Mi scel

l
aneous
pr
ocess:
1. Ef
fl
orescence
2. Del
i
quescence
3. Ly
ophi
l
li
zat
ion
4. Exsi
ccat
ion
5. I
gni
ti
on
6. Subl
i
mat
ion
7. Fusi
on
8. Cal
cinat
ion
9. Adsor
pti
on
10. Decant
ati
on
11. Vapor
izat
ion
12. Lev
igat
ion
13. Tr
it
urat
ion
14. Ev
apor
ati
on
15. El
utr
it
ion
16. Cent
ri
fugat
ion
17. Dessi
cat
ion

1.
Eff
lor
escence:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Iti
sthemigr
ati
onofasal
ttothe
surf
aceofaporousmat
eri
alwherei
t
for
msacoating.
Pr
ocess:
Thehy dratedsubst ancesundernor mal
condi ti
onexer tpressur eduet othei
r
wat erofcr ystal
li
zation.Vaporpr essur
e
duet owateri natmospher eis
appr oximat el
y10mmHgat15C.When
thev aporpr essureofhy dr
ated
compoundi smor et han10mmHgt he
wat ermol eculesescapesf r
om t he
crystalsintoat mospher eandt he
compoundf r
om anot hersoli
dl ower
propor ti
onofanhy droussubst ance.
Theescapeofwat ermol eculefrom
hydr atedmol eculeiscal l
ed
effl
or escence.
Exampl
e:
Gypsum i
shydrat
esoli
dthat
,ina
suf
fici
ent
lydr
yenvir
onment,
wi l
lgi
veup
i
tswatertot
hegasphaseandf
orm
anhy
drit
e.

2.Del
iquescence:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Iti
sapr ocessbywhi chasubst
ance
absorbsmoi sturefr
om t
heatmospher
e
unti
li
tdissolvesintheabsor
bedwater
andformsasol uti
on
Pr
ocess:
Anhy droussubst anceabsor bmoi st
ure
fr
om at mospher ei.et her ever
seof
exsiccatione.g.impur eNaCl andalum.
Thesesubst anceshav elowv apor
pressureascompar edt oatmospher e,
Undert hesecondi ti
onssol i
dwi l
labsor
b
moi sturef r
om surroundingat mosphere
unti
l asol uti
onisformedsuch
substancesar ecall
eddel i
quescentand
processi scalleddeliquesence
Appl
icat
ions:
1.Theymaybeusedt oremov
eexcess
waterf
rom sul
fur
icaci
dandphosphor
ic
aci
dsinchemicali
ndust
ry.

3.El
utr
iat
ion:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Thispr
ocessofsepar at
ingpar
ticl
es
basedontheirsi
ze,shapeanddensit
y
,usi
ngastream ofgasorl i
qui
df l
owi
ng
i
nadirect
ionusual
l
yopposi
tet
o
di
rect
ionofsedi
mentat
ion.

Pr
ocess:
Theoper ationi sef f
ectedonl argescale
i
nanel utriatingt ankconsi st
ingofa
vessel oflar gecapaci tyhav i
ngt aps
placedati nter val
sfrom t optobot t
om .
sot hatthel i
qui dcanber unoffat
diff
erentl ev els.Asimilarappar atuscan
beobt ainedf ori t
suseonsmal lscal
e
andi sknownasel utri
ationjar.I
tis
madeofear thwarofgl assandusual l
y
onlythreet aps. Part
ici
larl
lyonthest il
l
smal l
erscal et heprocessi sbest
 perf
ormedbysi
mplydecant
ingthe
upperl
ayer
sofl
iqui
dfrom l
argebeaker

Appl
icat
ion:
1.Chal
ki s pr
oduce by nat
ive cal
cium
car
bonatebyel
utr
iati
on
2.Cal
aminemaybepr oducedbysame
mannerf
rom nat
ivezinccar
bonat
e
4.
Exsi
ccat
ion:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Itist he process ofremoving waterof
cry
stall
izat
ion from hydrat
ed cr y
stal
li
ne
substancesandmaki ngf
rom anhydr
ous
Pr
ocess:
Itmaybecar r
iedoutbytaki
ngawei ghed
amountofsubst ancei
nat aredishwith
conti
nuousst i
rri
ngunti
laconstantwei
ght
i
sobt ainedorunt i
lthecal
cul
atedlossin
weighthastakenplace.
Thetemperat
urerequi
redtoremovewat
er
ofcr
yst
all
i
zati
onisveryimpor
tant
.
Appl
icat
ion:
1Iti
sdonet ogetananhy dr
ousproduct
r
equi
red i
n t he f
ormul
ati
on of cert
ain
medi
caments.
2Itisalsocarr
iedouttoreducethebulk
andweighofcert
aindr
ugs,
sot hatt
heycan
beeasi
l
yadmi ni
ster
ed.
3General
lyonexsiccat
ionaf
inepowderof
subst
anceisobt
ained.

5.
Lyophi
li
zat
ion:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Theremovalofwaterfrom fr
ozensolut
ion
bysubl
imationiscal
ledlyophi
li
zat
ionalso
knownasfryfr
eezi
ng.
St
ages:
1.
Prof
reezi
ng
2.
Shel
lfr
eezi
ng
3.
Ver
ti
cal
freezi
ng
4.
Cent
ri
fugal
evapor
ati
ngf
reezi
ng
Ther
e are some pr
ocesses whi
ch r
e
i
nvol
vedi
nfr
eezi
ng
Mater
iali
sfrozenbef
oret
heappl
i
cat
ion
ofv
acuum (avoidf
uming)
.
Reduce moist
ure content
s 0.
5 t
o
1%(pri
mar
ysubli
mat
ion).
Remov
ethef
inal
traces.
Temperat
urei
srai
sedordesi
ccanti
s
used.
Secondarydryi
ngi
sanor
dinar
yvacuum
dry
ingprocess.
Uses:
Thismet hodi sappl i
edonlyt obi ological
product sf orexampl e ant
ibi
otics,bl ood
product s,
vaccines( BCG,Yel
l
ow f ev er,and
smal l pox),
enzymes preprati
on
(hyalurani
dase) and microbiological
cultures.
6.
Subl
imat
ion:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Processofconver
ti
ngasoliddi
rect
lyi
nto
vaporswi
thoutgoi
ngint
oli
qui
dphase.
Tr
uesubl
imat
ion:
Soli
d di
rectl
y changes to vapor and
subl
imat
ion occur ,thi
sis call
ed t
rue
subl
imat
ion.
I
tcanbedoneby3t
ypes:
Ty
pe1:
Sol
i
dVapor
Sol
i
d
Ty
pe2:
Sol
i
dLi
qui
dVapor
Li
qui
dSol
i
d
Ty
pe3.
Sol
i
dLi
qui
dVapor
sSol
i
d
Uses:
This pr
ocess i
ncludes r
emov i
ng
the water fr
om mat eri
al and
seal
ingthemater
ialinavi
al.
Thi
s all
ows the pr
oductto be
moreeasi
lyshi
ppedandused.
I
n f ood indust
ry fr
eeze-
dryi
ng
techni
ques are al
so used t o
preser
ve a pr
oduct
-food.
7.I
gni
ti
on:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Thepr ocessofstart
ingthecombustionof
fuelinthecyl
inder
sofi nt
ernalcombusti
on
engine.
Pr
ocess:
When t he or ganic matter i
s burntt he
i
norgani cmat terremainasr esi
duebutitis
notaf airpr ocessbecausenotonl yt he
substancei sheat edun-necessarybutalso
cause t he lose ofal kal
icar bonate by
vol
atil
ization.Whent heigniti
oniscarried
outathi ght emper at
uret hecarbonat
ei s
converted i nto oxalate. But when t he
i
gnit i
on i s car r
ied out at moder ate
temper aturet he oxalatei s conv ert
ed to
carbonat e.To r emov et his defi
ciencyt he
residuei sst i
rredaf terashingwith25mlof
wat erand al lows st anding foran hour
.Thenadded2mlofammoni um carbonate
thent hel i
quidi sev aporatedonwat erbath
andwhol et heashi sconv ert
edintocar bon
dioxide.Veget abledr ugsar ewheni gni
ted
the ash cont ain chl ori
de.The l oss of
chlor i
de by v olati
li
zat i
on may occurt o
over comet hispr oblem.
Uses:
I
tisuset
ogener
ateav
eryhi
ghv
olt
age
f
rom t
hecar
s


8.
Fusi
on:
Def
ini
ton:
i
Process by which t
he sol i
ds get
conv er
tedi
ntol
i
qui
dswi
thoutaddi
ngany
solvent.
Met
hod:
Thi
smethodisfoll
owedwhenthedr
ugs
and ot
her soli
d are sol
ubl
ei nthe
oi
ntmentbases.
Thebaseisli
quefi
edandthesolubl
e
component
sar
edissol
vedi
nthemolt
en
base.
Thecongealmixt
ureist
henspecul
ated
ort
ri
tur
atedtoobtai
nasmoothmixture.
Care is t aken t
o avoid ther
mal
degr
adati
on of base or ot her
componentsduri
ngt
hef
usionpr
ocess.
Appl
icat
ion:
Used forpr
eparat
ion ofoint
ment s
sol
idsandsemisol
i
dsinformulat
ion.
9.Cal
cinat
ion:
 Def
ini
ti
on:
Process i n whi ch t he inor
ganic
substancesarest r
ongl
yheatedsoast o
remov ethei
rvolat
il
econtent
sandafixed
resi
dueisobtained.
Met
hod:
On laborator
y scal
e cal ci
nat
ion is
done in si
l
ica orplat
inum crucibl
es
whereasinindust
ri
esmet all
i
cv essel
s
areused.

Appl
icat
ions:
Usedforpr
eparati
onofcal
cium oxi
de,
heavy magnesium oxi
de and zinc
oxi
de.
Thesear epreparedbyheat i
ngt hei
r
respecti
vecar
bonates.Thi
smet hodis
also used i
n gravi
metri
c ofcer tai
n
pharmaceuti
cal prepar
ati
ons.
10.
Decant
ati
on:
Def
ini
ti
on:
I
ti s the pr
ocess for separ
ati
on of
mixt
ures ofi
mmi sci
bleli
qui
ds orofa
l
iqui
dandasoli
dmi xt
ure.
Met
hod:
Iti s a process f ort he separat i
on of
mi xt
ur es,car efully pour ing a sol ut
ion
from a cont ai neri n or dertol eavet he
precipitat
einbot tom ofor igi
nalcont ai
ner.
Usual lyasmal lamountofsol utionmust
bel ef tin cont ainer,and car emustbe
taken t o prev enta smal lamountof
solutionprecipi t
at efrom f l
owingwi ththe
solutionint hecont ainer. I
tisgener all
y
used t o separ ate a l i
quid f rom an
i
nsol ublesolid.
Appl
icat
ions:
Ami xt
ureofkeroseneandwatercan
beseparat
edthr
oughdecant
ati
on.
This method i s avai
l
able for
separ
ati
on of a sol
i
d from thei
r
sol
ublei
mpuri
ti
es.
This method i
nvolv
es washi
ng and
subsequentagi
tat
ionofsol
idwit
han
appropr
iat
esolv
ent.

11.
Evapor
ati
on:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Ev
apor
ati
onofal
i
qui
dthatoccur
sfr
om
 thesurfaceofal i
qui
dinto agaseous
phase thatis notsatur
ated wi
tht he
evapor
atingsubst
ance.
Met
hod:
Evaporati
on i
sr emov alof liqui
d
fr
om soluti
onbyboil
ingthesoluti
on
i
nasui t
ablev
esselfrom wherethe
vapors ar e wit
hdrawn and a
concentrat
edl
iqui
disleftbehi
nd.
Evaporati
ont akesplaceatal lthe
temperaturebutboili
ngtakesplace
atalltemperaturebutboil
ingtakes
placesatonlyonet emperatur
eata
givenpressur
e.
Fact
orsaf
fect
ing:
1. Temper
atur
e
2. Sur
facear
ea
3. Agi
tat
ion
4. At
mospher
icpr
essur
e
5. Ty
peofpr
oductr
equi
red
6. Economi
cfact
ors
Appl
icat
ions:
I
tisoneofmosti mpor
tantproceedi
nthe
manufact
ureofphar
maceuticalpr
oduct
s.
Used forprepar
ati
on ofli
qui
d ext
ract
s
softext
ract
sanddryext
ract
s.
I
tisal
so usedi
nthemanuf
act
uri
ngof
dr
ugs cont
aini
ng ant
ibodi
es,enzy
mes,
hor
monesandmanyot ance.
hersubst

12.Adsor
pti
on:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Theadhesi oninanext r
emelythinl
ayerof
molecule( asofgases,l
iqui
ds,
orsoli
ds)to
thesurfacesofsoli
dbodi esorli
qui
dswith
whichtheyareincontact
.
Mechani
sm:
Itisanexothermicpr ocesswhichmeans
thatenergyi
sli
beratedduringthi
sprocess.
Theamountofheatt hatevol
vedwhenone
mole of adsor bate i s adsorbed on
adsorbent i
s known as ent hal
py. At
constant t emperature or pr essure,
adsor
pti
onoccur
sspont
aneousl
y.
Appl
icat
ions:
I
on exchange met
hod used to sof
ten
wat
erisbasedonadsor
ption.
Si
l
ica gel can be used t
o remov
e
moist
ureandtor
emovehumidi
ty.
Fort
h f l
oatat
ion is used f or
concent
rat
ionofsul
phi
deor
esi
sbased
onadsorpt
ion.
13.Tr
it
urat
ion:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Tri
turat
ion is pr
ocess for r
educi
ng t
he
part
iclesizeofsubstancebygr i
ndi
ng of
powdersinmor t
arandpestl
e.
Met
hod:
Reduce t
he dr
ug to a moder
atel
yfi
ne
powderi
namor t
ar.

Addaboutanequalamountofdi
l
uent
s
and mi
x wel
lby t
hrough t
ri
tur
ati
on i
n
mor
t s.
ar
Successiv
elyaddportionsofdi
luent
sand
tr
it
urati
ng aftereach addit
ion unt
ilt
he
enti
re quantity of dil
uent
s has been
i
ncorporated.
Theenti
redi
l
uentshoul
dnotbeaddedat
once.

Appl
icat
ion:
I
t i s used f or pr epar
ati
on of
homeopat
hicmedici
nes.
Itis also used f
or pr
epar
ati
on of
emul
sions.

14.Vapor
izat
ion:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Vapor
izat
ionofanel
ementoracompound
i
saphasetransi
ti
onsf
rom t
hel
i
qui
dphase
t
ovaporphase.

Ty
pes:
Ev
apor
ati
ng(
sur
facephenomena)

Boi
l
ing(
bul
kphenomena)

Met
hod:
Vaporizati
onconv ersionofasubst ance
from t he li
quid or solid phase into
gaseousphase.I fcondit
ionsallow the
formation ofv apors bubbl
es wi t
hina
l
iquid,thevaporizat
ionprocessiscalled
boil
ing.Directconversionfrom soli
dt o
vaporsiscalledsublimati
on.
Appl
icat
ion:
Usedi
nthepr
epar
ati
onofdr
ugs.
 Cont
ainer
susedf
orst
ori
ngandcool
i
ng
thev
apors.

15.Cent
ri
fugat
ion:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Cent
ri
fugat
ioni
sat
echni
quewhi
chi
nvol
ves
the appl
icat
ion of centri
fugal f
orce to
separ
ate par t
icles from a sol ut
ion
accor
dingtotheirsi
ze,densit
y,vi
scosi
tyof
t
hemedi
um andr
otorspeed.

Ty
pes:
Sedi
ment
ati
on
Fi
l
trat
ion
Met
hod:
Iti
st echni
quewhi chisusedt osepar ate
parti
clesfr
om asol uti
onwhi chdepends
on t heir si
ze,vi
scosi
ty, densit
y . The
parti
cles are suspended i n a l i
quid
medium andpl acedinacent ri
fuget ube.
Thet ubeist henplacedinar ot orand
spunatadef i
nespeed.Notonl yi sthis
processusedt oseparat
et womi sci
ble
substance,but al so to anal yze t he
 hy
drodynamic pr
oper
ti
es of
macromolecul
es.

Appl
icat
ions:
Separ
ati
ngpart
icl
esfrom ai
rfl
ow
usi
ngcycl
oni
cseparat
ion.
Separ
ati
ng chal
k powder f
rom
water
.
Topr
oduceski
m mi
l
k.
16.Lev
igat
ion:
Def
ini
ti
on:
Theformati
onofpast ebyaddingthelar
ge
amountofwat er,byr educi
ngthesizeof
par
ti
cleintofine si ze,which i
st o be
obt
ainedknownlevigati
on.
Met
hod:
Onsmal
lscal
eweusepest
leandmor
tar
.
Thepast
eisf or
medbyaddi
ti
onofnon-
sol
ventl
ike gly
cer
in ormi
ner
aloi
lto
sol
i
dsubstance.
 Si
zereduct
iont
akespl
acei
npest
leand
mort
ar.

Appl
icat
ions:
Iti
susedtopr
epar
etheoi
ntment
s
andpast
es.
I
nmaki
ngsuspensi
on.
I
nmanyphar
maceut
ical
bal
ms.
I
npur
if
icat
ionofdr
ugs.
To getvar
ious degr
ees off
ine
powder
.

17.Desi
ccat
ion:
Def
ini
ti
on:
I
ti s process of r emovi
ng adhered
moisturefrom l i
quidorsoli
dsubstance.
Thet er
m desi ccati
onshouldbeusedf or
thosesubst ancesf r
om whichwaterhas
beencompl etelyremov ed.
Met
hod:
Manymi
croor
gani
smsst
ayv
iabl
e
 evenaf terdryi
ngbuttheycannot
repr
oduce i .
e. desi
ccat
ion wil
l
i
nhibit the gr
owth of
microorganisms.
Whensuitablemoistandnutri
ents
r
ichenv
ironmentisav ai
lable,the
micr
oor
gani sm wi
l
l gr
owr api
dly
.
Appl
icat
ion:
I
tisof
tenusedf
or
Pr
eser
vat
ionoff
ood
Ant
iser
a
Ant
it
oxi
n
Pure cul
tur
e of
mi
croor
gani
sm