CHAPTER6

CBSEQUESTI ON
5 MARKSQUESTI ON
1.Descr ibes Fr eder icks Gr i
ffi
th’s exper i
menton st rept ococcus pneumoni a.Di scuss t he
conclusionhear rivedat .( 2012)
Ans.-In1928, Fr eder ickGr i
ffi
thconduct edinst rept ococcuspneumoni a.
-Heobser v edt hatt hebact eriaoccuri nt wost rainsi .e.
1.Virul
entorS-st rainwhi chpossessesacov eringofmuci lage, form smoot hcol onyandabi l
i
ty
tocausedi seaseofpneumoni a.
2.Non-Vi rulentorR- str ainwhi chlacksmuci l
agesheat h,f
or mr oughcol onyandi sunabl et o
causedi sease.
Experimentwi t hMouse:
1.Heal thymouse+Li vingR- Strain=Mousesur vive
2.Heal thymouse+Li vingS- Strain=Mousedi edofpneumoni a
3.Heal thymouse+Heatki l
l
edS- Strain=Mousesur v
ive
4.Heal thymouse+Ami xtureofl ivingR- St rainandHeatki ll
edS- St rai
n=Mousedi edof
pneumoni a
Gr i
ff i
thext ract edt hebl oodofdeadmouseandobser v edt hepr esenceofl ivingS- st rain.
Last l
yheconcl udedt hatint hebodyofdadmousel ivingR-st rai nwer et ransf ormedi nto
liv
ingS- Strai nthatcausepneumoni aast heheatki llS-St r
ainenabl et heR-st raint o
sy nthesi z edasmoot hpol ysacchar i
descoatandbecomev i
rul
ent .
2. How di dHer sheyandChasepr ov et hatDNA i st heher editarymat erials?Expl aint heir
experimentwi thsui tabl edi agrams.( 2009)
Ans.Al fred Her sheyandMar t
haChasesi n1952conduct edexper imentwi thbact er i
aand
bacteri
ophages.
1.Someofbact er iophagesv iruswer egr ownonamedi um t hatcont ained r adioact iv
e
Phosphor us( 32P)andsomei nanot hermedi um wi t
hr adioact i
v eSul phur( 35S) .
2.Vi rusesgr owni nt hepr esenceofr adioact i
vePhosphor uscont ai nradi oactiveDNA.
3.Si mi l
ar l
yv ir
usesgr owni npr esenceofr adioact i
veSul phurcont ainedr adi oact i
v epr ot ei
n.
4.Bot ht her adi oact i
v ev i
ruseswer eallowedt oi nfectE. col isepar ately.
5.Soonaf teri nfect ion,t hebact erialcel lser egent elyagi atedi nbl endert or emov ev i
ral
coat sf r
om bact er i
a.
6.Thecul tur eswer eal socent r
ifugedt osepar atet heviral par ti
clesf r
om t hebact er i
al cell.
Obser vationandConcl usi on:
1.Onl yRadi oact ivePhosphor ousasf oundt obeassoci at edwi t
ht hebact erialcel lwher eas
Radi oact iveSul phurwasf oundi nsur roundi ngmedi um andnoti nthebact erial cell
.
2.Thi si ndi cat est hatonl yDNAandnotpr ot eincoatent eri ntobact eri
al cell.
3.Thi spr ov edt hatDNAi st hegenet i
cmat erialwhi chi spassedf rom v ir
ust obact eriaand
notpr ot ein.
3.Whati sSemi -conser vativeDNAr epli
cat i
on?Howwasi texperi
ment all
ypr ovedandbywhom?
(2008)
Ans.DNA r eplicat i
on means f or
mat ion ofdaught erDNA f rom t he par ent alDNA.- Semi -
conser vati
v erepl icationofDNA wasexper iment all
ypr oofby  
Mesel sonand St ahlin1958,
15
on E. coli
.Theygr ewE. colicellinamedi um cont ainingAmmoni um chloridei.e N4Clwi t
hheav y
15
i
sot opesofN2i .e. Nf orsev eralgener ation.So,t hatDNAoft hebact eri
abecomesl abeled
15
with N.Thi sheav yDNAcanbedi ff
erent i
at edfrom nor malDNAbycent ri
fugat i
oni nCaesium
Chlor i
de ( CsCl)densi tygr adient.Then,t heyt ransf erred the cell
si nt o a medi um hav i
ng
14
Ammoni um Chl or i
dewi thisot opesofNi tr
ogeni .e. N( Non-isotonic).DNAoft hesebact eri
a
15
wasanal yzedaf terdi ffer
entnumberofgener ati
ont odet erminetheamountof N.E. colidi
vides
i
nev ery20mi nutes.WhenDNAwer ei solatedaf terf i
rstgener ati
on,itshowt hepr esenceof15N
i
noneoft hetwost randand14Ni nt heanot herst rand.WhenDNAwer ei solatedaf t
ersecond
gener ati
on,itshowequalamountoft wot y
pesoff ractioni.e.inonef racti
onwher eDNAst rand
l
abeledwi h15N andanot
t herst
randwi th14N whi l
esecondfract
ionlabel
edwith 14
Ni nboth
str
and.Whenbact erialDNAwereanaly zedaf t
ert hi
rdgener
ati
on,t
heamountofDNAhy bri
di.e.
15 14
onestrandwi t
h N andsecondst r
andwi th N becomesconst antandt heamountofnon-
14
i
sotopi
cDNAi .
e.wi t
hbothit
sstr
and Ni ncreases.Thi
sexperi
mentprovedthatDNAr epli
cati
on
i
ssemi -conser
vatives.
4.a)Expl ainthechemi cal structureofasi nglest r
andedpol ynucleot i
dechai n.
b)Descr i
bet hesalientf eaturesoft hedoubl ehelixstructureofDNAmol ecul
es.(2012C)
Ans.a.St r
uct ur
eofPol ynucl eotideChai n:
i
.Anucl eotidehast hr eepar ts,i.
e.ani t
rogenousbase, apent osesugar( deoxyri
bosei nDNAand
ri
bosei nRNA)andaphosphat egr oup.
i
i.Ni trogenousbasesar epur i
nes,i.e.adeni ne,guanineandpy ri
mi dines,i
.e.cyt
osine,uraciland
thy mine.
i
ii.Cy tosinei scommonf orbot hDNAandRNAandt hy
mi nei spr esentinDNA.Ur acilispresent
i
nRNAatt heplaceoft hy mine.
i
v .Ani tr
ogenousbasei sl i
nkedt ot hepent osesugart hroughaN- glycosidi
cli
nkaget of orma
nucl eoside, i.
e.adenosi neandguanosi ne,etc.
v.Whenaphosphat egr oupi slinkedt o5′ —OHofanucl eosidet hroughphosphodi esterli
nkage,
acor r
espondi ngnucl eot idei sformed.
vi.Twonucl eotidesar el inkedt hrough3′ ->5′phosphodi esterli
nkaget oform adinucleoti
de.
vii
.Sev eralnucleotidescanbej oinedt of orm apol ynucl
eot i
dechai n.
vii
i.Thebackbonei napol ynucleotidechai nisf ormedduet osugarandphosphat es.
i
x.Theni tr
ogenousbasesl i
nkedt osugarmoi etypr oj
ectfrom t hebackbone.
x.Thebasepai rsarecompl ement aryt oeachot her
.

b.SalientFeaturesofDouble-heli
xSt r
uctureofDNA:
-
JamesWat sonandFr anci
sCr ickin1953pr oposedt hedoubl eheli
calmodelofDNAbasedon
theX- raydi
ffracti
ondatapr oducedbyWi lkinsandFr ankli
nandEr winChar gaff’
srul
eofbase
pair
ing.
(i
)DNAi sal ongpolymerofdeoxy -
ri
bonucl eotides.Itismadeupoft wopoly nucl
eoti
dechains,
wher ethebackbonei sconsti
tutedbysugar -phosphat eandt hebasesproj
ectinside.
(i
i)Thet wochai nshaveanti
-paral
lelpolar
it
y ,i
.e.5′ >3′forone,3′
>5′foranother.
(i
ii
)Thebasesi nt wostr
andsar epai r
edthr oughhy dr
ogenbond( H—bonds)f ormingbasepairs
(bp).Adeninef ormst wohy drogenbondswi tht hyminef r
om oppositestr
andandv i
ce-
versa.
Guaninebondswi t
hcyt
osinebyt hreeH—bonds.Duet othi
s,puri
neal wayscomesopposi t
etoa
pyri
midine.Thisformsauniform dist
ancebet weent hetwostrands.
(i
v)Thet wochainsarecoil
edi nar i
ght-
handedf ashion.Thepit
choft heheli
xis3.4nm andthere
areroughly10bpi neacht urn.Duet othis,thedi st
ancebetweenabasepai rinahel i
xisabout
0.34nm.
(v)Theplaneofonebasepai rstacksov ertheot herindoublehelix.Thi
sconfersstabil
i
tytothe
heli
calstruct
urei
nadditi
ont oH—bonds.

5.I.Mentiont hecontri
buti
onsoft hef ollowingscient
ist:
a)Maur iceWi lki
nsandRosalindFr ankl i
n
b)Er wi
nChar gaff
II.Draw adoubl estr
andeddi nucl eotideschai nwithallt
hefournit
rogenousbases.Labelt
he
polari
tyandt hecomponent soft hedi nucleoti
de.(2011C)
Ans.I.a.Maur i
ceWi l
ki
nsandRosal i
ndFr ankl
in:
Maur i
ceWi l
ki
nsandRosal indFr anklingav eX-raysdi
ffr
acti
ondataofDNA.
b.Er winChar gaff:Heproposedt hatforadoubl estr
andedDNA, t
herati
osbetweenAdenineand
Thy mineandGuani neandCy t
osi near econst antandequalstoone.
I
I.

6.a)Describesthev ari
ousstepsofGr i
ffi
th’
sexperimentsthatleadtotheconcl
usi
onofthe
Transfor
mingPri
nciple.
b)Howdi dthechemi calnat
ureoft
heTr ansf
ormingPrinci
plegetest
abli
shed?(
2014,
2013C)
Ans.a.-I
n1928,Frederi
ckGr i
ff
it
hconductedinst
reptococcuspneumonia.
-Heobser vedt hatt hebact er iaoccuri nt wost r
ainsi .
e.
1.Vi rul
entorS-st r
ai nwhi chpossessesacov er i
ngofmuci lage, form smoot hcol onyandabi li
t y
tocausedi seaseofpneumoni a.
2.Non-Vi rul entorR- strai nwhi chl acksmuci lagesheat h,for mr oughcol onyandi sunabl et o
causedi sease.
Exper imentwi thMouse:
5.Heal thymouse+Li vingR- St rain=Mousesur vive
6.Heal thymouse+Li vingS- St rain=Mousedi edofpneumoni a
7.Heal thymouse+Heatki lledS- St r
ain=Mousesur vive
8.Heal thymouse+Ami xtureofl ivingR- StrainandHeatki lledS- Strain=Mousedi edof
pneumoni a
Griffithext ract edt hebl oodofdeadmouseandobser v edt hepr esenceofl ivi
ngS- strai n.
Last lyheconcl udedt hati nt hebodyofdadmousel ivingR-st r
ainwer etr ansf ormedi nt o
li
vingS- Straint hatcausepneumoni aast heheatki l
l S-St r
ai nenablet heR-st raint o
synt hesiz edasmoot hpol ysacchar i
descoatandbecomev i
rulent.
-b.I n1944,Oswal dAv ery ,Col i
nMacLeodandMacl y
nMcCar tywor kedoutt odet ermi net he
biochemi cal natur eoft ransf ormi ngpr i
nci pleofGr iff i
th.
Theypur i
fied bi ochemi cal sand ext racted t hree f r actionsofheatki ll
ed S- Straini .e.
Car bohydr at e,Prot einandDNAt oseewhi chonescoul dt r
ansf or ml iveRcel lsintoScel l
s.
Exper iment :
1.Car bohy dr atesofheatki l
ledS-St rain+Li vingR- strain=Not ransformat i
on.
2.Pr ot einofHeatki lledS- St rain+Li vingR- strai n=Not ransf or mation.
3.DNAofheatki lledS- Strain+Li vingR- st r
ain=Tr ansf or mat ion.
4.DNAofheatki lledS- Strain+Li vingR- st r
ain=Tr ansf or mat ion.
5.DNAofheatki lledS- Strain+Li vingR- st r
ain+DNA- ase=NoTr ansformat ion.
From t heabov eexper i
mentt heydi scov eredt hatDNAal onef rom Sbact eriacausedR
bact eri
at obecomet ransf or med.So, theyconcl udedt hatDNAi st hegenet i
cmat erial.
7.a)Wr i
tet heconcl usi ondr awnbyGr i
ffithatt heendofhi sexper i
mentwi thSt reptococcus
pneumoni ae.
b)How di dO.Av er y,C.Macl eodandM.McCar typr ov et hatDNAwasagenet icsmat er ials.
(2013)
Ans. a.Heconcl udedt hatt heR- strai nbact eriahadsomehowbeent r
ansformedbyheat -killedS-
strainbact er i
at hismustbeduet ot ransf erofgenet icmat erial.Grif
fit
hobser vedachangeof
l
ivingR- st rainSt rept ococcusPneumoni aenon- vir
ul entt ypei nt ol i
vingS- bacter i
awheni nj ect ed
along wi th heat -kill
ed S- ty pe v i
rul entand cal led t ransf ormat ion.The phenomenon was
discov eredbyFr eder ickGr iff
ith1928.TheR- strainnon- v irulentbact eriapickupt het raitof
vir
ul encef rom deadbact er iaGr iff
ithPr oposedt hatt het ransf ormi ngpr inci
pl ei sachemi cal
subst ancer eleasedbyheat -kil
ledbact eria.I twasaper manentgenet icchangeast henewS- type
bact eri
af or medonl yS- type.
b.I n1944,Oswal dAv er y,Col inMacLeodandMacl ynMcCar tywor kedoutt odet erminet he
biochemi cal natur eoft ransf ormi ngpr i
nci pleofGr iff i
th.
Theypur i
fied bi ochemi cal sand ext racted t hree f r actionsofheatki ll
ed S- Straini .e.
Car bohydr at e,Prot einandDNAt oseewhi chonescoul dt r
ansf or ml iveRcel lsintoScel l
s.
Exper iment :
1.Car bohy dr atesofheatki l
ledS-St rain+Li vingR- strain=Not ransformat i
on.
2.Pr ot einofHeatki lledS- St rain+Li vingR- strai n=Not ransf or mation.
3.DNAofheatki lledS- Strain+Li vingR- st r
ain=Tr ansf or mat ion.
4.DNAofheatki lledS- Strain+Li vingR- st r
ain=Tr ansf or mat ion.
5.DNAofheatki lledS- Strain+Li vingR- st r
ain+DNA- ase=NoTr ansformat ion.
 From t heabov eexper i
mentt heydi scov eredt hatDNAal onef rom Sbact eriacausedR
bacter i
at obecomet ransf ormed.So, t heyconcl udedt hatDNAi st hegenet icmat erial.
8.Howwer et hef ol l
owi ngpr ov edexper iment ally?Expl ain.
a)Bi ochemi cal nat ureoft he‘ t
r ansformi ngpr inciple’
sofGr iffith’sexper iment .
b)DNAi st hegenet i
cmat er i
al.( 2010C)
Ans.Heobser vedt hatt hebact eriaoccuri nt wost rainsi .
e.
1.Vir ul
entorS-st r
ai nwhi chpossessesacov er i
ngofmuci lage, for m smoot hcol onyandabi li
ty
tocausedi seaseofpneumoni a.
2.Non-Vi rulentorR- strainwhi chl acksmuci lagesheat h, f
or mr oughcol onyandi sunabl eto
causedi sease.
Exper imentwi thMouse:
1.Heal thymouse+Li vingR- Strain=Mousesur v
ive
2.Heal thymouse+Li vingS- Strain=Mousedi edofpneumoni a
3.Heal thymouse+Heatki ll
edS- Strain=Mousesur v
ive
4.Heal thymouse+Ami xtur eofl ivingR- StrainandHeatki ll
edS- Strai
n=Mousedi edof
pneumoni a
Griffithext ract edt hebl oodofdeadmouseandobser v edt hepr esenceofl ivi
ngS- str
ain.
Last lyheconcl udedt hati nt hebodyofdadmousel ivingR-st rainwer etransf ormedi nto
li
vingS- Straint hatcausepneumoni aast heheatki l
l S-St rainenabl et heR-st rainto
synt hesiz edasmoot hpol ysacchar i
descoatandbecomev irul
ent .
-b.In1944,Oswal dAv ery ,Col i
nMacLeodandMacl ynMcCar tywor kedoutt odet erminethe
biochemi cal natur eoft ransf ormi ngpr i
nci pl
eofGr iffi
th.
Theypur i
fied bi ochemi calsand ext racted thr ee fr act i
onsofheatki ll
ed S- Str
aini .
e.
Carbohy dr ate, Prot einandDNAt oseewhi chonescoul dt ransf orml i
veRcel l
sintoScel l
s.
Exper iment :
1.Car bohy dr atesofheatki ll
edS-St rain+Li vi
ngR- strain=Not r
ansf ormation.
2.Pr ot einofHeatki lledS- Strain+Li vingR- strain=Not ransf or mat ion.
3.DNAofheatki lledS- St rain+Li vingR- st r
ain=Tr ansf or mat i
on.
4.DNAofheatki lledS- St rain+Li vingR- st r
ain=Tr ansf or mat i
on.
5.DNAofheatki lledS- St rain+Li vingR- st r
ain+DNA- ase=NoTr ansf ormat i
on.
From t heabov eexper i
mentt heydi scov eredt hatDNAal onef rom Sbact eriacausedR
bacter i
at obecomet ransf ormed.So, t heyconcl udedt hatDNAi st hegenet icmat erial.
9.a)Howdi dGr iffit
hexpl aint het ransf ormat ionofR- strain( non- Virulent)bacteriai ntoSst rain
(Vir
ul ent)
?
b)Expl ai n how Macl eod,McCar tyand Av erydet er mined t hebi ochemi calnat ure ofthe
mol eculer esponsi blef ort ransf or mingRst rainbact eriaintoSst rainbact eri
a.(2009)
Ans.a. -I
n1928, Fr eder ickGr iffithconduct edinst reptococcuspneumoni a.
-Heobser vedt hatt hebact er i
aoccuri nt wost r
ainsi .
e.
1.Vir ul
entorS-st r
ai nwhi chpossessesacov er i
ngofmuci lage, for m smoot hcol onyandabi li
ty
tocausedi seaseofpneumoni a.
2.Non-Vi rulentorR- strainwhi chl acksmuci lagesheat h, f
or mr oughcol onyandi sunabl eto
causedi sease.
Exper imentwi thMouse:
1.Heal thymouse+Li vingR- Strain=Mousesur v
ive
2.Heal thymouse+Li vingS- Strain=Mousedi edofpneumoni a
3.Heal thymouse+Heatki ll
edS- Strain=Mousesur v
ive
4.Heal thymouse+Ami xtur eofl ivingR- StrainandHeatki ll
edS- Strai
n=Mousedi edof
 pneumoni a
Griffithext ract edthebl oodofdeadmouseandobser v edthepr esenceofl iv
ingS-str
ain.
Last lyheconcl udedt hatint hebodyofdadmousel ivingR-st r
ainwer etransformedinto
li
vingS- Straint hatcausepneumoni aast heheatki l
l S-St rainenablet heR-st r
aint
o
synt hesizedasmoot hpoly sacchari
descoatandbecomev i
rulent.
b.-In1944,Oswal dAv ery,ColinMacLeodandMacl y
nMcCar tywor kedoutt odeterminethe
bi
ochemi cal natureoft r
ansformi ngpr i
ncipl
eofGr iffi
th.
Theypur ified bi ochemi calsand ext racted three fr acti
onsofheatki ll
ed S-Str
aini.e.
Carbohydr ate, Prot einandDNAt oseewhi chonescoul dtransf orml iveRcel l
sintoScel l
s.
Experi
ment :
1.Car bohy drat esofheatki ll
edS-St r
ain+LivingR- str
ain=Not ransformation.
2.Pr ot einofHeatki ll
edS- Strain+Li vi
ngR-strain=Not ransfor mation.
3.DNAofheatki l
ledS-Strain+Li vingR-str
ain=Tr ansfor mat i
on.
4.DNAofheatki l
ledS-Strain+Li vingR-str
ain=Tr ansfor mat i
on.
5.DNAofheatki l
ledS-Strain+Li vingR-str
ain+DNA- ase=NoTr ansformation.
From t heabov eexperimentt heydiscoveredt hatDNAal onef rom Sbact eriacausedR
bacter
iat obecomet ransformed.So, theyconcludedt hatDNAi sthegenet i
cmat eri
al.
10.a)Descr ibethepr ocessoft ranscr i
pti
oninbact eri
a.
b)Expl aint hepr ocessingt hehnRNAneedst ounder gobef orebecomi ngfunctionalmRNAof
eukaryotes.( 2014C, 2016)
Ans.a.Tr anscr i
ptioni nProkar yotes:

-I
nbact eria,thetranscr
ipt
ionofal
lthe3t y
pesofRNA( m RNA,tRNA,rRNA)iscat
alyzedby
singleDNAdependentenzy mecaledt
l heRNApolymerase.
-nE.col
I ibacteri
a,theRNApolymerasehasco-f
act
orα,α’,
β,β’
andωalongwit
hsigma(σ)
factortocat al
yzetheprocess.
Thet
ranscr
ipt
ioni
scompl
etedi
nthr
eest
eps:
1.I
nit
iat
ion:
TheRNApol ymerasebindt
othepr
omotersi
teonDNAwi t
hthehel
pofσfactorandini
ti
ates
transcr
ipt
ion.TheDNAbecomeunwi ndbutonl
ythest
randwit
h3’-
--
5’pol
ari
tyfunct
ionasa
templateforsynt
hesisofRNA.
2.El
ongat
ion:TheRNApolymeraseaf
teri
nit
iati
onofRNAt r
anscr
ipt
ionl
ossest
heσfact
or
butconti
nues t
he pol
ymer
izati
on ofri
bo-nucl
eot
ides t
of or
m RNA.The nucl
eosi
de
 t
ri
phosphat
esar
eusedasasubst
rat
easwel
lasener
gysour
ce.
3.Terminati
on:OncetheRNApol ymer
asereachest heter
mi nati
onr egi
onofDNA,theRNA
polymeraseisseparat
edfrom DNA-
RNAhy bri
dasar esul
tnascentRNAsepar at
es.Thi
s
processiscal
ledter
minat
ionwhichi
sfaci
l
itatedbyaterminatorfactori
.e.r
hof
act
or.
b.Becauseineukaryot
es,Thepr i
mar ytr
anscr i
ptsarenon-functi
onalcontai
ningbot
ht hecoding
regi
onandnoncodi ngregioncall
edexonsandt heintronsrespecti
vel
yinRNAandsuchRNAar e
call
edasHet er
ogeneousNucl earRNAorhnRNA.
-ThehnRNAunder goestwoaddi t
ionalprocessi
ngcalledascappi ngandtail
ing.
-Incapping,anunusualnucleot
idei.e.Methylguanosi net
riphosphat
eisaddedt othe5′-
endof
hnRNA.
-Int ai
l
ing,adenyl
ateresiduesof200- 300ar eaddedat3′ -
endinat empl at
einindependent
manner .
-
Aftert
hathnRNAunder goesapr ocesswheret
heIntr
onsareremov edandExonsar ejoinedtof orm
mRNAbyt heprocesscalledspl
i
cing.Smal
lnucl
earri
bonucl
eoprot
ein(SnRNPs)takesparti nspli
cing.
Theful
l
yprocesshnRNA, nowcal
ledmRNA, t
hati
str
ansport
edoutofthenucl
eusfortransl
ationprocess.
11.Explainthe process oftr
anscri
pti
on i
n Pr
okar
yot
es.How i
sthe pr
ocess di
ff
erenti
n
Eukary
otes?(2012,2015)
Ans.a.Transcr
ipt
ioninProkar
yotes:

-I
nbact eria,thetranscr
ipt
ionofal
lthe3t y
pesofRNA( m RNA,tRNA,rRNA)iscat
alyzedby
singleDNAdependentenzy mecaledt
l heRNApolymerase.
-nE.col
I ibacteri
a,theRNApolymerasehasco-f
act
orα,α’,
β,β’
andωalongwit
hsigma(σ)
factortocat al
yzetheprocess.
Thet
ranscr
ipt
ioni
scompl
etedi
nthr
eest
eps:
1.I
nit
iat
ion:
TheRNApol ymerasebindt
othepr
omotersi
teonDNAwi t
hthehel
pofσfactorandini
ti
ates
transcr
ipt
ion.TheDNAbecomeunwi ndbutonl
ythest
randwit
h3’-
--
5’pol
ari
tyfunct
ionasa
templateforsynt
hesisofRNA.
2.Elongati
on:TheRNApol ymeraseafteri
nit
iati
onofRNAt r
anscript
ionl
ossest
heσfact
or
butcont i
nues the pol
ymer
izati
on ofr i
bo-nucl
eoti
des t
of orm RNA.The nucl
eosi
de
tr
iphosphatesar
eusedasasubst rat
easwel lasener
gysource.
3.Ter
minati
on:OncetheRNApolymer
aser
eachest
het
ermi
nat
ionregi
onofDNA,theRNA
pol
ymeraseissepar
atedf
rom DNA-
RNAhybri
dasar
esul
tnascentRNAsepar
ates.Thi
s
 pr
ocessi
scal
l
edt
ermi
nat
ionwhi
chi
sfaci
l
itat
edbyat
ermi
nat
orf
act
ori
.e.r
hof
act
or.
b.Becauseineukaryot
es,Thepr i
mar ytr
anscr i
ptsarenon-functi
onalcontai
ningbot
ht hecoding
regi
onandnoncodi ngregioncall
edexonsandt heintronsrespecti
vel
yinRNAandsuchRNAar e
call
edasHet er
ogeneousNucl earRNAorhnRNA.
-ThehnRNAunder goestwoaddi t
ionalprocessi
ngcalledascappi ngandtail
ing.
-Incapping,anunusualnucleot
idei.e.Methylguanosi net
riphosphat
eisaddedt othe5′-
endof
hnRNA.
-Int ai
l
ing,adenyl
ateresiduesof200- 300ar eaddedat3′ -
endinat empl at
einindependent
manner .
-
Aftert
hathnRNAunder goesapr ocesswheret
heIntr
onsareremov edandExonsar ejoinedtof orm
mRNAbyt heprocesscalledspl
i
cing.Smal
lnucl
earri
bonucl
eoprot
ein(SnRNPs)takesparti nspli
cing.
Theful
l
yprocesshnRNA, nowcal
ledmRNA, t
hati
str
ansport
edoutofthenucl
eusfortransl
ationprocess.
12.Sket
chaschemat icdiagr
am ofl
acoper
oni
nswi
tchedonposi
ti
on.How i
stheoper
on
swit
chedof
f?Expl
ain.
(2015)
Ans.

Fig.Thel acoper on
TheconceptofOper onwasf i
rstpr oposedi n1961byJacobandMonod.AnOper oni sauni tof
prokar yoti
cgeneexpr essionwhi chi ncl
udescoor di
natelyregulategenesandcont rolelement
whi char erecognizedbyr egulatorygenepr oduct s.
Component sofanOper on:
i
.Structuralgene: Thef ragmentofDNAwhi chtranscr i
bemRNAf orpol ypepti
desy nthesis.
i
i.Promot er:ThesequenceofDNAwher eRNApol ymerasebi ndsandi niti
atest ranscripti
onof
structuralgeneiscal l
edpr omot er.
i
ii.
Oper ator:ThesequenceofDNAadj acentt opr omot erwherespeci f
icr epr
essorpr ot
einbi ndis
calledOper ator.
i
v .
Regul atorGene:Thegenet hatcodesf orther epressorproteinthatbi ndst ot heoper atorand
suppr essesi t
sact i
vi
tyasar esultofwhi cht r
anscr i
ptionwi l
lbeswi tchof f.
v.I
nducer :Thesubst ratet hatpr eventst herepr essorf r
om bi ndingt ot heoper atori scalledan
i
nducer .Asar esulttranscr i
ptioni sswi t
chon.I tisachemi calofdi versenat urel i
kemet aboli
te
hormonesubst r
ateet c.
-Lacoper onconsi stsoft hreest ructuralgenesi e.z,
. yanda; transcribesapol y ci
stronicm RNA.
-‘ z’
 gene  codesf or β-gal actosidaseenzy meswhi chbr eakdownl act osei nt ogal act oseand
Glucose.Gene‘ y ’codesf orPer measewhi chi ncr easest heper meabi l
ityoft hecel lt ol actose.
Gene‘ a’codesf orenzy mest r
ansacet ylasewhi chcat alysest het ransacet y lationofl act osei n
theact ivef orm.
Whenl act osei sabsent :
-Whenl actosei sabsent ,Igener egul atesandpr oducesr epr essorm RNA whi cht ranslate
repressi on.
-Ther epr essorpr ot einbi ndst ot heoper atorr egi onoft heoper onandasar esul tpr ev ent sRNA
pol ymer aset obi ndt ot heoper on.
-Theoper oni sswi tchedof f
.
WhenLact osei spr esent :
-Lactoseact sasani nducerwhi chbindst ot her epr essorandf or msani nact iver epressor .
-Ther epr essorf ai l
st obi ndt ot heoper atorr egion.
-TheRNApol ymer asebi ndst ot heoper atorandt ranscr ibesLacmRNA.
-LacmRNAi spol ycistroni ci.e.pr oducesal lthreeenzy mesi .e.β- galact osi dase,Per measeand
transacet yl
ase
-Theoper oni sswi tchedon.
13.Descr i
bet heHer sheyandChaseexper i
ment .Wr i
tet heconcl usiondr awnbysci ent istafter
theirexper i
ment .(2014)
Ans.Al fred Her sheyandMar t
haChasesi n1952conduct edexper imentwi thbact er i
aand
bact eri
ophages.
1.Someofbact er i
ophagesv ir
uswer egr ownonamedi um t hatcont ained r adi oactive
Phosphor us( 32P)andsomei nanot hermedi um wi thr adi oactiveSul phur( 35S) .
2.Vi r
usesgr owni nt hepr esenceofr adioact ivePhosphor uscont ainr adi oact i
veDNA.
3.Si milarl
yv i
rusesgr owni npr esenceofr adi oact i
veSul phurcont ainedr adi oactiv epr otei
n.
4.Bot ht her adi oact ivev iruseswer eal lowedt oi nfectE. col isepar atel y.
5.Soonaf teri nf ect i
on,t hebact erialcel l
ser egent elyagi atedi nbl endert oremov ev ir
al
coat sf r
om bact eria.
6.Thecul tureswer eal socent rif
ugedt osepar atet hev i
ral par t
icl
esf rom t hebact er ial cel
l.
Obser v ationandConcl usi on:
1.Onl yRadi oact ivePhosphor ousasf oundt obeassoci atedwi tht hebact erialcel lwher eas
Radi oact i
v eSul phurwasf oundi nsur roundi ngmedi um andnoti nt hebact erial cel l
.
2.Thi sindicat est hatonl yDNAandnotpr otei ncoatent eri nt obact er i
al cel l.
3.Thi spr ovedt hatDNAi st hegenet icmat er ialwhi chi spassedf rom v irust obact eriaand
notpr otein.
14.a)Namet hest agei ncellcy clewher eDNAr epl
icat i
onoccur .
b)Explaint hemechani sm ofDNAr epl icat i
on.Hi ghlightt her oleofenzy mesint hepr ocess.
c)Whyi sDNAr eplicationsai dtobesemi -conser v ati
v es.( 2016)
Ans.a.Repl i
cat i
onofDNAoccur satS- phaseofcel l cycle.
b.Mechani sm orPr ocessofDNARepl i
cat ion:
MachineryorTool sinvol vedinr epli
cat ion:
1.Enzy mes: Followi ngenzy mesar einv olvedi nDNAr eplicat i
on-
i
. Hel i
case: Theseenzy mescat alyzet hebr eakdownofhy drogenbondsbet weent het wo
strandsandhel pint heunwi ndi ngoft het wost rands.
i
i.Topoi somer ease:Theseenz y mesar er esponsi blef orbr eakingandr eseal i
ngofone
strandofDNA.
i
ii
.Pr imase:Thi senzy mehel psi nt hef ormat ionofpr ier.Pr i
meri sashor tRNAsegment
thati sf ormedont heDNAt empl at e.
i
v.DNA pol ymer ase:These enzy mes can l i
nk f ree DNA nucl eot
ides t of orm t he
compl ement aryst r
andofDNA.I tpol ymer asesnucl eot i
desi n5’ –3’
directiononly.
v.DNAl i
gase:Thesear et heenzy meswhi chcat al y
zet hej oi
ningoftheshor tstretches
ofDNA byf or mingPhospho- di esterbondbet ween3’OH gr oupand5’Phosphat e
groupofsuccessi venucl eot ides.
vi
.Repai rEnzy me:Ther emaybesomeer rorsdur ingDNAr epli
cati
on.Repai rEnzymesan
exci set hewr ongbasesandr epl acet hem wi thcor rectones.
2.Singl est randedbi ndingpr otein( SSBs) :Thesepr oteinsbi ndtot hesi
ngl est r
andedpar t
ofDNAandpr ev enttheirrecoili
ng.
ProcessofDNARepl icat i
on:
TheDNAr eplicationpr ocessinv olvedt hef ollowi ng:
1.OriginofRepl ication:Thepoi ntf r
om wher et heunwi ndi ngofDNAst r
andt akespl acei s
knownasOr iginofRepl ication.
2.Unwi ndi ngoft wost randsofDNA:Thet wost randofDNAsepar ateoutandeachst rand
willact sasat empl atef ort hesy nthesisofnewDNAst rand.Theunwi ndingofDNAhel i
x
i
sdonebyt heenzy mehel i
casewhi l
ebr eaki ngandr eseal ingofDNA donebyt opo-
i
somer aseenzy mes.Si ngl estrandedbi ndingpr oteinpr ev entsr ecoi l
ing.
3.UseofPr imer :Whent het wost r
andofDNAar esepar at edoutt her eshoul dbeapoi nton
DNAf r
om wher esy nthesesofDNAst art
.Thi spoi nti sknownasapr i
mer .Pr imeri sa
shor tst retch ofRNA f or m on t heDNA Templ at e.Theenzy mer esponsi blef ort he
format ionoft hispr imeri sknownasPr imase.
4.Synt hesisofNewDNAst rand:ThenewDNAst randst ar tsy nthesi zedf rom t hepr i
meand
i
si nfluencebyt heenzy mesDNApol ymerase.Whent hedoubl est randDNAi sunwi ndup
toapoi nti tform aY-shapedst ructur
ecal l
edas“ Repl icat i
onFor k”.NewDNAst randwi ll
besy nthesizedal ongt hisf ork.DNApol ymerasecanspol y mer asenewnucl eotidein5’ —3’
directiononl y.Sincet wost randofDNAr unant i
-par allelt oeachot her .So,t het wonew
DNAst randhav et obef ormedbyt hegr owt ht aki ngpl acei nopposi tedi rection.Fi r
st
cont i
nuousst randofDNAi sf ormedi n5’—3’di rect ionandknownas“ l
eadi ngst rand”.
Thenont heot herst randsmal lfragment si.e.di scont i
nuousst r andofDNAar ef ormedi n
5’—3’di r
ect i
onst ar tingf rom aRNApr i
mer .Thesesmal lf ragment sofDNAar eknownas
“Okazakif ragment s” .Thesef ragment sarej oinedt oget herbyt heenzy mesDNAl i
gase.
Thissecondst randf ormedi sknownas“ l
aggi ngst rand” .Howev er ,theov eralldirectionof
l
aggi ngst andi s5’ —3’ direction.
5.Proofr eading:I nt hepr ocessofDNAr epli
cation, newnucl eotidesar ear r
angedi nahi ghly
accur atemanneraspert hepai ri
ngofbases.Butsomet imesi tsohappenedv er yrar elyat
af requencyof1i n10, 000.Thi ser r
orcanbecor rect edbyDNApol ymer asei nt hati tcan
gobackandr emov et hewr ongbasepai r
and t hen pr oceed f urther wi th new
sy nthesi s.Thi sisr eferredaspr oofr eadi ng
i
nDNAsy nthesi s.I ft her eisanabnor mal
base pai ri n DNA due t o mut ati
on or
cer tainf act ors,i tcan be exci sed and
damager egi oncanber eplacebyanot her
basepai r.Thi si sknownas“ DNAr epai r
”
and i sdonebyr epai renzy mes.I fbot h
strands ar e al ter ed t hen r epairi s not
possi bl e.
6. Hel ix f ormat ion: Each daught er
doubl e DNA mol ecul es become spi rall
y
coi l
edt of or m adoubl ehel i
x.

c.DNAr epl
icati
onmeansf ormat i
onofdaught er
DNAf r
om theparentalDNA.Dur ing
repli
cati
onofDNA,t ost r
andofDNAunwi ndat
one end causi ng br eaking of hy dr ogen bon
betweenbasepai randexposi ngthenucl eotides
ofDNA on t he two compl ementary strands.
These st r
and actas t empl ate and al l
ow t he
paringoff r
eenucl eoti
depr esentint henucl eus
i
.e.A pai r
edwi thT andG pai redwi t hC.Thi s
resulti
nthef or
mat i
onoft wodoubl ehel i
xofDNA
wher eineachmol eculeshasol dst r
andandone
newl ysy nthesi zedst rand.Si nce,thenewl ysy nthesizedDNA hasonest randcont ri
but edby
parentDNAandonesy nthesi zeddaught erst r
and.Thi smechani sm ofDNAr eplicati
oni sknown
asSemi -
Conser vativesofDNA.
15.Descr i
beMesel sonandSt ahl’
sex periment st hatwascar riedi n1958onE. coli
.Wr i
t et he
concl usiont heyar ri
vedataf t ertheexper iment .(2016)
Ans.Mesel sonandSt ahlin1958conduct edt heirexper imenton  E. 
coli
.Theygr ewE. colicel lin
15 15
amedi um cont ainingAmmoni um chl ori
dei .e N4Clwi thheav yi sotopesofN2i .e. N f or
15
sev eralgener at i
on.So, thatDNAoft hebact eriabecomesl abel edwi th N.Thi sheav yDNAcan
bedi fferentiat ed f rom nor malDNA bycent rif
ugat i
on i n Caesi um Chl oride( CsCl)densi t y
gradi ent.Then,t heyt ransf erredt hecel l
si ntoamedi um hav ingAmmoni um Chl ori
dewi th
14
isotopesofNi trogeni .
e. N( Non-isot onic).DNAoft hesebact eriawasanal yzedaf t
erdi fferent
15
numberofgener ationt odet er minetheamountof N.E. colidi videsi nev ery20mi nutes.When
15
DNAwer ei solat edaf t
erf i
rstgener ation,itshowt hepr esenceof Ni noneoft het wostrandand
14
Ni nt heanot herst r
and.WhenDNA wer ei solatedaf tersecondgener at i
on,i tshow equal
amountoft wot y pesoff ract i
oni .
e.i nonef racti
onwher eDNAst randl abel edwi th15N and
anot herst randwi th14Nwhi l
esecondf r
actionl abeledwi t
h  14
Ni nbot hst rand.Whenbact erial
15
DNAwer eanal y zedaf t
ert hirdgener ati
on, theamountofDNAhy br i
di.e.onest randwi th Nand
14
secondst r
andwi th Nbecomesconst antandt heamountofnon- i
sotopicDNAi .e.withbot hits
14
strand Ni ncr eases.Thi sexper i
mentpr ovedt hatDNAr epli
cationi ssemi -conser vati
ves.

16.a)Dr aw al abeled di
agram ofar epli
cati
ngf orkshowi ngthepol ar
it
y.WhydoesDNA
repl
icat
ionoccurwithinsuchfor
k?
b)Namet woenzy mesi nvol
vedinthepr ocessofDNAr epl
icat
ion,al
ongwi t
hthei
rpropert
ies.
(2015)
Ans.a.DNAr epl
icat
ionoccursduetohi ghenergyr equi
rementofDNAf oropeningi
nonest r
etch.
Therepointofseparati
onoccurswit
ht hehelpofr epli
cati
onforkgivi
ngitaYappearance.
b.iHelicase:Theseenzymescatal
yzethebreakdownofhy dr
ogenbondsbet
weenthet wo
st
randsandhelpintheunwindi
ngoft
hetwostrands.
i
i.
Topoisomerease:Theseenzy
mesareresponsi
bleforbr
eaki
ngandreseal
i
ngofonest
randof
DNA.

17.
a)I
dent i
fythestr
uct ur
eshownabove.
b)Redrawt hestructur
easarepli
cati
ngforkandlabelt
heparts.
c)Wr i
tethesourceofenergyfort
hisrepl
icat
ionandli
sttheenzymesinv
olv
edint
hispr
ocess.
d)Ment i
ont hediff
erencei
nthesynthesi
sbasedont hepolar
ityoft
hetwotempl
atest
rands.
(2013C)
Ans.a.ItisaDNAr eplicati
onf
ork.
b.
c.Sour cesofener gyi sDeoxy ri
bonucl eosi det ri
phosphat e.Enzy mesi nv olvedar eHel icase,DNA
dependentDNApol ymer aseandDNALi gase.
d.ThenewDNAst r
andst ar tsy nthesi zedf rom t hepr i
meandi sinf l
uencebyt heenzy mesDNA
pol ymer ase.Whent hedoubl est r
andDNAi sunwi ndupt oapoi nti tform aY-shapedst ruct ure
called as “ Repl icat ion For k” .New DNA st rand wi llbe sy nthesi zed al ong t hisf ork.DNA
pol ymer asecanspol y mer asenew nucl eot i
dei n5’ —3’di rectiononl y.Si ncet wost randofDNA
runant i-par all
elt oeachot her .So,t het wonew DNAst randhav et obef or medbyt hegr owt h
takingpl acei nopposi tedi rect i
on.Fi rstcont i
nuousst randofDNAi sf or medi n5’ —3’di rect ion
andknownas“ leadi ngst rand” .Thenont heot herst r
andsmal lf ragment si .e.di scont i
nuous
strandofDNAar ef or medi n5’ —3’ dir ectionst artingf r
om aRNApr imer .Thesesmal lfragment s
ofDNA ar e known as“ Okazakif ragment s”.These f ragment sar ej oined t oget herbyt he
enzy mesDNAl igase.Thi ssecondst r
andf ormedi sknownas“ l
aggi ngst rand” .Howev er,t he
ov eralldirect ionofl aggi ngst andi s5’ —3’ direct ion.
18.How di d Mesel son and St ahl ’s exper iment all
y pr ovet hatDNA r epl i
cation i n semi -
conser v at i
ves?Expl ai n.(2013C)
Ans.Mesel sonandSt ahlin1958conduct edt hei rexper i
menton  E. coli
.Theygr ewE. col icel lin
15 15
amedi um cont ainingAmmoni um chl oridei .e N4Clwi thheav yi sot opesofN2i .
e. N f or
15
sev eralgener at i
on.So, thatDNAoft hebact eriabecomesl abel edwi t
h N.Thi sheav yDNAcan
bedi ffer ent i
at ed f rom nor malDNA bycent rifugat ion i n Caesi um Chl or ide( CsCl )densi ty
gradi ent.Then,t heyt ransf erredt hecel l
si ntoamedi um hav ingAmmoni um Chl oridewi th
14
isotopesofNi trogeni .
e. N( Non-i sot oni c).DNAoft hesebact eriawasanal yzedaf terdi f
fer ent
15
numberofgener ationt odet ermi net heamountof N.E. colidi videsi nev er y20mi nut es.When
15
DNAwer ei sol atedaf terf i
rstgener ation, i
tshowt hepr esenceof Ni noneoft het wost randand
14
Ni nt heanot herst rand.WhenDNA wer ei solat edaf tersecondgener ation,i tshow equal
amountoft wot ypesoff ract i
oni .
e.i nonef ract i
onwher eDNAst randl abel edwi h15N and
t
anot herst randwi th14Nwhi l
esecondf ractionl abel edwi th  14
Ni nbot hst rand.Whenbact erial
15
DNAwer eanal yzedaf t
ert hirdgener at i
on, theamountofDNAhy br i
di .e.onest randwi th Nand
14
secondst r
andwi th Nbecomesconst antandt heamountofnon- i
sot opicDNAi .e.wi thbot hi ts
st
rand14Ni
ncr
eases.Thi
sexper
imentpr
ovedt
hatDNAr
epl
i
cat
ioni
ssemi
-conser
vat
ives.

19.Who pr oposed t hatDNA r epli

cationi ssemi -conser vativ es?How wasi texper iment al l
y
prov edbyMesel sonandSt ahl
?( 2008,2008C, 2009C)
Ans.DNAr epl i
cat i
oni spr oposedbyWat sonandCr ick.Mesel sonandSt ahlin1958conduct ed
thei rexper i
menton  E. col i
.Theygr ew E. col
icel linamedi um cont ainingAmmoni um chl or ide
15 15
i.
e N4Clwi thheav yisotopesofN2i .e. Nf orsev eralgener at i
on.So, thatDNAoft hebact er i
a
15
becomes l abel ed wi th N.Thi s heav yDNA can be di ffer enti
ated f rom nor malDNA by
cent rif
ugat i
oni nCaesi um Chl oride( CsCl )densitygr adi ent
.Then, theyt ransf erredt hecel l
si nt o
14
amedi um hav i
ngAmmoni um Chl ori
dewi thisotopesofNi trogeni .e. N( Non-i sotoni c).DNAof
thesebact eriawasanal y zedaf terdi f
ferentnumberofgener ationtodet ermi net heamountof
15
N.E. colidividesi nev ery20mi nutes.WhenDNAwer eisolatedaf t
erf i
rstgener ati
on, itshowt he
15 14
presenceof Ni noneoft het wost randand Ni ntheanot herst r
and.WhenDNAwer ei solat ed
aft ersecondgener ati
on, itshowequalamountoft wot ypesoff racti
oni .
e.i nonef ract i
onwher e
15 14 14
DNAst randl abel edwi th Nandanot herst r
andwi th Nwhi l
esecondf ractionl abeledwi th N
inbot hst r
and.Whenbact eri
alDNAwer eanal y
zedaf t
ert hir
dgener at i
on,t heamountofDNA
15 14
hy bridi.e.onest randwi t
h Nandsecondst randwi th Nbecomesconst antandt heamountof
14
non- isotopicDNA i .
e.wi t hbot hi t
sst rand N i ncreases.Thi sexper i
mentpr ov edt hatDNA
repl i
cationissemi -conser vati
v es.
20.a)St at ethearrangementofdi fferentgenest hati nbacteriaisr efer
redt oas‘operon’.
b)Dr awaschemat i
clabel l
edi l
lustrati
onofl acoper oni n‘switchon’ st at
e.
c)Descr i
bet herol eofl actosei nlac-operon.(2011)
Ans.a.Thear r
angementofdi f
ferentgenesi nbac t
eriais
(a)St ructuralgene:Ast ructuralgenei sagenet hatcodesf oranRNAorpr otei
nproductotherthana
regul atoryfactor.
  
(b)Oper atorgene:Oper atorgenescont ai
nt hecodenecess aryt obegi nthepr ocessoft r
anscri
bing
theDNAmess ageofoneormor estructuralgenesintomRNA.  
(c)Pr omot ergene:pr omot eri sar egionofDNAt hatinit
iatest ranscri
ptionofapar ti
culargene.
Promot ersar elocatedneart hetranscript
ionstartsitesofgenes, ont hesamest r
andandupst ream
ont heDNA( towardst he3'r egionoft heantisensest r
and).
(d)I nhibit
or y
/regul
ator ygene:Agenewhi chinhibi
tst heexpres si
onofanac t
iveall
el
esi t
uatedata
dif
fer entl ocusiscal ledani nhibit
orygene.Thus,i ni nhi
bi
torygeneact i
on,onedomi nantinhi
bit
ory
genepr ev entstheex pressionofanot herdomi nantgene.
b.

c.Roleoflact oseinlacoper onar easfol l

ow:
(a)Iti
sthesubst ratef ort heenzymebet a-galactosi
dase.
(b)Itf
unctionsast hei nducerandr egulatest heswitchi
ngonandof foftheoper on.
© Whenl act oseispr esent ,i
tcombi neswi thther epr
essorprotei
n,whichot herwisehashi gh
affi
nit
yfort heoperator .
(d)Iti
nactivatesther epressorf r
om bindi ngt otheoperatorandhence,transcript
ionconti
nues,
i
.e.theoper onisswi tchedon.
21.Nameanddescr ibet het echniquest hatwi l
lhelpinsolvi
ngacaseofpat ernit
ydisputeover
thecustodyofachi l
dbyt wodi f
ferentf
ami l
ies.(2010C)
Ans.Thet echniquet hatwi l
lhelpinsolvingacaseofpat er
nitydi
sputeoverthecust odyofachi l
d
bytwodi fferentfami li
esi s DNAFi ngerpr i
ntingTechnique.Thetechni
queofDNAFi ngerpr
int
ing
wasini
ti
all
ydevel
opedby
 Al
ecJef
freys.Heuseda sat
ell
it
eDNA 
asprobethatshowsver
yhigh
degr
eeof pol
ymorphi
sm.
 Itwascall
edasVar i
abl
eNumberofTandem Repeats(VNTR)
. The
techni
que,asusedear
li
er,i
nvol
vedSout
her
nbl
othy
bri
disat
ionusi
ngr
adi
olabel
l
edVNTRasa
probe.
Iti
ncl
uded:
(i)
 isolation ofDNA,
(ii
)di gestionofDNAby  rest ri
ctionendonucl eases
(ii
i
)separ ationofDNAf ragment sby  
elect rophor esi
s,
(iv
)t ransf err
ing( blotti
ng)ofsepar atedDNAf ragment st osyntheticmembr anes,suchas
nitrocelluloseorny lon,
(v) hybr i
disation usingl abel l
edVNTR  probe, and
(vi
)  
det ection ofhy bridi
sedDNAf r agment sby  autoradiogr aphy.
22.a)Descr i
bet hest ruct ureandf unct ionofat -
RNAmol ecules.Whyi sitrefer
redtoasan
adapt ermol ecule?
b)Expl ai
nt hepr ocessofspl icingofhnRNAi naeukar yoti
ccel l
.(2017)
Ans. a.tRNAshav eacl ov erleafst ruct urewhi chi sstabi l
izedbyst ronghy drogenbondsbet
ween
thenucl eot i
des.Apar tf rom t heusual4bases,t heynor mallycont ainsomeunusualbases
most lyfor medbymet hy l
ationoft heusualbases,f orexampl e,met hylguanineandmet hyl
-
cytosi ne.
-Thr eest ructuralloopsar ef ormedv i
ahy drogenbondi ng.
-The3′endser v esast heami noaci dat tachmentsi te.Thecent erloopencompassest he
ant i
codon.
-Theant i
codon i sat hr ee-basenucl eotidesequencet hatbi ndst ot hemRNA codon.Thi s
i
nt eract i
onbet weencodonandant icodonspeci fi
est henextami noacidt obeaddeddur ing
prot einsy nthesis.

c.-Thepr i
marytranscri
ptsar enon-functi
onal cont
aini
ngboththecodingregionandnoncodi ng
regi
on called exons and t he intr
ons r especti
vel
yi n RNA and such RNA ar e call
ed as
HeterogeneousNucl earRNAorhnRNA.
-ThehnRNAunder goest woaddi t
ionalprocessingcall
edascappingandt ai
li
ng.
-Incapping,anunusualnucl eoti
dei.e.Met hylguanosinet
ri
phosphateisaddedt othe5′-
endof
hnRNA.
-Int ai
l
ing,adenylateresiduesof200- 300ar eaddedat3′ -
endinat emplateinindependent
manner .
-Aft
erthathnRNAunder goesapr ocesswher etheIntr
onsareremovedandExonsar ejoi
nedt o
form mRNAbyt hepr ocesscal ledsplici
ng.Smal lnuclearr i
bonucleopr otei
n(SnRNPs)t akespar t
i
nspl icing.Thef ullyprocesshnRNA, nowcal l
edmRNA, thatistranspor t
edoutoft henucleusf or
translati
onpr ocess.
23.Wr it
et hedi fferentcomponent sofal ac-operoni nE. coli
.Explai
ni tsexpressi
onwhi l
ei nan
‘
open’ state.(2017)
Ans.Component sofanoper on:
(i
)St r
uct ural genes: -Thef r
agmentofDNAwhi chtranscr i
bemRNAf orpolypepti
desynt hesis.
(i
i)Promot er: -ThesequenceofDNAwher eRNApol ymer asebindsandi ni
ti
atestr
anscr i
ption.
(i
ii)Oper ator: -ThesequenceofDNAadj acenttopr omot eriscalledOPERATER.
(i
v )Regul atorgene: -Itisthegenet hatcodesf orrepressorpr ot
einwhi chbindstooperat ordue
towhi choper oni sswi tched‘‘off’
’
(v)Inducer: -Lact oseisi nducerwhi chhelpsinswi tching‘‘on’
’ofoper on.Lacoperonconsi stsof
therest ructuralgenes( z,y,a),operator(o),
promot er(p),regulat
or ygene

24.a)Whati sanOper on?

b)Expl ainhow apol ycist
ronicst ruct uralgenei sregul atedbyacommonpr omot eranda
combi nat i
onofr egul at
or ygenei nal acoper on.( 2017)
Ans.a.Anoper on i spol ycist
ronicst ruct ur
algenewhi chi sr egul atedbycommonpr omot erand
regulatedbycommonpr omot erandr egulatorgenet ransci ptionallyregulatedsy st
em i nwhi ch
polycisctroni cstructuregenei scont rolledbycommonpr omot erandr egulatorgene.
(b):
1.Lacoper onconsi stofoner egulat orygenewhi chcodesf orr epressorpr otein,
Pr omot er( P)
andoper ator( O)ar eadjacentt ogenei .
2.St ruct ur
algenez, y,acodef orenzy mes( a-gal act osidase,per measeandt ranscety l
ase
respect i
vely).
3.Ther egulatorgene;sy nthesi st her epressorpr oteincal lthet ime.i nabsenceofi nducer
ther epressorpr oy ei
nbi ndst ot heoper at orregionofoper on,preventst ranscripti
on( by
RNApol ymer ase).
4.Ther epressori si nactivatedi npr esenceofani nducer( l
act ose)t hatbindswi thitt his
all
owsRNApol ymer aseaccesst opr omot erandt ranscr iptionpr oceeds.
25.a)Absenceofl actosei nthecul t
uremedi um af fectst heexpr essionofal acoper oni nE. coli.
WhyandHow?Expl ain.
b)Wr i
teanyt woway si nwhi cht hegeneexpr essionisr egul atedi neukar yotes.(2107)
Ans.a.Whenl actosei sabsent' i'gener egul at esandpr oducesr epressormRNAi nt heabsence
oflact ose,whi chbl ockst ranscr ipt i
on.Ther epr essorpr otei nbi ndst ot heoper atorr egi onoft he
oper onandasar esul t
,pr event sRNApol ymer asef rom bi ndingt ot heoper on.Theoper onwi l
lbe
switchedof fint hissi t
uat i
on.
b.Geneexpr essi onr esultsi nt hef or mat i
onofapol ypept ide.Gener egul ationi st hemechani sm
ofswi tchi ng' of f
'andswi tching' on' oft hegenesdependi ngupont her equi rementoft hecel ls.
 In
eukar yot es, itt akespl aceatt hef ollowi ngl ev els:  (i
)Tr anscr i
ptionall evel:Apr imar yt ranscr i
ptis
formed.  (ii)Pr ocessi ngl evel: Regul ationofspl i
cing.
26.a)St atet he“ Cent ralDogma”aspr oposedbyFr anci sCr i
ck.Ar et her eanyexcept ionst oi t?
Suppor ty ouranswerwi t har easonandanexampl e.
b)Expl ainhow t hebi ochemi calchar act er ization( nat ure)of“ Tr ansf or mingPr inci ple”was
deter mined, whi chwasnotdef inedf rom Gr iffith’sexper iment s.( 2018)
Ans.a)Dur i
ngex pressionofapr ot ein-c odi nggene,i nfor mat ionf l
owsf rom  DNA→  RNA→pr otein.
Thisdi rect ionalf l
ow ofi nformat ioni sk nownast hec ent raldogmaofmol ecularbi ology .Itwas
proposedbyFr anci sCr i
c k.Ret rov irusesar et heex cept iont ocent raldogmaast heyt r
anscr i
beRNA
toDNAbyt heuseofaspeci alenz y mec alledr ev erset rans cri
pt ase.
b)Gr iff
ithper for medex per i
ment swi tht hebac t
er i
aSt rept oc occuspneumoni a.Thisbact eri
um has
twost r
ai ns−Sst rainandRst rai n.Ss trainpr oduc essmoot hcol oni esont hecul t
urepl ate,havea
polysacchar i
decoatandwasv irul ent( causespneumoni a).Rst rainpr oducer oughcol oniesont he
cult
ur epl at e,donothav eapol y sacc har idecoatandwasnon- v i
rulent( doesnotcausepneumoni a).
Itwasobser vedt hatl iveRst raini nt hepr esenceofheat -kil
ledSst rainpr oducesv i
rulencebecause
somehowRst rainbac t
er i
aar et r ansf or medbyheat -ki
ll
edSst r
ainbact er i
a.Hence, i
twasconcl uded
thatther emus tbet het r
ansf erofgenet i
cmat er i
al .
3MARKSQUESTI ON
27.i)Whati st hegi vendi agr am r epr esent i
ng?
ii)Namet hepar tsa, b,candd.
iii
)I nt heeukar yotest heDNAmol ecul esar eor gani zedwi t
hi nt henucl eus.Howi st heDNA
mol ecul esor gani zedi nabact er ial cel linabsenceofanucl eus?( 2009)

Ans.i )Structureofnucl eosome

i
i)a=Hi stoneoct amer ,
b=DNA, c=H1Hi stoneandd=cor eofhi stoneoct amer
ii
i)Inbact eria, t
her eisnonucl eusbutDNAi sor gani zedinnucl ei
odr egioninlargeloopshel d
bypr oteins.
28.Li stthesal ientf eaturesofdoubl ehel i
xst r
uctureofDNA.( 2012)
Ans.( i)DNAi sal ongpol ymerofdeoxy -
ri
bonucl eotides.Iti smadeupoft wopol ynucl
eotide
chains, wher ethebackbonei sconst i
tutedbysugar -phosphat eandt hebasespr ojecti
nside.
(i
i)Thet wochai nshav eant i-
parall
elpolari
ty,i.
e.5′ >3′ forone, 3′>5′foranot her.
(i
ii
)Thebasesi nt wost randsar epai r
edt hroughhy drogenbond( H—bonds)f ormingbasepai rs
(bp).Adeni nef ormst wohy drogenbondswi tht hymi nef rom opposi t
est r
andandv i
ce-v
ersa.
Guani nebondswi t
hcy tosinebyt hreeH—bonds.Duet ot hi
s,purinealway scomesopposi tetoa
pyri
mi dine.Thi sf ormsauni form dist
ancebet weent het wost r
ands.
(i
v)Thet wochai nsar ecoi l
edi nar i
ght-
handedf ashion.Thepi tchofthehel ixis3.4nm andt here
areroughl y10bpi neacht urn.Duet othis,thedi stancebet weenabasepai rinahel i
xisabout
0.34nm.
(v)Thepl aneofonebasepai rstacksov ertheot heri ndoubl ehel i
x.Thisconf ersstabil
it
ytot he
hel
i
cal
str
uct
urei
naddi
ti
ont
oH—bonds.

29.a)Dr
awthest
ruct
ureoft
heini
ti
atort
RNAadapt
ormol
ecul
e.
b)Whyi
stRNAcal
ledanadapt
ormolecul
e?(
2008)
Ans.a

b.t RNAi scal ledanadapt ermol eculebecausei tat tachesi tselfv iai nitiationandel ongat ion
factorst other i
bosome-mRNAcompl exwhi chf acili
tatest hei ncor por ationoft hecorrectami no
acidt ot hegr owi ngpol y pept i
dechai nbyi t
sspeci fi
cant icodont ot hemRNAcodon.Fr ancis
Cricksuggest edt hateachami noaci dhasspeci fic" adapt er",amol ecul ewhi chr ecogni zes
specificpi eceofDNA.Assembl yofami noaci dsi sdet ermi nedbyar ecogni tionbet weent he
adapt orandDNAmol eculewhi chser vesast heinf ormat ional templ ate.
30.Unambi guous,uni versalanddegener atear esomeoft het ermsusedf ort hegenet iccode.
Explaint hesal ientf eaturesofeachoneoft hem.( 2011)
Ans.Unambi guouscodon-I tmeanst hateachcodononl ycodesf oroneami noaci d,notmor e.
Degener atecodon-20ami noaci dsar ecodedby64t ri
pletcombi nation( codons) .Itmeanst hat
oneami noaci di scodedbymor et hanonecodon, meani ng, degener ate.
Universalcodon-Thegenet iccodei ssimilarinmostoft heor gani sms.I tmeanst hatcodonwhi ch
codesmet hioninei nhumans ,doest hes amei nprokar yotesaswel l
.So, itisuni versal.
31.i)Namet heenzy mest hatcat alysesthet ranscriptionofhnRNA.
ii
)Whydoest hehnRNAneedt ounder gochanges?Li stthechangeshnRNAunder goesand
wher eint hecel l
suchchangest akepl ace?(2011)
Ans.i.hnRNAi sdesi gnatedashet erogeneousnucl earRNA.Tr anscr i
ptionofhnRNAi scat aly
ses
by–RNApol ymer aseI I
.
ii.Dur ingpr imar yt ranscr ipt ionf or mat iont hemRNA cont ainsbot hcodi ngandnon- coding
regi onscal l
edasexonsandi ntrons.Thesequencei st hensubj ect edt ospl icing( processof
remov alofi nt r
onsf orm pr i
mar yt ranscr ipt).hnRNAt henunder gocappi ngandt ail
ing.Cappi ngi s
apr ocesswher eaddi tionofmet hy lguanosi net ri
phosphat et akespl aceat5'endofhnRNA,
whi let aili
ngi sdonebyt headdi tion200-300adeny l
at er esi duesat3'end.Thef i
nalmRNAi s
thent ranspor tedout sideofnucl eusbynucl earpor et ot hecy topl asm f ortransl ation.
32.Howar et hest ruct ural genesact iv atedi nt hel acoper oni nE. coli?( 2012)
Ans.Lact oseac tsast hei nducer ,bindswi thr epr essorpr ot ein, f
r eesoper atorgene, RNApol y merase
freelymov esov ert hest ruct ur algenes, t
ranscr ibingl ac mRNA,whi chi nt urnpr oducest heenz ymes
responsi blef ort hedi gest i
onofl actose. I
nt hisway ,thest ruct ural geneget sact i
vated.
33.Aconsi der abl eamountofl act osei saddedt ot hegr owt hmedi um ofE. coli.Howi st helac
oper onswi tchedoni nt hebact eria?Ment iont hest ateoft heoper onwhenl actosei sdi gested?
(2010C)
Ans.Tous el act os e,thebact eriaex pr esst hel acoper ongenes, whichencodeenz ymesf orlactose
upt ak eandmet abol i
s m. Thel acoper oncont ai nst hr eegenes:l acZ, lacY, andl acA.Thesegenesar e
transcr ibedasasi ngl emRNA, undercont rol ofonepr omot er .
Thel acr epr essori sapr ot eint hatr epr esses( inhi bits)t ransc ri
pt i
onoft hel acoper on.I tdoes
thisbybi ndi ngt ot heoper ator ,whi c hpar tiallyov er l
apswi tht hepr omot er. Whenl actosei snot
av ail
abl e,thel acr epr essorbi ndst i
ght lyt ot heoper ator ,prev ent ingt r
ansc ri
ptionbyRNApol ymer ase.
Howev er,whenl act osei spr esent ,thel acr epr es sorl osesi tsabi l
it
yt obi ndDNA.I tfl
oat sof fthe
oper ator ,clear i
ngt hewayf orRNApol ymer aset ot ransc ri
bet heoper on.  
Theyl eadt ost r
ongt ranscr iptionoft hel acoper onandpr oduct ionofenz ymesneededf or
l
ac toseut i
li
z ati
onanddi gest ion.  I
nt hiswayaddi ti
onofl act oseswi t
c hesonl acoper on.Al so,lac
oper oni si nswi tchedons tatedur i
ngl actosedi gest i
on.
34.Whatar eSat elliteDNAi nagenome?Expl aint hei rr olei nDNAf inger printing.(2009)
Ans.Sat ell
iteDNAconsi stsofv er yl argear ray soft andeml yr epeat ing,non- codingDNA.Sat ell
ite
DNAi st hemai nc omponentoff unct ionalcent romer es, andf or mt hemai nst ructuralconst i
tuentof
het erochr omat in.Sat ell
iteDNAi sDNAs equencest hatcont ai nhi ghl yr epetiti
v eDNAwhi chmeans
thatas i
nglesequencei srepeat edmanyt i
mesov er .Thev ariat i
onbet weeni ndi vi
dualsi nthel engths
oft heirDNAsat ell
itesf ormst hebas isofDNAf inger printing.
35.Descr i
bewi tht hehel pofaschemat i
cr epr esent ationt hest ruct ureofat r
anscr iptionsuni t
.
(2012C)
Ans. Schemat i
cst ruct ureofat ranscr iptionuni t
:

i
.Promot er:I
tisthebindingsiteforRNApol ymer aseforini
tiati
onoftranscr
ipt
ion.
 
i
i.Structuralgene:I
tcodesf orenzymeorpr oteinforstructuralf
unct
ions. 
i
ii
.Ter minator:I
tistheregionwher etr
anscri
ptionends.
36.Di f
ferent
iatebetweenthef ol
lowing:
i
)Pr omot erandt er
minatorinatranscri
pti
onuni t.
i
i)ExonandI ntr
oninanunpr ocessedeukary oti
cmRNA( 2011C)
Ans.i.The  promot erandt ermi natorf lankt hest r
uct uralgenei nat r
anscri
ptionuni t
.The promoteris
l
ocatedt owar ds5- endoft hest ructuralgene.I tisaDNAsequence  t
hatpr ovi
desbi ndings i
tefor
RNApol ymer ase. Ont hecont rary, t
het ermi nator 
islocat edtowar ds3-endoft hecodi ngstrandandit
usuall
ydef i
nest heend  ofthepr ocessoft ranscr i
pti
on.
i
i.Exon and i ntron in anunpr ocessed eukar yot i
cmRNA:  Exon:Thecodi ng sequencesor
expressedsequencesar edef inedasex ons.Exonsar esaidt obet hosesequencest hatappear
i
n mat ur e orpr ocessed RNA.  
Introns :The exons ar ei nter
rupted by i ntrons.Introns or
i
nterveni ngsequencesdonotappeari nmat ureorpr ocessedRNA.
37.Descr i
bet heel ongat i
onpr ocessoft r
anscr ipti
oni nbact eri
a.(2010)
Ans.Af teri nit
iationofRNAt ranscr iption,RNApol ymer asel oset hesf actor.Itusesnucl eoside
tr
iphosphat esassubst rateandpol ymer i
sesi nat empl atedependedf ashionf oll
owingt herul
eof
compl ement arity
.I tsomehow al sof acilitatesopeni ngoft hehel i
xandcont inuesel ongati
on.
Thisist hepr ocessofel ongat ion.
38.a)Namet hesci enti
stwhocal ledt RNAasanadapt ormol ecules.
b)Dr awacl overleafst ructur eoft RNAshowi ngt hef ol
lowi ng:
i
)Ty rosi neat tachedt oitsami noaci dssi te.
i
i)Ant i
-codonf orthisami noaci dini tscor r
ectsi te
c)Whatdoest heactual struct ureoft RNAl ookl i
ke?( 2011)
Ans.a.Fr ancisCr ick
b.

c.t-RNA-Theact ualstructureoft RNAl ooksli

keacl overl
eafhavi
ngf ourarms/l
oopsvi
z:the
acceptorarmr i
bosomal  bindingarm anti
codonl oopandDHUar m.Thi scloverl
eafmodelof
tRNA waspr oposedbyRober tHoll
eyin1968. Accor di
ngtoKim 1973t headaptermolecul
e
l
ooksl ikeanL- shapedst ructure.Thi
sis3-di
mensi onalandisknownast heL-shapedmodelof
tRNA.
39.a)Howmanycodoncodef oraminoacidsandhowmanydonot ?
b)Explainthefoll
owi nggi vi
ngoneexampl eofeach:
i)Ubambi guousandspeci fi
ccodon
ii)degeneratecodon
iii
)Universalcodon
iv)ini
ti
atorcodon( 2010C)
Ans.a.61codoncodesf orami noacidsand3codonsdonotcodef oranyaminoacids.
b.i.Unambi guousandspeci ficcodon-I tmeanst hateachc odononl ycodesf oroneami noaci d,
notmor e.
i
i.Degener atecodon-20ami noaci dsarecodedby64t ri
pletcombi nati
on( codons)
.Itmeanst hat
oneami noacidiscodedbymor et hanonec odon,meani
ng,degener ate.
i
ii
.Uni versalcodon-Thegenet i
cc odeissimil
arinmostoft heor gani
sms.I tmeanst hatcodon
whichcodesmet hioni
neinhumans, doesthesameinprokaryotesaswel l
.So, i
tisuni
versal.
i
v .Initiatorcodon-Tr ansl
ati
ons tartswithachainini
ti
ati
oncodonors tartcodonandt er
minates
withast opcodon.Thest ar
tcodoni st hefi
rstcodonofamessengerRNA( mRNA)t r
anscri
pt
tr
ans latedbyar i
bos ome.Thest artcodonal way
scodesf ormet hi
oninei neukaryotesanda
modi fiedMet( fMet)inprokar
yotes.Themostcommonst artcodoni sAUG.
40.a)Dr awthest r
uctureoftheinitiat
ortRNAadapt ormolecul es.
b)Whyi stRNAcal l
edanadapt ormol ecul
es?(2008)
Ans. a)

(b)tRNAAhasanant icodonl oopthathasbasescompl ement arytothecode, andi talsohasan

ami noaci daccept erendt owhi chi fbindst oami noacids.t RNAar especi f
icf oreachami noaci d.
Since,thesamet -RNAmol eculereadst hegenet iccodeononehandandbi ndst oaspeci f c
ami noaci dont heot her ,i
ti scall
edonadapt ormol ecule.
41.How dot hei nit
iationandt ermi nati
onoft ranslati
onpr ocessoccuri nbact eria?Wher ear e
untranslatedr egionl ocat edi nanmRNA?Ment iont heirrol e.(2010C)
Ans.i .
Ini
tiat i
on:
Translationoccur si nt her ibosome.I nt heinact iv
est at e,ther ibosomeconsi stsofal argeand
smal lsubuni t.Tr anslationbegi nswhent hesmal lsubuni tencount er
samRNA.Ther ibosome
bindst ot hest artcodon( AUG)ont hemRNAt oi niti
atet ranslation.Thei nitiatortRNAbr ingst he
fi
rstami noaci dencodedbyAUGi .e.met hionine.Thi sphaseal soinvolvesact i
vat i
onofami no
acidsint hepr esenceofATPandl i
nki ngt otheirspeci f
ict RNA.Thi siscal l
edchar gingoft RNAor
ami noacy lationoft RNA.Whent wochar gedt RNAsar ecl oseenough,i tf av oursf ormat ionofa
pept i
debondbet weent hem.Thel ar gesubuni toft her ibosomehast wosi tesf orsubsequent
ami noaci dst obi ndandt obecl oseenought of orm pept i
debonds.Ther i
bosomeal soact sasa
catalystforpept i
debondf or mation.i i.
Elongation:
Elongat i
oni nv olvest hest epwiseaddi ti
onofami noaci dst ot hegr owingpol y
pept idechai n.In
thisphase, thenewami noaci d-tRNAcompl exbi ndst ot hecompl ement arycodonont hemRNA
viatheant icodonont het RNA.Next ,thebondbet weent het RNAandami noaci dbr eaksanda
newpept idebondf ormsbet weenthenewandpr evi
ousami noaci
dsont hegrowingchain.Af
ter
addingeachnewami noacidt othepolypepti
de,theri
bosomemov esdownt oanewcodonon
themRNA.Thi sr el
easest hepr ev
ioustRNA,whi chisnow f r
eetobr i
nganot heraminoacid.
Thesest epsr epeattil
ltheri
bosomer eachesthestopcodonont hemRNA.
i
ii.TerminationElongat ionconti
nuestil
ltheri
bosomer eachesthestopcodons( UAAorUAGor
UGA) .Att hispoi nt,ar el
easefactorbindstot hestopcodonandt erminatestransl
ati
onby
releasi
ngt hepolypeptideandmRNAf rom theri
bosome.

42.Expl ai nt hepr ocessoft r

anslat i
on.( 2014C)
Ans.i .Initiation:
Transl at ionoccur si nt her i
bosome.I nt hei nact i
vest ate,t heribosomeconsi stsofal argeand
smal lsubuni t.Tr anslationbegi nswhent hesmal lsubuni tencount ersamRNA.Ther ibosome
bindst ot hest artcodon( AUG)ont hemRNAt oiniti
atet ranslat
ion.Thei niti
atortRNAbr ingsthe
fi
rstami noaci dencodedbyAUGi .e.met hionine.Thi sphaseal soinvolv esact i
vat i
onofami no
acidsi nt hepr esenceofATPandl inki ngt ot heirspeci f
ict RNA.Thi siscal ledchar gingoft RNAor
ami noacy lationoft RNA.Whent wochar gedt RNAsar ecl oseenough,i tfav oursf ormationofa
pept idebondbet weent hem.Thel ar gesubuni toft her i
bosomehast wosi tesf orsubsequent
ami noaci dst obi ndandt obecl oseenought of orm pept idebonds.Ther ibosomeal soact sasa
cat al
y stf orpept idebondf ormation.i i.
Elongat i
on:
Elongat ioni nv ol
v est hest epwiseaddi ti
onofami noaci dst othegr owi ngpol y
pept i
dechai n.In
thisphase, t
henewami noacid-tRNAcompl exbi ndst ot hecompl ement ar ycodonont hemRNA
viat heant icodonont het RNA.Next ,thebondbet weent het RNAandami noaci dbr eaksanda
newpept idebondf ormsbet weent henewandpr ev i
ousami noacidsont hegr owingchai n.Af
ter
addi ngeachnewami noaci dt ot hepol ypept i
de,t her i
bosomemov esdownt oanewcodonon
themRNA.Thi sr el
easest hepr ev i
oust RNA,whi chisnow f r
eet obr inganot herami noaci d.
Thesest epsr epeatt il
lther i
bosomer eachest hest opcodonont hemRNA.
i
ii.Ter mi nat ionEl ongat ioncont i
nuest il
lther ibosomer eachest hest opcodons( UAAorUAGor
UGA) .Att hispoi nt,ar eleasef act orbi ndst ot hest opcodonandt ermi natest ransl
at i
onby
releasi ngt hepol ypept i
deandmRNAf rom t her i
bosome.
43.a)Whatdo‘ Y’and‘ B’st andf ori n‘ YAC’and“ BAC”usedi nHumanGenomePr oject(
HGP) .
Ment iont hei rrolei nt hepr oject.
b)Wr i
tet heper cent ageoft het ot alhumangenomest hatcodesf orpr oteinsand t he
percent ageofdi scov eredgenewhosef unct i
onsar eknownasobser veddur i
ngHGP.
c)ExpandsSNPsi dent ifi
edbysci entistsinHGP.( 2016C)
Ans.( a)Yst andsf orYeasti nYAC( Yeastar t
ifici
alchromosome)andBst andsf orBact er i
ain
BAC( Bact erialar ti
ficialchr omosome)YACandBACar eusedasv ectorsint heHumangenome
project.
(b)Lesst han2%oft hegenomecodesf orpr oteins.21.4%i sdiscov eredgeneswhosef unct i
ons
areknownasobser v eddur i
ngHGP.
(c)SNPst andsf orSi ngleNucl eoti
dePol y morphi sm.
44.I nHumanGenomePr ojectwhi choneoft hechr omosomeshast hemostgenesandwhi ch
hast hef ewest ?( 2009)
Ans.Chr omosome1hast hemostgenes( 2968)andchr omosomeYhast hef ewestgenes( 231)
45.Fr eder ichGr if
fithcl aimedt hatR- strainst r
ept ococcuspneumoni ahadbeent ransformedby
heatki l
ledS- strainbact eria.Explaint hef i
ndings.( 2012C)
Ans.Exper i
mentwi thMouse:
1.Heal thymouse+Li vi
ngR- St rain=Mousesur vi
v e
2.Heal thymouse+Li vi
ngS- Str ain=Mousedi edofpneumoni a
3.Heal thymouse+Heatki ll
edS- Strain=Mousesur vive
4.Heal thymouse+Ami xtur
eofl ivi
ngR- StrainandHeatki lledS- Strai
n=Mousedi edof
pneumoni a
Griffithext ract edt hebl oodofdeadmouseandobser vedt hepr esenceofl iv
ingS- str
ai n.
Last lyheconcl udedt hatint hebodyofdadmousel ivi
ngR-st rainweret ransformedi nt o
l
ivingS- St raint hatcausepneumoni aast heheatki l
lS-Strainenabl etheR-st r
ainto
synt hesiz edasmoot hpol ysacchar i
descoatandbecomev ir
ulent .
46.I naser i
esofexper i
ment swithst r
ept ococcusandmi ceF.Gr if
f i
thconcl udedt hatR- strai
n
bacter i
ahadbeent ransf ormed.Expl ain.(2010)
Ans.Exper i
mentwi thMouse:
1.Heal thymouse+Li vi
ngR- St rain=Mousesur vi
v e
2.Heal thymouse+Li vi
ngS- Str ain=Mousedi edofpneumoni a
3.Heal thymouse+Heatki ll
edS- Strain=Mousesur vive
4.Heal thymouse+Ami xtur
eofl ivi
ngR- StrainandHeatki lledS- Strai
n=Mousedi edof
pneumoni a
Griffithext ract edt hebl oodofdeadmouseandobser vedt hepr esenceofl iv
ingS- str
ai n.
 Lastlyheconcl udedt hatinthebodyofdadmousel i
v ingR-st rai nwer et ransformedi nto
l
ivi
ngS- Strainthatcausepneumoni aast heheatki l
l S-St r
ainenabl et heR-st r
aint o
synthesizedasmoot hpolysaccharidescoatandbecomev irul
ent .
47.Explainther oleof35Sand32Pi nt heexper i
ment sconduct edbyHer sheyandChase.( 2010C)
Ans.Al f
red Her sheyandMar thaChasesi n1952conduct edexper imentwi t
hbact er i
aand
bacter
iophages.
1.Someofbact er i
ophagesv ir
uswer egr ownonamedi um t hatcont ained r adioacti
ve
Phosphor us( 32P)andsomei nanot hermedi um wi thr adioactiv eSul phur( 35S) .
2.Vi r
usesgr owni nt hepr esenceofr adioactivePhosphor uscont ai nradi oactiveDNA.
3.Si milarl
yv ir
usesgr owni npresenceofr adioactiveSul phurcont ainedr adi oacti
v epr otei
n.
4.Bot ht her adioact iveviruseswer eallowedt oinfectE. colisepar ately.
5.Soonaf teri nfect i
on,thebact eri
alcellser egent elyagi atedi nbl endert or emov ev i
ral
coatsf r
om bact eri
a.
6.Thecul tur eswer ealsocent r
if
ugedt osepar atet heviral part
iclesf r
om t hebact er i
al cel
l.
ObservationandConcl usion:
1.Onl yRadi oactivePhosphor ousasf oundt obeassoci atedwi t
ht hebact eri
alcel lwher eas
Radioact iveSul phurwasf oundi nsur r
oundi ngmedi um andnoti nthebact eri
al cell
.
2.Thi sindi catest hatonl yDNAandnotpr ot eincoatent erintobact eri
al cell.
3.Thi spr ov edt hatDNAi sthegenet icmat eri
alwhi chi spassedf rom v ir
ust obact eriaand
notpr otein.

48.Li
stanyfourpropert
iesofamol eculetobeablet
oactasagenet
icsmater
ial
.(2008)
Ans.Character
ist
icsofGeneti
cmat erial
s:
1.Itshouldbeabletogenerat
ei t
sownr epl
icas(
bythepr
ocessofrepl
i
cat
ion)
.
 2.I tshouldbechemi cal
l
yandst r
ucturall
ystable.
3.I tshoul dbeabl et ounder goslow andgr adualchangescal ledmut ationwhichresul
tin
evoluti
on.
4.I tshouldbeabl etostoregenet i
cinformat i
onwhi chisi
nherited.
49.Answert hef oll
owi ngquest i
onsbasedonMessl sonandSt ahl’sexperiment :
(a)Wr i
tethenameoft hechemi calsubst anceusedasasour ceofni t
rogenint heexper
imentby
them.
(b)Whydi dt hesci ent i
stssynthesisethel ightandt heheavyDNAmol eculesintheorgani
sm
usedint heexper iment ?
(c)Howdi dt hesci ent i
stsmakei tpossiblet odisti
ngui shtheheav yDNAmol eculefrom t
heli
ght
DNAmol ecule?Expl ain.
(d)Wr i
tetheconcl usi ont hesci
ent i
stsarri
vedataf tercompl eti
ngt heexper i
ment .
Soluti
on: (
a)Ammani um chlori
de( NH4ClNH4Cl )
.
(b)Tochecki fDNAr eplicati
onwassemi -conservative.
(c)Theheav yandl ightDNAmol eculeswer edisti
ngui shedbycent ri
fugationinacesium
chlori
dedensi tygradi ent.
(d)Thesci entist
sconcl udedthatDNAr eplicatessemi -
conservati
vely.
50.a)Identif
yt hepol arit
yatAandBr espectivel
yint hef i
guregivenbel ow:

b)Expl aint hemechani smst hef i

gur er epresent s.( 2011C)
Ans.a.Pol arityofA=5’ -3’,B=5’-3’
b.Repl i
cat i
onst ar
tsataspeci fi
cr egi oncal ledor iginofr eplicat i
on.
Thet wost randsofDNAunwi ndandf or m asmal lopeni ngi nhel i
x
called as r epli
cation f ork. DNA pol ymer ase adds new
complement ar ybase pai ri n onedi rect i
on onl yi .
e.5’-3’.Thest arnd wi th pol arity3’ -5’has
conti
nuousr epl i
cation.Ont heot herst randwi thpol arity5’ -
3’f ragment sofnewl ysy nthesi zed
str
andar ef ormedwhi char ejoinedl aterbyDNAl igase.Thi siscal leddi scont i
nuoussy nthesi s.
51.Explainst hemechani sm ofDNAr epl i
cationinbact eria.Whyi sDNAr epl i
cat i
onsai dt obe
semi-
conser vatives?( 2010C)
Ans.ProcessofDNARepl i
cat ion:
TheDNAr epl i
cationpr ocessi nv olvedt hef oll
owing:
1.Or i
gi nofRepl icati
on:Thepoi ntf r
om wher et heunwi ndi ngofDNAst randt akespl acei s
knownasOr i
gi nofRepl icat i
on.
2.Unwi ndi ngoft wost randsofDNA:Thet wost randofDNAsepar ateoutandeachst rand
wil
lact sasat emplatef ort hesy nt hesisofnewDNAst rand.Theunwi ndi ngofDNAhel i
x
i
sdonebyt heenzy mehel i
casewhi lebr eakingandr eseal ingofDNA donebyt opo-
i
somer aseenzy mes.Si ngl estr andedbi ndingpr oteinpr ev ent srecoi l
ing.
3.UseofPr imer :Whent het wost r
andofDNAar esepar at edoutt her eshoul dbeapoi nton
DNAf r
om wher esy nthesesofDNAst art
.Thi spoi nti sknownasapr imer .Pr imeri sa
shortst retch ofRNA f orm on t heDNA Templ ate.Theenzy mer esponsi blef ort he
for
mat ionoft hi spri
meri sknownasPr i
mase.
4.Sy nthesi sofNewDNAst r
and:ThenewDNAst randst artsy nthesi zedf rom t hepr i
meand
i
sinf luencebyt heenzy mesDNApol ymerase.Whent hedoubl est randDNAi sunwi ndup
toapoi ntitfor m aY-shapedst ruct urecall
edas“ Repl icat ionFor k”.NewDNAst randwi ll
besy nt hesizedal ongt hisf ork.DNApol ymer asecanspol ymer asenewnucl eot idein5’ —3’
dir
ect iononl y .Sincet wost randofDNAr unant i
-parallelt oeachot her .So,t het wonew
DNAst randhav etobef ormedbyt hegr owt ht akingpl acei nopposi tedi rection.Fi r
st
continuousst randofDNAi sf ormedi n5’—3’di rectionandknownas“ l
eadi ngst rand”.
Thenont heot herstrandsmal lfragment si.e.di scont i
nuousst randofDNAar ef ormedi n
 5’—3’di rectionst artingf rom aRNApr imer .Thesesmal lfragment sofDNAar eknownas
“Okazakif ragment s”.Thesef ragment sarej oinedt oget herbyt heenzy mesDNAl igase.
Thissecondst randf ormedi sknownas“ l
aggi ngst rand”.Howev er,t
heov er
alldirect
ionof
l
aggi ngst andi s5’—3’ dir
ect i
on.
5.Proofr eadi ng:Int hepr ocessofDNAr eplication, newnucl eot i
desarearrangedi nahi ghly
accur atemanneraspert hepai ringofbases.Butsomet imesi tsohappenedv eryrarel
yat
af r
equencyof1i n10, 000.Thi ser rorcanbecor r
ectedbyDNApol ymeraseint hatitcan
gobackandr emov et hewr ongbasepai randt henpr oceedf ur
therwithnew sy nt
hesis.
Thisi sr eferredaspr oofr eadingi nDNAsy nt hesis.Ifther eisanabnor malbasepai ri
n
DNAduet omut ationorcer t
ainf actors,itcanbeexci sedanddamager egioncanbe
repl
acebyanot herbasepai r.Thi sisknownas“ DNA r epair
”andi sdonebyr epair
enzymes.I fbot hst randsar ealteredthenr epai risnotpossi bl
e.
6.Helixf ormat i
on:Eachdaught erdoubl eDNAmol ecul
esbecomespi r
all
ycoiledt oforma
doubl ehel i
x.

Wat sonandCr i
cksuggest edt hatduri
ngr eplicationofDNA,t ost r
andofDNAunwi ndat
oneendcausi ngbr eakingofhy drogenbonbet weenbasepai randexposi ngt henucleotidesof
DNAont het wocompl ement aryst rands.Thesest randactast empl ateandal lowthepar ingof
freenucl eot i
depr esenti nt henucl eusi .
e.Apairedwi thTandGpai redwi thC.Thi sresultinthe
format ionoft wodoubl ehel ixofDNAwher eineachmol eculeshasol dst randandonenewl y
sy nthesizedst rand.Since, t
henewl ysynthesi
zedDNAhasonest randcont ributedbypar entDNA
andonesy nthesizeddaught erst r
and.Thi smechani sm ofDNAr epli
cationi sknownasSemi -
Conser v ati
vesofDNA.
52.a)WhydoesDNAr epl icationoccuri nsmallreplicationf or
ksandnoti nitsent i
rel
engt h?
b)Whyi sDNAr eplicationcont i
nuousanddi scont inuousi nar epli
cationf ork?
c)Expl ai
nt heimpor tanceof‘ Or i
ginofrepl
ication’ i
nar eplicati
onf ork.(2009C)
Ans.( a)DNAi samacr omol ecul esi ncet wost randsofDNAcannotbesepar atedi nitsent i
re
l
engt h(duet ov eryhi ghener gyr equi rement )
,ther eplicationoccuri nsmallrepl
i
cationf ork.
(b)TheDNA- dependentDNApol y merasescat alysepol ymer i
zationonlyinonedirection,thatis5'
-3'.Thi scr eat essomeaddi tionalcompl i
cationsatt her eplicati
ngf ork.Ononest rand( the
templ atewi thpol ar i
ty3'-5'),ther epli
cat i
oniscont i
nuous,whi leont heot her(
thet empl atewith
polar i
ty5'-3'), i
ti sdi scontinuous.
(c)Thi sist her egi onf rom wher et heDNAr epli
cat i
oni si nit
iated.
53.a)Whatar et het r
anscr i
ptional pr
oduct sofRNApol y mer aseI I
I?
b)Dif f
er ent iatebet ween‘ Cappi ng’ and‘Tail
ing’.
c)ExpandhnRNA( 2014C)
Ans.aRNApol y mer aseI I
It r
anscr i
best RNA5Sr RNAandSnRNAi .e.smallnucl
earRNA
b.Cappi ng:I ti st hepr ocessofaddi tionofmet hylguanousi net ri
phosphatetot he5endof
hnRNAaf terspl icing.
Tai l
ing:Iti st hepr ocessofaddi tionofadeny l
ater esiduest ot he3endofhnRNAaf t
erspl ici
ng.
C.Het erogenousnucl earribonucl eicaci dhnRNA.
54.a)Dr aw aschemat icr epresent ationofst ructureofat r
anscript
ionunitandshow t he
followingi ni t:
i
.Di rectioni nwhi cht het r
anscr ipt i
onoccur s.
i
i.Pol ari
tyoft het wost randsi nv olved.
i
ii.Templ atest rands
i
v .Ter minat orgene
b)Ment iont hef unct i
onofpr omot ergenei nthet ranscr i
pt i
on.(2009)
Ans.a.

b.Ingenet i
cs,apr omoteri sar egionofDNA t hati ni
ti
atest ranscri
pti
onofapar ti
cul
argene.
Promotersarelocatedneart hetr
anscr ipt
ionstarts
itesofgenes, onthesames tr
andandupst
ream
ontheDNA( towar dsthe3'r
egionoft heant i
sensestrand).
55.a)Dr awaschemat i
crepresentationofst ruct
ureofat r anscript
ionunitshowi
ngthepolari
ty
ofboththestrands.Label thepromot ergeneandt het emplatest r
and.
b)Mentionthecondi t
ionwhent empl atestrandsbecomescodi ngstrand.
c)Givethefunctionoft hepromot ergene.( 2009C)
Ans.a.

Thepr omoterandtermi
nat
orflankthestr
uct ur
algeneinat r
anscri
ptionuni
t.Thepr
omot eri
s
l
ocatedt owards5′
-end(
upst
ream)oft hestructur
algene.Theterminatori
slocat
edtoward3′
-
end (downstream)ofthecoding str
and and itusuall
ydefinestheend oft heprocessof
tr
anscript
ion
(b)Thet wost randsi nDNAhav eopposi tepol arityandt heDNA- dependentRNA  pol ymer ase
cat al ysest hepol ymer isat ioninonl yonedi rect ion, i
.e.5′ ->3′ .The  st randt hathast hepol ar i
ty3′ -
>
5′ act sasa  templ ate,cal ledast empl at est rand.The  ot herst randwhi chhast hepol ar it
y( 5′-»3′)
andt hesequencesameasRNA I  (exceptt hymi nei npl aceofur acil),is di spl aceddur ing
transcr i
ption.Thi sst rand  whi chdoesnotcodef orany thing)i scal ledcodi ngst rand.
(c)Thepr omot ergenedef i
nest het empl at e andcodi ngst rands.By  swi tchingi ts posi ti
onwi th
termi nat or ,thedef i
nitionofcodi ngandt empl atest randscanber ev ersed
56.Expl ai
nt hesi gni ficanceofsat elliteDNAi nDNAf i
nger pr i
nt ingt echni ques.( 2015)
Ans.About3% orsooft hehumangenomehashi ghlyr epet i
tivesequencesorsi mpl e-sequence
DNAorsi mpl esequencer epeat sorsat ellit
eDNAormi cros atelliteswhi char elesst han10bpl ong
shor tsequences,r epeat edi nmul t
iplespercel l.Sat ell
iteDNA,al sot ermedasmi crosat elli
te,show
relat i
v euni f ormi tywi thi nspeci esandgr eatv ar i
abilit
ybet weencl osel yr elateds peci es .Al so, different
i
ndi v idual sdi ffer 
inanumberofr epeat sofssDNA.Thi sDNA pol ymor phism i sus edi nDNA
fi
nger pr inti
ngt ocr eat eDNApr ofi
lesofi ndi v i
dual s. 
57.Abur gl ari nahuf ff or gott owi peof fhi sbl oodst ai nsf r
om t hepl aceofcr i
mewher ehewas
i
nv olv edi nat hef tandf i
ght .Namet het echni quewhi chcanhel pi ni dent i
fyingt hebur glarf rom
thebl oodst ains.Descr i
best het echni que.( 2013)
Ans.DNA f ingerpr intingi saf orensi ct echni quewhi chi dent ifi
est hei ndividual sbyt hei rDNA
char act eri
s tics.Thepr i
nci plei sthatnot woi ndiv i
dualss har eex ac ts amenucl eot idesequence, just
l
ikef i
nger pr i
nts ,hencet henameDNAf inger printi
ng.Thef i
rstst epi nDNAf inger print i
ngi st he
ex tract ion ofus abl e DNA f oll
owed byi tsdi gest i
on wi thr est riction enz y mest o pr oducet he
rest rictionf r agment sl engt hpol ymor phi s msorRFLPswhi char et hensor tedaccor di ngt osi z ebygel
elect rophor esi s.Thes ortedDNAf ragment sar et hent rans ferredf rom t hegelt ot hesur fac eoft he
ny l
onv i
asout hernbl ot t
ing.Fi nall
y,r adioact iv epr obesar ewashedov ert heny lonsur facet oal low
thei rj oiningt oanyDNA f ragment soft hesamecomposi ti
ont her ebymat chingdi ff erentDNA
sampl es.  
58.I nmat er nit
ycl i
ni c,f orsomer easont heaut horiti
esar enotabl et ohandov ert het wonew
bor nbabi est othei rr espect ivepar ent s.Nameanddescr ibet het echni quey ouwoul dsuggestt o
sor toutt hemat t
er .(2013)
Ans.I nt hisc ase, wecangof oraDNAt esti nwhi chwecol lectbaby 'sandpar ent sbl oodsampl eand
goi tf ort heDNAt es tk itandt hiswi lltes tthesampl esandc ompar et hem.I nt hisway ,wecanf ind
thecor rectpar entf ort hebaby .
59.a)Expl ainDNApol ymor phismsont hebasi sofgenet icmappi ngofhumangenome.
b)St at et her oleofVNTRi nDNAf inger pr int i
ng.( 2013)
Ans. a. Poly mor phism i si nher i
tedf rom par ent st ochi ldr en.So,i ti susef ulf ort hei dent i
ficat ion
(for ensi cappl i
cat ion)and pat ernityt est ing.I tar isesdue t o mut at ionsand al so pl ay san
i
mpor tantr olei nev ol utionandspeci at ion.Thesemut ationsi nt henon- codi ngsequenceshav e
piledupwi t ht i
meandf ormt hebasi sofDNApol ymor phi sm.I ti st hebasi sofgenet icmappi ng
ofhumangenomeaswel l asDNAf inger pr int i
ng.
b.Var iabl eNumberofTandem Repeat s( VNTRs)bel ongt oacl assofsat elliteDNAcal ledas
mi ni sat elli
te.VNTRar eusedaspr obesi nDNAf i
nger pr inting
60.“ Av er ysmal lsampl eoft i
ssuesorev enadr opofbl oodcanhel pdet er mi nepat er nity.
”
Pr ov ideasci ent i
fi
cexpl anat i
ont osubst ant iatet hest atement .( 2015)
Ans. Eachcel lofbodyhassi mi l
arDNAandDNAi nani ndi vidualcomesf rom bot hpar ent s.The
pol ymor phi sm ofi ndi v i
duali sinher itabl e.I fwei solatet hisDNAanddoDNAf inger print ing, itwi ll
hel pt odet er minepat er nity.
61.Nameat echni quet oest abli
sht hepat er nityofanew- bor nbaby .Descr ibet hepr ocedur et hat
youwoul df ol l
ow.( 2008C)
 Ans.DNAf inger printingi sat echni quet hatisusedt odot hepat ernityt esttof i
ndt her eal parentsof
thenewbor nbaby .Thi st ec hni quei sal s ocal l
edasDNApr ofil
ingast hesequencesofDNAofbot h
par ent sandchi ldar emat ched. Toper formt hepat er nitytestfollowingst epsar ei nv olved:
 Col lectt hebl oods ampl ef rom bot ht hepar entsandt hechi l
d.
 Per for m aPCR( Pol ymer asechai nr eact i
on),thishel psi ntheampl i
ficat i
onoft hedesi redgeneor
DNA.
 Rungelel ectrophor esist hr oughwhi chdaf ragmentwi llassembl eont hegelacc or dingt osi z
eand
i
nt ensi tyofst ain. TheseDNAf r agment sar ethencheck edf rom whi chper sont heyar es imilarto.
 Thest randsoft hechi ldi far emat chedwi thanyoft heper sonDNAt hent hatper soni sconsi deredt o
bet hepar entsoft hatc hild.
Thi si st hemos trel i
ablet echni quet of indt hepar ent soft henewbor n baby .
62.a)Li stt het womet hodol ogi eswhi chwer ei nv olvedi nhumangenomepr oj ect.Ment ionhow
theywer eused.
b)Expand‘ YAC’ andment i
onwhati twasusedf or.( 2017)
Ans.( a)TwoMet hodol ogi esofHGP:-( 1)Expr essedSequenceTags( EST' s):-Thi smet hod
focussesoni dent if
y i
ngal lthegenest hatar eexpr essedasRNA.( 2)SequenceAnnot ation:-I tis
anappr oachofsi mpl ysequenci ngt hewhol esetofgenomet hatcont ainsal lthecodi ngandnon
-codi ngsequences, andl aterassi gni ngdi fferentr egi onsi nt hesequencewi thf unct ions.
(b)' YAC'→ YeastAr t
ificialChr omosome:-I ti susedasacl oningv ectorf orcl oningDNA
fragment sinsui tablehostsot hatDNAsequenci ngcanbedone.
63.a)ExpandVNTRanddescr ibei tsr ol einDNAf i
nger pri
nting.
b)Li stanyt woappl icat ionsofDNAf i
nger print i
ngt echiniques.( 2018)
Ans.a)VNTRi sanabbr ev i
atedf ormf orVar iableNumberTandem Repeat s.
Itist hel ocationofanuc l
eot idesequencei nagenomear r
angedast andem r epeat .Itbel ongst oa
clas s ofsat ell
ite DNA.The numberofc opi es ofnucl eotide di ffersf rom chr omosome t o
chr omosomei nani ndividual .Eachv ariantac tsasani nherit
edal lele,allowingt hem t obeusedf or
per sonalorpar ent alident i
ficat ion.Thei ranal ysisi susef ulingenet icsandbi ologi calr esearch,
forensi cs, andDNAf inger print i
ng.I nDNAf i
nger printing, thenumberoft andem r epeat sandi t
ss ize
i
st ak eni ntoc ount .
b)DNAf i
nger print i
ngi susedt of i
ndc riminalsbyf orensicdepar tment .Itisal sousedt os olve
pat er ni
tydi sput es. I
tisal sousedt of indi nher i
teddi seas esinnewbor nandpr enat albabi es.
2MARKSQUESTI ON
64.a)Dr awaneatl abel eddi agr am ofanucl eosome.
b)Ment ionwhatenabl esHi st onest oacqui reaposi ti
vechar ge.( 2012)
Ans.a.

b.Histonesarepositi
velychargedbecausetheyareri
chinthebasicami
noaci
dr esi
duesli
ke
l
ysineandargininewhichcarr
yposit
ivechar
gesinthei
rsidechai
ns.
65.Explai
nthedualf uncti
onofAUGcodon.Gi v
ethesequenceofbasesi
tist
ranscri
bedfr
om
anditscodon.(2009)
Ans.AUG  i
st hecodonwhi chhast womai nfunctions:-
Itactsasast artcodon. 
It'
scodedf ormet hionine.
AUGi stranscribedf rom basesTAC( thymine,adenineandcy tosine)i
nDNA. It
santicodonwil
lbe
UAC.
66.a)Namet hemol ecule‘ X’synthesizedbyi gene.Howdoest hi
smol eculegetinact
ivat
ed?
b)Whi choneoft hest ructuralgenescodesf orbet agalactosidase?
c)Whenwi llthet ranscr i
ptionoft hisgenestop?( 2009)
Ans.aThemol ecule‘ X’isr epressor.Itget sinactivat
edwhenl act
osei nducerbindswi t
hthe
repr
essormol ecul e. 
bzgenecodesf orb- galactosidase. 
cTranscr i
ptionoft hisgenest opswhenl actosei sabsentandt husrepressorisfreetobindwi
th
theoper at
or.
67. Wr i
tethef ullform ofVNTR.Howi sVNTRdi f fer
entfrom “Probe”?(2011)
Ans.VNTR—Var i
ableNumberTandem Repeat .

68.St
udythegivenpor
ti
onofdoubl
est
randedpol
ynucl
eot
idechai
ncar
eful
l
y.I
dent
if
ya,
b,cand
the5’
endofthechai
n.(
2009)

Ans.(a)Tripl
ehy dr
ogenbondbet
weenquani
neandcyt
osi
ne
(b)
Adeni ne
(c)Deoxy r
ibosesugar
(d)
=5'endoft hechain
(e)
=3'endoft hechai n
69.Statet hecentraldogmai
nmolecul
arbi
ology
.Whoproposedi
t?I
situni
ver
sal
l
yappl
i
cabl
e?
Explai
n.(2008C)
 Fr
Ans. anci
sCr
ickpr
oposedt
he'
cent
ral
dogma'
inmol
ecul
arbi
ologywhi
chst
atest
hat
t
hegenet
ici
nfor
mat
ionf
lowsf
rom

Yesitwasuni
versall
yaccept
ed.
70.Makealabel
eddi agr
am ofanRNAshowingit
s3’
-
5’pol
arit
y.(2010C)
Ans.Label
l
eddiagram ofRNAdinucl
eot
ideshowi
ngi
ts3'
-5'polar
ity
 i
sasfol
l
ows:

71.St atethef unct i

onoft hef oll
owi nginapr okaryotes:
a)t RNA b)r RNA
Ans.a.At r
ansferRNAi sanadapt ormol eculecomposedofRNA,t ypi
cal
ly76t o90nucl eoti
desin
l
engt h,thatservesast hephy s i
cal l
inkbetweent hemRNAandt heami noacidsequenc eofpr otei
ns.
I
thasdi ff
erentfunc t
ionslike:
-
1.I
tr ecogni zesAmi noacyltRNAsy nthetaseenz yme.
2.Pickupspeci f
icami noac idfrom thecy toplasm andcar ryittotheregionofprotei
nsy nthesis.
3.Attachesi t
selftot heri
bosomei nt hesequenceac cor
dingt othemRNAsequence.
b.Ri bosomalRNA  (r
RNA)i stheRNAc omponentofar ibosomeandhel psi npr oteinsy nt
hesis.
Thesest r
ucturesphy s
icall
ymov eal ongan  mRNA  moleculeandc ataly
setheassembl i
ngofami no
acidsi ntoproteinchai ns.Theyal sobi ndt RNAsandv ar
iousac cessorymoleculesneededf orthe
synt hes i
sofpr otein.
72.Fol l
owingar et hef eaturesofgenet icscodes.Whatdoeseachonei ndicate?St opcodon;
Unambi guouscodon; Degener atecodon; Universalcodon.( 2016)
Ans.Stopcodon-UAA, UAG,UGA-t hesearetheterminati
oncodons.  
Unambi guouscodon-Itmeanst hateachcodononlycodesf oroneami noacid,notmore.
Degeneratecodon-20ami noac i
dsar ecodedby64t ripl
etcombinati
on( codons).I
tmeanst hatone
aminoaci discodedbymorethanonecodon, meaning,degenerat
e.
Univer
salcodon-Thegenet i
ccodei ssimi
larinmostoft heorganisms.Itmeanst hatcodonwhich
codesmet hi
oni
neinhumans,doest hesamei npr
ok aryot
esaswel l
.So, i
tisuniver
sal.
73.Genet icscodescanbeuni versalanddegener ate.Wr i
teaboutt hem,gi v
ingoneexampl eof
each.(
2013)
Ans.i)Thecodei snearl
yuniversal.Forexample,from bacteri
at ohuman,UUUwoul dcodefor
phenylalanine(
Phe).
i
i
)Someami
noaci
dsar
ecodedbymor
ethanonecodon,
hencet
hecodei
sdegener
ate.
74.Expl
ainst
hest
ruct
ureofat
RNAandst
atewhyi
tisknownasanadapt
ormol
ecul
es.(
2012C)
Ans.t RNAi scal ledanadapt ermol ecul ebecausei tat tachesi t
sel fv iainit
iationandel ongation
factorst ot her i
bosome-mRNAcompl exwhi chf aci li
tatest hei ncor por ati
onoft hecor rectami no
acidt ot hegr owi ngpol ypept i
dechai nbyi t sspeci fi
cant i
codont ot hemRNAcodon.Fr ancis
Cr i
cksuggest edt hateachami noaci dhasspeci fi
c" adapt er",amol eculewhi chr ecognizes
speci f
icpi eceofDNA.Assembl yofami noaci dsi sdet ermi nedbyar ecogni t
ionbet weent he
adapt orandDNAmol eculewhi chser vesast hei nfor mat i
onal templ at e.
75.Whati sami noacy lation?St atei t
ssi gni fi
cance.( 2016)
Ans.Ami noacy l
ationist hepr ocessofaddi nganami noacy lgroupt oacompoundi t.pr oduc estRNA
mol eculeswi tht heirCCAt hreepr imeendscov alent l
y.Oncet het RNAi schar ged,ar ibosomecan
transfert heami noaci df rom t het RNAont oagr owi ngpept ide,accor dingt ot hegenet iccode.
Ami noacy lt RNA,t herefore,pl aysani mpor tantr olei nRNAt rans l
ation,t heex pressionofgenest o
createpr oteins.
76.St atet hef unct i
onofr i
bozy meandr el easef act orpr oteinsy nthesi srespect iv
ely .(2015C)
Ans.Ri bozy mehel psi npept idebondf or mat i
oni npr ot einsy nthesi s.Rel easef act ort erminates
translati
onpr ocesspr emat urelyandr eleasespol ypept idef r
om r ibosomes.
77.Expl ai nami noacy lationoft RNA.( 2013)
Ans.Act i
v ationofami noaci dsandf ormat i
onofAA- tRNAcompl exi st hefirststepoft rans l
ati
on.In
presenceofanenz ymet RNAsy nthetase,t heami noaci d( AA)mol ecul ei sactivatedandt heneach
ami noaci di sat tachedt ot hes pecif
ict RNAmol ecul eat3'/CCAendt of or m ami noacy l
-tRNA
compl ex .Ther eactionneedsATP.Thi spr oces sisc all
edchar gingoft RNAorami noac yl
ati
onof
tRNA.  
78.Ment iont her oleofr ibosomei npept idebondf or mat ion.HowdoesATPf acil
itatei t?(2010)
Ans. Ther ear et wosi t
esi nt hel ar gesubuni toft her i
bosome, forsubsequentami noaci dst obind
toandt hus,becl oseenought oeachot herf ort hef ormat ionofapept i
debond.Ther i
bosome
alsoact sasacat alystf ort hef ormat ionofpept idebond.Ami noaci dsbecomeact iv
atedby
bindingwi tht heirami noacy l-tRNAsy nthet asei nt hepr esenceofATP.
79.Whati scent raldogma.Whopr oposedi t
?( 2015C)
Ans.Thepr incipleofcent raldogmaofmol ecularbi ol ogywasPr oposedbyFr anci sCr i
ck.This
statest hatt hegenet i
ci nfor mat ional way sf lowsi ndi rect l
yfrom DNAt omRNATr anscr ipti
onand
thenf rom mRNAt opr oteinorpol ypept i
det r
ansl ationasshownbel ow:
80.Whyi sDNAconsi der edabet tergenet icsmat erials?(2013C)
Ans.Thegenet i
cmat eri
alshoul dbest ableenoughnott ochangewi thdi fferentst agesofl if
ec ycle,
ageorwi thchangei nthephy siologyoft heor gani sm.TheDNAst randsbei ngcompl ement ar y,if
separ atedbyheat i
ngcomet ogether ,whenappr opr i
atecondi t
ionsar epr ovided.Fur ther,2-OHgr oup
presentatev erynucl eotidei nRNAi sar eactivegroupandmak esRNAl abileandeasi l
ydegr adabl e.
RNAi sal sonowk nownt obecat alyt
ic,hencer eact i
ve.Ther efor e,DNAchemi call
yi slessr eact ive
andst ructurallymor establ ewhencompar edt oRNA.Ther efore,amongt het wonuc l
eicaci ds,t he
DNAi sabet tergenet i
cmat eri
al.
81.Compar et her oleofenzy mesDNApol ymer aseandDNAl igasei nt her epl ication.( 2008C)
Ans. Ther oleofDNApol ymer asesi st oaccur atelyandef f
icient l
yr epl i
cat et hegenomei nor der
toensur et hemai ntenanceoft hegenet ici nformat i
onandi tsf ai
t hfult r ansmi ssiont hr ough
gener at i
ons. ..i
n5' to3' directi
onbyaddi ngnucl eotideswhi chi scompl iment ar ytoor i
ginalst rand.
Ther oleofDnaLi gasei st ojoinOkazakif ragment sformeddur ingr epl i
cat i
on,cl ose
repairsandsealr ecombi nati
onf ragment sbyphosphodi esterbond.Thi si st heenzy met hati s
responsi bl ef orthebr eaki ngdownofphosphat e-sugarbackboneofDNA.
82.St atet hedi ff
er encebet weent hest ructuralgenei nt ranscr i
pt i
onuni tofpr okar y
otesand
eukar yotes.( 2014)
Ans.Thepr okaryotics tructuralgenesar ef oundcont i
nuousl ywi t
hanynon- codingr egionwhi l
e
eukar yoticst ructuralgenesar edividedi ntoex ons( codingr egions )andi ntrons( non- codingr egions ).
83.How woul dl acoper onoper atei nE. coligr owingi nacul turemedi um wher el actosei s
presentasasour ceofsugar ?
Ans.Lact osei st hesubst r
atef orβ-gal actosidaseandi tregul atest heswi t chingonandof fof
thelacoper on.Hencei tiscal l
edi nducer .
Intheabsenceofgl ucose,i flactosei saddedi nt hegr owt hmedi um oft hebact eria,thelact ose
i
st ranspor tedi ntothecel lbyper mease.
84.
i p O x Y a

Givenabov eisaschemat icr epresentationofthel acoper oninE.coli

.Whatist hesi
gnif
icantrole
ofi genei nswi t
chingonorof ft
heoper on?(2013)
Ans.“ i”genet r
anscribest hemRNAf orrepressorpr otein,t
her epressorprotei
nwhenpr esent
bindst ot heoper atorregionsofl acoper onanddoesnotal l
ow RNApol ymerasetotranscribe
structuralgenes.Thus,t hel acoper oni sswi tchedof fbyr epressorthatiswhyi tiscal led
negat i
ver egulati
on.Butwhenl actoseispr esent,repressorprotei
ni sunabletobindtooper ator
,
thepol ymer aseenzy mest ranscr i
besthest ruct
ural genes.Thus, t
hel acoperonisswit
chedon.
85.Di ff
erentiatebetweent hegenet i
cscodesgi v
enbel ow:
a)Unambi guousandUni ver sal
b)Degener ateandI ni
tiat
or.( 2017)
Ans.( a)
Unambi guousCode UniversalGeneti
cCode

Thecodei
sspecif
ici
.e.
,oneCodoncodesf
or Thegenet
iccodei
ssamei
nal
lor
gani
sms.
onl
y 
oneaminoaci
d.

(
b)
Degener
ate   I
nit
iat
or

Whenanami noacidiscodedbymor et
han The mRNA sequence AUG,whi ch speci
fi
cs
onecodoni
tissai
dtobedegener
ate. methi
onine,t
hef i
rstaminoacidusedi nthe
tr
ansl
ati
onprocessisi
nit
iat
orcodon.
 
86.Althoughapr okar y
oticcellhasnodef inednucleus,yetDNAi snotscat teredt hroughoutt he
cell
.Expl ain.(2018)
Ans.Apr okaryoti
ccel ldoesnothav eadef inednucleus;t
henucl earmaterialinapr okar
yoteis
knownasanuc l
eoid.DNApr esentinthenucl eoi
dsofpr ok
aryotesisofcircular,doubl estranded
typewhi chi st i
ght
lycoi led.Hence,duet ot hecir
cularst
ructureandt i
ghtc oil
ing,t heDNA i n
prokar
y otesi snotsc att
eredthroughoutthecell,ev
enthoughthecellhasnodef inesnucl eus.
1MARKSQUESTI ON
87.Ment i
ont hepol ari
tyoft heDNAst randsa- bandc- dshowni nther eplicati
ngf orkgiven
below:( 2008)

Ans.pol arit
yofa- bi
s3’ -5’andc- dis5’-3’.
88.Whenandatwhatenddoest he‘tai
ling’ofhnRNAt akepl ace?( 2009)
Ans.Tai li
ngoccur sdur ingpr ocessi
ngofhnRNAi ntof unct i
onalm RNA.I ti
saddedeat3’ endof
hnRNA.
89. Ment ionthecont ribut i
onofgenet i
cmapsi nhumangenomepr oject.(2011)
Ans.Genemappi ngdes cri
best hemet hodsusedt oi dent i
fythel ocusofageneandt hedi st
anc es
betweengenes .TheHumanGenomePr ojectwasani nternational scienti
ficresearchprojectwi t
h
thegoal ofdet ermini
ngt hesequenceofnucl eotidebasepai r
st hatmak euphumanDNA, andof
i
dentify
ingandmappi ngal lofthegenesoft hehumangenomef r
om bot haphy sicalandaf unc ti
onal
standpoint.Sogenet icmappi nghelpisHGPi nthefol l
owi ngway s:-
-
Geneticmappi nghasbeenusedi nf i
ndingt heex actlocat i
onoft hechr omosomes.
-Themappi ngofDNAal sohel psinthedet ect i
onoft hei nheriteddi sease. 
90.Namet hespeci ficcomponent sandt hel i
nkagesbet weent hem t hatform deoxy guanosi ne.
(2013C)
Ans.Component s:Deoxy r
ibosesugarandni tr
ogenbaseguani ne Linkage: N-gl
ycosidiclinkage.
91.Howi st helengthofDNAusual l
ycal culated?( 2009C)
Ans.Thel engt h ofDNA segmenti scal cul
ated byf inding t henumberofbasepai rsand
mul t
ipl
yingi tbyt hedist ancebet weenadj oiningbasepai rs.
92.Ment i
ont hecar bonposi ti
onstowhi cht henitrogenousbaseandt hephosphat emol eculeare
respecti
v elyli
nkedi nthenucl eoti
degi venbel ow: (2008C)
Ans.Ni trogenousbasei sl inkedt of irstcar bon.  Phosphat ei slinkedt of ift
hcar bon.
93.Whyi si tnotpossi bl ef oranal ienDNAt obecomepar tofchr omosomeany wher ealongi t
s
l
engt handr eplicat enor mal ly?( 2014)
Ans.Al ienDNAcannotbecomepar toft hechr omosomeany wher eal ongi tslengt handr eplicate
nor mal l
ybecausei nor dert oligat ei t
selft ot hehostchr omosomeal ienDNA r equir
ess pecifi
c
rec ognitionsequences.The  sequences houl dal sobecl oset ot heor i
ginofr epli
cat i
onorOr iwher e
DNA r epl i
cationst arts.Thi ssi tei snecess ar yf ort hebi ndingoft heDNA pol ymeraset ost art
replication.
94.Whatwi llhappeni fDNAr epl icat i
oni snotf ol l
owedbycel ldi visioni naeukar yoti
ccel l
?
(2014C)
Ans.I fcel ldiv i
siondoesnotf ol
lowDNAr epl icat i
on, i
tr esul tsinpol ypl oidy 
95.Namet heenzy mesi nv olvedi nt hecont inuousr epl i
cat ionofDNAst rand.Ment i
onpol arityof
templ atest r
and.( 2010)
Ans.DNApol y mer asei sanenz ymet hats ynt hes izesDNAmol ec ulesf rom deox y
ribonucleoti
des, the
bui l
dingbl ock sofDNA. Theseenz ymesar eessent ial forDNAr eplicationandusual l
ywor kinpai rsto
creat et woi dent icalDNAs t r
andsf rom asi ngleor iginalDNAmol ecul e. Templ atestrandi st he
strandwhi chisusedbyDNApol y mer asef orr epl i
cat i
onpr ocessi tspol ari
tyisal way sfrom 3pr i
me
to5pr imedi rec t
ion.
96.Whati sCi stron?( 2015)
Ans.Ci stronist hes egmentofDNAhav ingi nf ormat ionf orsy nthesi sofapar t
icularproteinorRNA.
Thesegmentenc odesf ort hesy nt hesi sofRNAorpol ypept ideofpr oteinmol ecule.
97. Whi choneofani ntronandexoni st her emi niscentofant iqui ty?( 2013C)
Ans.The pr imar yt ranscr iptin eukar yot escont ainsbot h exons& i ntronst henon codi ng
sequences.Thei nt ronsar er emov eddur ingpr ocessi ngbyspl i
cing&t heexonsar ej oi
ned.The
pr esenceofi ntronsi npr i
mar ytr anscr i
pti st her emi niscentofant iquit y.
98.Wr i
tet het wospeci fi
ccodonst hatat r ansl ationaluni tofmRNAi sflankedbyoneonei ther
sides.( 2015C)
Ans.Twospeci fi
econdonsar e:
(i)Star tcondon( AUG)
(ii
)St opcondon( UAGorUAAorUAA) .
99.Ment ionanyt woway si nwhi chsi ngl enucl eot idepol ymor phi sm ( SNPs)i dent i
fi
edi nhuman
genomecanbr ingr evol utionar ychangei nbi ologi cal andmedi cal science.( 2011C)
Ans.Sci enti
st shav ei dent ifiedabout1. 4mi ll
ionl ocat ions,wher esi ngl ebaseDNAdi f
ferences
(SNPs – Si ngl e nucl eot ide pol ymor phism – pr onounced as ‘ snips’) occuri n humans.
Ident i
f i
cat i
onof‘ SNI PS’i shel pf uli nf i
ndi ngchr omosomall ocat i
onsf ordi seaseassoci ated
sequencesandt raci nghumanhi st ory .
100.Wr itet hedualpur poseser vedbyDeoxy ribonucl eosi det r i
phosphat ei npol ymer i
zat i
on.
(2018)
Ans.ThedualpurposeservedbyDeox yr
ibonucl
eosi
detri
phosphat
esinpol
ymer
isat
ioni
sasf
oll
ows:
-
1.
 Serv
esasas ubs t
ratet
ot hereact
ion,
and
2.Pr
ovidesener
gyt othepolymeri
zati
onreacti
oni.
e.ener
gysource.