi pment( e.g.,
oilbear i
ngs).
 Pl aceabar rierbetweent henoi sesour ceandempl oyee(e.g.,soundwal lsorcurtains).
 Encl oseori solatethenoi sesour ce.
Vibrat
ion
Vibrat
ioncausedbymachi neryiscommon.Vi brati
ont ransf er
redf rom amachi net othehuman
bodymaycausedi scomf ort,ar eductionofper formance,andev eni nj
ury.Exampl esofi nj
ury
causedbyv ibr
ati
oni ncludehand- armv i
brati
onsy ndrome( HAVS)ordamaget ot hecirculat
ory
system oft heupperext r
emi ties( Raynaud'ssy ndr ome) .Vibrati
onmayal socausedamaget o
theper ipheralnerv es(per i
pher alneur opathy),andt ot hebonesandj oi
nts(asept i
cnecr osis,
fati
guef ractures,degener ati
v ejointdisease).
Recogni zingandCont r
olli
ngHazar ds
Industr
ialhy gieni
stsr ecognizesev eralprimaryhazar dcont rolstr
at egiestoeliminateorr educe
hazardsandempl oy eeexposur e.Cont roll
inghazar dsandexposur est ooccupat i
onalhazar ds
i
st hef undament almet hodofpr ot ecti
ngwor kers.ANSI /ASSPZ10- 2012,Occupat ionalHealth
andSaf etyManagementSy stems,encour agesempl oy erstouset hefollowinghi er
archyof
hazardcont rol
s:

 Elimination:Eliminat i
onent i
relyr emov est hehazar d.Thi sst rategyt otallyelimi nat est he
hazar df r
om t hewor kplace.Thi sshoul dbet het oppr iorityforal lsaf etypr ofessi onal s
i
ncl uding indust ri
alhy gieni sts.An exampl e oft his st r
ategy i ncludes r eplaci ng a
hazar douschemi cal wit
hat ot allynon- toxic,saf e,chemi cal .
 Subst it
ution:Thi scont rolst rategyr educest hesev eri
tyoft hehazar d.Thi sst rategy
shoul dbeusedi fitisnotf easi blet oel i
mi nat ethehazar d.Thei deai st or epl acet he
hazar dwi thal esshazar doussubst it
ute.Anexampl ewoul dbet or epl aceahazar dous
chemi calwi t
hal esshazar dousone.Ther ewoul dst i
llbeaneedf orpr otect ionl i
ke
personal pr ot
ectiveequi pment ,butt hehazar dsofexposur ewoul dbel essser i
ous.
 Engi neeri
ngcont rol
s:Engi neer i
ngcont r
olsr emov eorr educet hesev er it
yoft hehazar d
throughdesi gn.Thi sst rategyi nv olvest hedesi gnorr edesignoft ools,equi pment ,
machi ner yandf acilit
iessot hathazar douschemi calsar enotneededort hatexposur e
tot hosehazar douschemi cal sisnotpossi bl e.Exampl esi ncludeusi ngequi pmentt hat
doesnotr equiret heuseofhazar douschemi calsi napr ocessorf orcl eaning.Encl osing
wor kpr ocessesori nstalli
nggener alandl ocalv ent i
lat
ionsy stemsmi ghtal sobeused.
It
'si mpor tantt ounder st andt hatt heset hreest rategiesar ethemostef fect i
v eand
primar ymeanst o cont r
ol haz ar dsi nt hewor kplace.Thenextst r
at egiesdi scussed
focusi noncont roll
ingexposur esnothazar ds.
 War nings:War ningspr omot eempl oyeeawar enessofhazar ds.War ningsar emer ely
visual,audi bl
e,and/ ort act i
lei ndi catorsthatwar npeopl eofpot ent i
aldanger .Gr eat er
 awar enessi sgai nedbyusi ngsi gns,al arms,si gnals,label s,pl acar ds,cones,andot her
met hods.Forexampl e,awar ningsi gnmi ghtbeusedt okeepwor kersf rom ent eringa
conf i
nedspace.Al thoughANSIcat egor izeswar ningsasasepar atecont rolst rategyand
givesi thi gherpr iorityt hanadmi nist r
ativecont r
ols,webel iev ewar ni
ngsshoul dbe
thoughtofasanadmi nistrativecont rolbecauset heydonotpr ev entexposur et oa
hazar d.
 Admi nistrati
v e Cont rols:Admi nist rative controls el i
mi nate orr educe exposur et o
hazar ds by dev elopi ng and i mpl ement i
ng ef fectivet raining,pol icies,pr ograms,
processes,pr ocedur es,wor kpr act ices,andsaf etyr ul
es.Exampl esi ncludeschedul i
ng
product i
onandwor kert asksi nway st hatmi nimizeexposur el ev el
s.Theempl oy er
mightschedul eoper ationswi tht hehi ghestexposur epot ent i
aldur ingper i
odswhent he
fewestempl oyeesar epr esent .Dev elopingandusi ngJobHazar dAnal y ses( JHAs)i s
anot her way t or educe exposur et hrough saf e wor k pr actices.Fol l
owi ng saf e
procedur eswhi l
eoper atingpr oduct ionandcont rolequi pment , goodhousekeepi ng, and
safepr acticesar eal lgoodex ampl esofadmi nistrati
v econt rols.
 PersonalPr otective Equi pment( PPE) :PPE el i
mi nat es/ r
educes exposur et hrough
personal bar r
iers.Thi sst rategyi sgener allyusedi nconj unct i
onwi tht heot herst rategies
tor educeexposur e.Whenef fect iveel i
mi nati
on,subst itutionandengi neer ingcont rols
arenotf easi bleappr opr iatePPEsuchasgl oves, safetygoggl es, helmet s, safet yshoes,
andpr otectivecl othingmayber equi red.Tobeef fect ive,PPEmustbei ndi vi
dual ly
select ed,pr oper l
yf i
ttedandper iodi callyrefi
tted;consci entiousl yandpr oper l
ywor n;
regular ly mai ntained;and r epl aced as necessar y
.I t'si mpor t
ant t o not et hat
admi ni str
at i
ve/wor kpr act icescont rolsandper sonal pr otect i
ve
2.
4INDUSTRI
ALTOXI
COLOGY
Def initionofi ndust rialtoxicol ogy
Indust ryi sacommer cialact ivit
yt hatpr ov i
desgoodsandser vi
cessuchasagr icultur e,
transpor t ati
on,hospi t
ali
ty,and manyot hers.I ndust ryi scl assi fied intot hreedi f
fer ent
cat egor iesknownuspr i
mar y,secondar yandt ertiar y.Pr imar yi ndust ri
esar et hoset hat
ext ractorpr oducer aw mat erialsf rom whi chusef uli t emscanbemade,exampl emi ni ng
act i
v it
ies.Secondar yi ndust riesar et hoset hatchanger aw mat erialsintousabl epr oduct s
throughpr ocessi ngandmanuf actur i
ng.Baker iest hatmakef louri ntobr eadandf actor ies
thatchangemet al
sandpl ast i
csi nt ov ehi
cles.Ter tiar yi ndust riesar et hoset hatpr ov ide
essent ial serv icesandsuppor tt oal lowot herlev elsofi ndust ryt of unct i
on.
Thewor d“ t
oxi city”descr ibest hedegr eet owhi chasubst ancei spoi sonousorcancause
i
nj ury .Thet oxi cit
ydependsonav arietyoff actor s:dose,dur at ionandr outeofexposur e
shapeandst ruct ureoft hechemi cali tself
,andi ndiv idualhumanf actors.Toxi ci sat erm
relat est opoi sonousordeadl yef fectsont hebodybyi nhal at i
on( breat hi
ng) ,ingest ion
(eat ing),orabsor ption,orbydi rectcont actwi thachemi cal .Inaddi ti
on,At oxicanti sany
chemi calt hatcani njureorki llhumans,ani mal s,orpl ant s;apoi son.Thet erm“ toxicant ”is
usedwhent alkingaboutt oxi csubst ancest hatar epr oducedbyorar eaby -productof
human- madeact i
viti
es.Ont heot herhand,ar seni c,at oxi cmet al,mayoccurasanat ur al
cont ami nantofgr oundwat ermaycont ami nat egr oundwat erasaby -productofi ndust rial
act i
v it
ies
Dur ingt hosecommer ci
alact i
v iti
esabov e,ther eleasi ngoft het oxi nsorpoi sonscomei nto
cont act ,andaf fectst heenv ironmentandhumanheal thi fl essmeasur ewer econsi der ed.
Ther efor e,i ndust r
ialt oxicol ogy i st he st udy ofhar mf ulef f ects caused by phy sical
phenomena, suchasr adiationofv ariouski ndsandnoi se.I naddi ti
on, i
tisal so“thest udyof
thedet ect i
on,occur rence,pr oper ties,ef fects,andr egul at ionoft oxicsubst ances, ”wi thin
thei ndust r
iesorf actor i
es
Sour ceoft oxi ccompound
Thesour ceoft oxi ccompoundhowev er ,ar enat ur alpr oduct s,manyar esy nthet icor ganic
chemi calofuset osoci et y,whi l
eot her sar eby -pr oduct sofi ndust ri
alpr ocessesandwast e
disposal .Sour ceoft oxiccompoundi showev er,cat egor izei nt wof orms:
1.Exposur eCl ass:Exposur ecl assesi ncl udet oxi cant si nf ood,ai r ,wat er,andsoi laswel l
ast oxi cant schar act erist i
cofdomest i
candoccupat ionalSet t
ings.Thi ssi mpl yr ef erst o
eitherwor ker soror dinar ypeopl eexposet opol l
utionv iat hoseabov et oxi cant s.
2.UserCl ass: Usecl assesi ncludedr ugsofabuse, ther apeut icdr ugs, agr icul t
ur al chemi cals,
foodaddi t
iv esandcont ami nant s,met als,sol vent s,combust i
onpr oduct s,cosmet ics,and
toxins.Someoft hese,suchascombust i
onpr oduct s,ar et hepr oduct sofusepr ocesses
rathert hanbei ngusecl asses.
Char act er i
st icoft oxi col ogy
Adv er seef fect sort oxicsubst ancesi nbi ologicalsy stemscanbecausedbychemi cal st hat
under gobi ot ransf ormat ionanddosageaswel last hear rangementsui tedt oi nduceat oxic
stat e.Ther esponset ot oxi cmat erials, amongot her s, dependont hephy si calandchemi cal
proper ties,exposur esi t uat i
ons,t hev ulner abi l
ityofbi ologi calsy st ems,soi fy ouwantt o
classi fyt het oxicityofasubst ancey oumustknowt het ypeofef fect st hatwoul dar iseand
thedosagesaswel lasi nf or mat iononexposur eandt het arget s.
Compar isonofal ethaldoseofpol l
ut ant sanddi f ferencesi nthedr i
v ewayofexposur eis
veryhel pf ulwi t
hr egar dt oi t
sabsor pt ions.Apol lutantcanbeadmi nist eredi nt hesame
dosebutt hei nclusi onofdi ff
er entway s.Forexampl e,pol lutant sf ir
sti nt rav enousl y,whi l
e
othermat erial sar egoi ngt hrought hemout h,itcanbeest imat edt hatt hepol lutant st hat
ent er edt hr ought hemout hwoul dgi v ei mmedi ater eact ion.Conv er sel y,ift hedosei sgi ven
i
ndi f fer entmode,i tsabsor pt i
onwi l
lest i
mat edi ffer ent ly.Forexampl e,amat erialent ered
theski nwi thahi gherdosewhi leont heot hersi de,i tent eredt hr ought hemout hwi tht he
l
owerdoses, itcoul dbeexpect edt hatt heski nismor er esi stantf ort het oxi ns( pol l
ut ant )to
ent ert heski nbecausei tr equi redhi ghdosage
TheMov ementofToxi cant sinEnv ir
onment
Chemi cal sr eleasedi ntot heenv i
ronmentr arelyr emai ni nt hef or m,oratt hel ocat ion,of
release.Forexampl e,agr icultur alchemi cal susedasspr ay smaydr iftf rom t hepoi ntof
appl icat ionasai rcont ami nant sorent err unof fwat eraswat ercont ami nant s.Manyof
these chemi cal s ar e suscept i
blet of ungalorbact er i
aldegr adat ion and ar er apidly
det oxi fied,f requent lybei ngbr okendownt opr oduct st hatcanent ert hecar bon,ni t
r ogen,
and oxy gen cy cl es.Ot her agr icul tur alchemi cal s,par ticular l
y hal ogenat ed or ganic
compounds, ar e r ecal citrant t o a gr eat er or l esser degr ee t o met abol ism by
mi cr oor gani smsandper sisti nsoi landwat erascont ami nant s;t heymayent erbi ologic
foodchai nsandmov et ohi ghert rophi cl evelsorper sisti npr ocessedcr opsasf ood
cont ami nant s.Thi s same scenar i
oi s appl icabl et o any t oxi cantr el eased i nt ot he
env ironmentf oraspeci ficuseorasar esul tofi ndust ri
al processes, combust i
on, andsoon.
Chemi cal sr eleasedi ntot heenv ironmentar eal sosuscept iblet ochemi caldegr adat ion,a
processof tenst i
mul atedbyul travioletl ight .
Howcant oxi csubst ancehar mt hebody ?
Whenat oxi csubst ancecausesdamageatt hepoi ntwher ei tfirstcont act st hebody ,that
damagei scal ledal ocal ef fect.Themostcommonpoi nt satwhi chsubst ancesf irstcont act
thebodyar et heski n,ey es,nose,t hroat ,andl ungs.Manyt oxicsubst ancescanal soent er
thebodyandt r
av eli nt hebl oodst r
eam t oi nternalor gans.Ef fect st hatar epr oducedt his
wayar ecal ledsy st emi c.Thei nternal organsmostcommonl yaf fect edar et hel i
v er,kidney s,
hear t,ner voussy st em ( incl udi ngt hebr ain) ,andr epr oduct i
v esy st em.At oxi cchemi calmay
causel ocal ef fects, sy stemi cef fects, orbot h.
Classi ficat ionoft oxi cagent
Toxi csubst ancesar ecl assif i
edi nt ot hef ol l
owi ng:
a.Heav yMet als: Met alsdi fferf rom ot hert oxi csubst ancesi nt hatt heyar enei thercr eat ed,
nordest roy edbyhumans.Thei rusebyhumanspl ay sani mpor t
antr ol ei ndet ermi ningt heir
pot ent ialf orheal th ef fects.Thei ref fecton heal th coul d occurt hrough atl eastt wo
mechani sms:f irst ,byi ncreasi ngt hepr esenceofheav ymet alsi nai r,wat er ,soi l,andf ood,
andsecond,bychangi ngt hest ructur eoft hechemi cals.Forexampl e,chr omi um I I
Icanbe
conv er tedt oorf rom chr omi um VI ,themor et oxicf orm oft hemet al .
b.Sol v ent sandVapor sNear l
yev er yonei sexposedt osol v ents.Occupat ionalexposur es
canr angef rom t heuseof“ white- out”byadmi nist rat i
veper sonnel , tot heuseofchemi cals
byt echni ciansi nanai lsal on.Whenasol v entev aporat es,t hev apor smayal soposea
threatt ot heexposedpopul at i
on.
c.Radi at i
onandRadi oact i
v eMat er i
alsRadi at i
oni st her eleaseandpr opagat ionofener gyi n
spaceort hr oughamat erialmedi um i nt hef orm ofwav es,t het ransf erofheatorl i
ghtby
wav esofener gy ,ort hest ream ofpar ti
clesf rom anucl earr eact or .
d.Di oxi n/ Fur ansDi oxi n( orTCDD)wasor iginal lydi scov ered asacont ami nanti nt he
her bici de AgentOr ange.Di oxini s al so a by -
pr oductofchl orine pr ocessi ng i n paper
produci ngi ndust r i
es.
e.Pest icidesTheEPA def i
nespest i
ci deasanysubst anceormi xtureofsubst ances
i
nt endedt opr ev ent ,dest r
oy ,repel ,ormi tigat eanypest .Pest i
cidesmayal sobedescr ibed
asanyphy sical ,chemi cal,orbi ol ogicalagentt hatwi l
lki l
lanundesi rablepl antorani mal
pest .
f.Pl antToxi nsDi ffer entpor tionsofa pl antmaycont ain di ff er entconcent rati
onsof
chemi cal s.Somechemi calsmadebypl ant scanbel ethal .Forexampl e,t axon,usedi n
chemot her apyt oki llcancercel ls, i
spr oducedbyaspeci esoft hey ewpl ant .
g.Ani malToxi nsTheset oxi nscanr esul tf rom v enomousorpoi sonousani malr eleases.
Venomousani mal sar eusual lydef i
nedast hoset hatar ecapabl eofpr oduci ngapoi soni na
highl ydev el opedgl andorgr oupofcel ls,andcandel ivert hatt oxi nt hr oughbi tingor
stingi ng.Poi sonousani mal sar egener allyr egar dedast hosewhoset i
ssues,ei therinpar t
ori nt hei rwhol e, ar et oxi c.
Theexposur el imi t soft oxi n
Exposur el i
mi tsar eest abl ishedbyheal thandsaf et yaut horitiest ocont rolexposur et o
hazar dous subst ances.I n Cal if
or niat he most i mpor tant exposur el i
mi ts ar et he
Per mi ssi bleExposur eLi mi ts( PELs) .Thesear esetf orthi nCal ifor ni ar egul ations.Byl aw,
Cal i
for ni aempl oy er swhouser egul at edsubst ancesmustcont rolexposur est obebel ow
thePELsf ort hesesubst ances.Anempl oy ercanbeci tedandf i
nedi fempl oyeesar e
exposed ov er t he PEL.Exposur el imi ts usual lyr epr esent t he maxi mum amount
(concent rat i
on)ofachemi calwhi chcanbepr esenti ntheai rwi thoutpr esent ingaheal th
hazar d.Howev er ,exposur el i
mi ts maynotal way s be compl et elypr ot ect ive,f ort he
followi ngr easons:
1.Al thoughexposur el i
mi tsar eusual l
ybased ont hebestav ailabl ei nf or mat i
on,t his
i
nf or mat ion,par ticul arlyf orchr oni c( long- term)heal thef fect s,maybei ncompl ete.Of ten
wel ear naboutchr oni cheal thef fect sonl yaf terwor kershav ebeenexposedt oachemi cal
formanyy ear s, andt henasnewi nfor mat i
oni sl ear ned, theexposur el i
mi tsar echanged.
2.Exposur el i
mi tsar esett opr otectmostwor ker s.Howev er,ther emaybesomewor ker s
whowi llbeaf fect edbyachemi calatl ev el sbel ow t hesel i
mi ts.Fori nst ance,empl oyees
per formi ngheav yphy sicalexer tionbr eat hei nmor eai randmor eai rbor nechemi cals,and
somayabsor banexcessi v eamount .
3.Exposur el i
mi tsdonott akei ntoaccountchemi cali nt eract ions.Whent woormor e
chemi cal si nt hewor kplacehav et hesameheal thef f ects,indust ri
alhy gienistsusea
mathemat ical formul atoadj ustt heexposur eli
mi t
sf ort hosesubst ancesi nthatwor kpl ace.
Thisfor mul aappl i
est ochemi cal
st hathav eadditi
veef fect s.
4.Limi ti
ngt hechemi calconcent rationi nai rmaynotpr ev entexcessi veexposur et hr ough
skin cont actori ngest ion.Chemi calst hatmaypr oduceheal th ef fectsasar esul tof
absorpt i
ont hrought heski nhav ean“ S”desi gnationnextt otheirnumer i
calv aluei nt he
Cal/OSHA PEL t able.Wor ker s exposed t ot hese chemi cals mustbe pr ovided wi th
protectivecl othingt owearwhenov er exposur et hr
ought heski nispossi bl
e.
Howt or educeexposur e
Thesur estwayt opr eventt oxicchemi calsf r
om causi nghar mi st omi nimizeorpr event
exposur e.Bel owar esomemet hodsofcont r
oll
ingexposur e;
a.Tr aini ngEv er yonewhowor kswi tht oxicsubst ancesshoul dknow t henames,t oxi city
,
andot herhazar dsoft hesubst ancest heyuse.Empl oy er sarer equi r
edbyl awt opr ovide
thisinf or mat ion, alongwi tht r
ainingi nhowt ouset oxi csubst ancessaf ely
b.Engi neerCont rolsLi mi t
ingexposur eatt hesour cei st hepr ef err
edwayt opr otect
wor ker s
c.Wor kpr acticeWor kpr acticesar ebehav i
orsper for medbywor kersinor dert or educe
exposur es.Cont rolli
ng dustdi sper sion by spr ay ing wat er( ordustsuppr essant
product s) ,closi ng cont ainers ofv ol ati
le chemi cal s when noti n use,and l abel ing
cont ainer sofhaz ardoussubst ances,ar ecommonandef fecti
v echemi calcont rolwor k
pract ices.
d.Per sonalpr otectiv eequipmentshoul dbeusedonl ywhenengi neer i
ngcont rolsar enot
possi bl eorar enotsuf fi
cientt or educeexposur e.