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WASTE
Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any
substance which is discarded after primary use, or is worthless,
defective and of no use.

TYPES AND CHARACTERIZATION Examples include municipal solid waste (household trash/refuse),
agriculture waste, animal waste, industry based (may be hazardous
or non hazardous waste), wastewater (such as sewage, which
contains bodily wastes (feces and urine) industry specific), hospital
waste, radioactive waste, and others.
According to the Basel Convention on the Control of
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal of 1989 : Wastes are substance or objects, which are
disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be
disposed of by the provisions of national law.

1 2

A DEFINITION OF WASTE-INDUSTRIAL TYPES OF THE WASTES

Raw materials 1. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
2. Agriculture Waste
3. Industrial Waste: Industry specific
Sugar industry, Distillery, Pulp & Paper, Tannery etc.
Pulp & Paper
Used
paper 4. E-Waste
Chemicals
5. Nuclear Waste
6. Biomedical Waste
Briquettes 7. Construction/Demolition Waste
Solids recovery for fuel
Slurry injection in boilers 8. Ship Breaking Waste
9. .

Chips of wood
Wastewater (Lignin,
hemicellulose etc. )

3 4

MSW MSW

5 6

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A MSW COLLECTION MECHANISM VEGETABLE WASTE

7 8

AGRICULTURAL WASTE OLD SCRAP

NTPC
21 Plants, Parali pallets
20,000 tonnes/day
4,000 crores
Rs 5500/tonne

9 10

OLD SCRAP BIOMEDICAL/HOSPITAL/CLINICAL WASTE

11 12

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E WASTE

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW)

13 14

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

➢ Native Americans: Colorado 650 BC
2.385 kg/c.d
➢ Athenians of Greece about 500 BC: MSW was being
dumped
➢ In Jerusalem/Palestine, the New Testament of The
Bible mentions Sheol was likely a dump outside the
city of Jerusalem and became synonymous with
“Hell.”
➢ Recycling was mentioned in 1690 when Rittenhouse
Mill, Philadelphia, made paper from recycled fibers of
waste paper and rags.
➢ The first garbage incinerator was built in the United
States on Governor’s Island, New York,1885
➢ Landfills became popular in the 1920s as a means of
reclaiming swamp land while disposing of trash in
USA
➢ With growing population and environmental concerns
it has become a well organized industry now
➢ The CO2 neutrality is a driving force today
➢ The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs with
CPCB & Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change are taking a lead in this mission

15 16

DEFINITION OF MSW LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Central Public
Health and
Environmental
Engineering
Organisation
(CPHEEO)

The term municipal solid waste (MSW) is Jawaharlal Nehru

normally assumed to include all of the waste National Urban
Renewal Mission
generated in a community, with the exception of (JNNURM)

waste from treatment plants, and industrial and

agricultural processes.
Urban
Infrastructure
Development
Scheme for Small
and Medium
Towns
(UIDSSMT)

17 18

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LEGAL FRAMEWORK SOURCES OF MSW

19 20

MSW FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS MSW FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS

Resource

21 22

MSW FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS MSW FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS

1. Waste generation: Those activities in which materials 3. Collection: Those activities associated with the
are identified as no longer being of value and are either gathering of solid wastes and the hauling wastes after
thrown away or gathered for disposal. collection to the location where the collection vehicle is
emptied.
2. On site handling and storage: Those activities a. Door to door collection
associated with the handling, storage and processing of b. Bins
solid waste wastes at or near the point of generation. c. Chutes in high rise buildings
o Wet waste: plastic containers
o Dry waste: plastic containers

23 24

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MSW FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS MSW FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS

4. Transfer and transportation: Those activities associated with the
transfer of wastes from the smaller collection vehicle to the larger
transport equipment and the subsequent transport of the wastes,
usually over a long distance to the disposal site.
5. Processing: Those techniques, equipment and facilities used both
to improve the efficiency of the other functional elements and to
recover usable materials, conversion products or energy from solid
wastes.
6. Disposal: Those activities associated with ultimate disposal of
solid wastes including those waste collected and transported directly
to the landfill site, incinerator residue, compost or other substances
from various solid waste processing plants that are of no further use.
Composting Most of the organic content after segregation may be
subjected to bacterial decomposition with an end product called
humus or compost. The entire process involving both separation and
bacterial conversion is known as “Composting” Decomposition of
solid waste may be accomplished aerobically or anaerobically.
Organic farming: Fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides and herbicides
7. Resource recovery: is a partial solid waste disposal and
reclamation process. It can be expected to achieve waste reductions
in future landfill volume requirements. Resource recovery must
recognize what is worth recovering and the environmental benefits.

25 26

CHARACTERIZATION OF MSW CONING AND QUARTERING METHOD AS PER USEPA

1. Physical
2. Moisture content
3. Bulk density
4. Chemical analysis
5. Proximate analysis
6. Ultimate analysis
7. Heating value
8. Leaching characteristics/Permeability or
Hydraulic conductivity

Sampling Method
100-200 kg is the optimum size
Coning and Quartering method is employed

27 28

CONING AND QUARTERING METHOD AS PER USEPA Coning and Quartering Method

Timarpur plant in Delhi started in 1990, the plant was based on a technology
imported from Danish firm Volund Milijotecknik. The plant was designed to
incinerate 300 tonnes of municipal solid waste every day and generate 3.75 MW of
power. But the waste didn't have enough calorific value and the plant was shut after
21 days of operation.

The calorific value figures given to the firm were double of the actual.

29 30

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PHYSICAL CHARATERIZATION PARAMETERS PHYSICAL CHARATERIZATION PARAMETERS MSW

European Waste Catalogue (EWC)

31 32

PHYSICAL CHARATERIZATION PARAMETERS MSW PHYSICAL CHARATERIZATION PARAMETERS MSW

33 34

IIT Roorkee MSW IIT Roorkee MSW

35 36

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MOISTURE CONTENT MEASUREMENT BULK DENSITY MEASUREMENT

37 38

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

1.Organic matter
2.Total N
3.Phosphorus
4.Potassium MSW GENERATION
5.C/N Ratio

These parameters are important from composting point of

view

39 40

Factors Contributing to Increasing Amounts MSW

of MSW
• Increasing population
• Changing lifestyles
• Disposable materials*
• Excessive packaging*

*two largest contributors to waste volume

41 42

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*/** with a gap of 12 years

43 44

DENSITY OF MSW-CITYWISE, kg/m3

45 46

47 48

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MSW COMPOSITION WITH INCOME ANALYSES OF MSW:ENERGY POINT OF VIEW

➢ Proximate analysis

➢ Ultimate analysis

➢ Heating/calorific value

49 50

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS EXAMPLE OF PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

Proximate analysis shall comply IS:1350-I (1984)
A sample of finely ground MSW of mass 0.9945 g was placed in
ANALYSIS (MSW: Grinding is a must) a crucible of 8.5506 g in an oven, maintained at 105 oC for 4.0
ks. The sample was then removed, cooled in a desiccator and
✓ Moisture content: 105 - 110 oC reweighed; the procedure being repeated until a constant total
✓ Volatiles: 925 ± 15 oC for 7 min time (with lid) mass of 9.5340 g was attained. A second sample of mass 1.0120 g
(without moisture)
in a crucible of mass 8.5685 g was heated with a lid in a furnace
✓ Ash: 800 ± 15 oC (without lid) at 920 oC for 420 s. On cooling and reweighing, the total mass
✓ Fixed carbon by difference was 9.1921 g. This sample was then heated without lid in the
same furnace maintained at 815 oC until a constant total mass of
REPORTING 8.6255 g was attained. Carry out the proximate analysis of the
✓ As received basis - M,VM, A, FC (in %) sample and express the results on “as received” and “dry, ash-
✓ Moisture free /Dry basis -VM, A, FC (in %) free” basis.
✓ Dry and ash free basis - VM, FC (in %)

51 52

EXAMPLE OF PROXIMATE ANALYSIS EXAMPLE OF PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

A sample of finely MSW of mass 0.9945 g was placed in a

crucible of 8.5506 g in an oven, maintained at 105 oC for 4.0 ks.
The sample was then removed, cooled in a desiccator and
reweighed; the procedure being repeated until a constant total
mass of 9.5340 g was attained.
A second sample of mass 1.0120 g in a crucible of mass 8.5685 g was heated
with a lid in a furnace at 920 oC for 420 s. On cooling and reweighing, the total
mass was 9.1921 g. This sample was then heated without lid in the same
furnace maintained at 815 oC until a constant total mass of 8.6255 g was
attained.

Determination of Moisture from first sample: Heating up to 920ºC in absence of air removes volatile matters, subsequent
Mass of sample = 0.9945 g heating up to 815ºC in presence of air burns all fixed carbon of the sample
leaving behind ash in the crucible.
Mass of dry MSW= (9.5340 - 8.5506) = 0.9834 g
Mass of moisture = (0.9945 - 0.9834) = 0.0111 g Determination of Ash from second sample:
% Moisture = 0.0111×100/0.9945 = 1.11% Mass of sample = 1.0120 g
Mass of crucible = 8.5685 g
Mass of ash (remnant in crucible) = (8.6255 - 8.5685) = 0.0570 g
% Ash = 0.0570 × 100/1.0120
= 5.63 %

53 54

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EXAMPLE OF PROXIMATE ANALYSIS REPORTING OF PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

% Moisture (M) = 1.11% ➢ Proximate analysis as received basis

Moisture : 1.11 %
% Ash (A) = 5.63 % Ash : 5.63 %
Volatile matter : 37.26 %
% Volatile matters (VM) = 37.26 % Fixed carbon : 56.00 %
➢ Proximate analysis on dry, ash free basis
% Fixed carbon (FC) = 100 – (%M + %A + %VM) Moisture + Ash : 1.11 + 5.63 = 6.74%
Fixed carbon : 56.0 x 100/(100-6.74) = 60.04 %
= 100 – (1.11+ 5.63+ 37.26) or : 56.0/(37.26+56.00)*100=60.04%

= 56.0 % Volatile matter : 37.26 x 100/(100-6.74) = 39.95 %

or : 37.26/(37.26+56.00)*100=39.95%

55 56

57 58

59 60

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ULTIMATE ANALYSIS IIT Roorkee MSW

Ultimate analysis shall comply IS:1350- IV (1974)
Or CHNS analysis
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
Other than
3. Oxygen (by difference) moisture
and ash
4. Nitrogen
5. Sulfur

61 62

IIT Roorkee MSW ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

Specific Elemental Method: Combustion Analysis

• Based on burning the sample in the presence of excess oxygen, converting

all C, H, N and S into volatile oxides:

• To get Oxygen content, the difference method is used

63 64

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS HEATING VALUE

Amount of heat released by the combustion of unit mass of
Product Gases are analyzed by Gas Chromatography
MSW or (liquid/gas) under standard conditions.
• GC system used to separate and quantitate individual components (e.g., CO2,
H2O, NO2, SO2)
1. Calculated from proximate analysis
2. Calculated from ultimate analysis
SO2

3. Experimental determination
NO2

1. Gross/High heating value (water vapor getting condensed after

CO2

combustion)
Response

2. Useful/low heating value (determined by subtracting the heat of

H2O
inject

vaporization of the water from the high heating value)

Hydrogen Water (vapor or liquid phase)

Carbon Carbon dioxide (gas phase)

Retention time (min.)
Latent heat of vaporization of water: 2.26 MJ/kg

65 66

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HEATING VALUE FROM PROXIMATE ANALYSIS HEATING VALUE FROM ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

TAYLOR AND PATTERSON RELATIONSHIP

DULONG FORMULA
HV = 4.19 (82FC + a VM) kJ/kg HV = 338.2C + 1442.8(H - O/8) + 94.2 S kJ/kg
Where C, H, O and S are the % of these elements on dry ash
Where FC and VM are the % values on dry ash free basis and free basis.
“a” is an empirical constant which depends on the VM content of
sample. Moisture : 8.12 %
160
Ash : 17.71 %
Carbon : 55.29 %
140

120

VM 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 38 40
Hydrogen : 3.11 %
a

100

a 145 130 117 109 103 98 94 85 80

Oxygen : 13.37 %
80

60

Nitrogen : 1.25 %
0 10 20 30 40
VM

Sulphur : 1.15 %

67 68

HEATING VALUE FROM ULTIMATE ANALYSIS EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF

HEATING VALUE
GRUMELL AND DAVIES FORMULA ➢ This experiment shall comply IS:1350- II (1970)
HV = (15.22H+937 )(1/3C + H – 1/8(O-S)) kJ/kg
Where C, H, O and S are the % of these elements on dry ash ➢ Bomb Calorimeter
free basis. ➢ Solid /liquid samples can be analyzed
➢ 1 g sample is burnt in a bomb in oxygen atmosphere
Moisture : 8.12 %
➢ The oxygen pressure is 25 kg/cm2 (Formation of water)
Ash : 17.71 %
➢ Rise in temperature gives the heat liberated and
Carbon : 55.29 %
heating value is determined after doing the
Hydrogen : 3.11 % corrections for resistance wire and thread
Oxygen : 13.37 % ➢ Microprocessor based bomb calorimeters are now
Nitrogen : 1.25 % available
Sulphur : 1.15 %

69 70

BOMB OF CALORIMETER BOMB OF CALORIMETER

71 72

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VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF BOMB CALORIMETERIC

BOMB CALORIMETER EQUIPMENT

• To obtain precise heat measurements, we must know

or find out the heat capacity of the bomb calorimeter
• Heat capacity takes into account all the parts of the
calorimeter that can lose or gain heat
• Heat liberated from resistance wire and thread is to be
subtracted
• The supplier of equipment provides the heat capacity
data
ctotal= cwater + cthermometer + cstirrer + ccontainer

Therefore, qcal= CΔT

C= heat capacity of the calorimeter

73 74

BOMB CALORIMETER

HEATING VALUE OF
GASEOUS/LIQUID FUELS:
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

75 76

BOY’S CALORIMETER BOY’S CALORIMETER

77 78

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BOY’S CALORIMETER BOY’S CALORIMETER

Principle Calculations
•A known volume of gaseous fuel sample is burnt in the
combustion chamber of a Boy’s calorimeter. Volume of fuel burnt at STP in time, t = V m3
•The released heat is quantitatively absorbed by cooling Mass of cooling water circulated in time, t = W kg
water, circulated through copper coils surrounding the Steady temperature of incoming water = t10 C
combustion chamber. Steady temperature of outgoing water = t20 C
•The mass of cooling water and its rise in temperature Rise in temperature = (t2 - t1) 0 C
are noted. Mass of water produced from steam condensation = m kg
•The mass of water produced by condensation of steam
is calculated to determine the net heating value. Heat released by combustion of fuel = Heat absorbed by water
•The calorific value of the fuel sample is then calculated
from these data.

V x GCV = W (t2 - t1)

79 80

BOY’S CALORIMETER JANKER’S CALORIMETER

• GCV = W (t2 - t1) kcal/m3
V
= W (t2 - t1) × 4.184 kJ/m3
V

Latent heat of steam per m3 of fuel sample = m × LH kcal/m3

V

• NCV = W (t2 - t1) - m ×LH kcal

V V
= [W (t2 - t1) - m ×LH ] 4.184 kJ/m3
V V

81 82

JUNKER’S CALORIMETER ASH FUSION

Ash fusion, also called fusibility, is a test to determine how

the ash residue remaining from combustion of will react in a
furnace or boiler. In this test, ash is put into conical molds as
specified in ASTM method D1857-04 guidelines and
procedures (American Society for Testing and Materials,
2013, p. 431–435).

83 84

14

Ash Fusion
❖Ash fusion is the process by which the ash produced by the combustion of a
fuel, melts and solidifies into clumps or lumps.
❖This occurs in boilers and other combustion equipment, and can cause problems
such as clogging of equipment and reduced efficiency.
❖Ash fusion temperature (AFT) is the temperature at which the ash begins to melt
and fuse.
❖AFT is a important parameter for the design and operation of boilers and other
combustion equipment, as they can predict potential ash-related problems such
as clogging of equipment and reduced efficiency.
85
85
ASTM Standard E1857-04
❖This test method covers the observation of the temperatures at
which triangular pyramids (cones) prepared from coal and coke
ash, attain and pass through certain defined stages of fusing and
flow, when heated at a specified rate in controlled, mildly
reducing, and where desired, oxidizing atmospheres.
87
87
Significance and Use
❖It can help to predict potential ash-related problems in boilers and other combustion
equipment. For example, if the ash fusion temperatures are low, this may indicate that the
ash will melt and fuse at lower temperatures, which can lead to clogging of equipment
and reduced efficiency.
❖Secondly, it can also help to optimize the design and operation of boilers and other
combustion equipment. For example, if the ash fusion temperatures are known, the design
of the equipment can be optimized to ensure that the ash does not melt/fuse at
temperatures that are too low.
❖Design of most coal combustion and coal conversion equipment anticipates that the ash
either remain solid or assume some degree of fluidity, depending on the particular design.
❖Ash fusibility temperatures predict whether the ash will perform properly in the process
for which the coal was chosen.
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Ash Fusion Testing
❖It’s a process used to determine the behavior of ash under combustion conditions
in boilers and other combustion equipment.
❖It involves heating a cylindrical specimen of ash under controlled conditions in a
furnace and recording the temperatures at which the ash begins to soften,
deform, and melt.
❖ASTM E1857-04 Standard Test Method for Ash Fusion Determination in
Coal and Coke is a widely used method to determine the ash fusion
temperatures of coal, coke, and other carbonaceous materials.
86
86
ASTM Standard E1857-04
❖ Initial Deformation Temperature (IT): Temperature at which the first
rounding of the apex of the cone occurs.
❖Softening Temperature (ST): Temperature at which the cone has fused down to
a spherical lump in which the height is equal to the width at the base.
❖Hemispherical Temperature (HT): Temperature at which the cone has fused
down to a hemispherical lump at which point the height is one half the width of
the base.
❖Fluid Temperature (FT): Temperature at which the fused mass has spread out
in a nearly flat layer with a maximum height of 1.6 mm.
88
88
ASH FUSION
Taking sufficient ash for the number of cones desired from
various parts of the bulk ash. Moistening the ash with a few drops
of a clear, filtered (if necessary) 10 % solution of dextrin
containing 0.1 % salicylic acid as a preservative and working it
into a stiff plastic mass with a spatula.
90
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ASH FUSION

1.Initial deformation temperature (IT)

2.Softening temperature (ST)
3.Hemisphere temperature (HT)
4.Fluid temperature (FT)

LEACHING CHARACTRISTICS

91 92

LEACHING SOURCES OF LEACHATE

➢Moisture content of waste

➢Infiltration from direct precipitation (rain) on the
waste surface
➢Sealed areas of landfill which are only partially
covered with waste
➢Surface water flow onto the active face of the
landfill
Leaching primarily describes the process of water carrying soluble
Agriculture sector: Punjab, Haryana and UP
substances or small particles through soil or rock. Although this
Ground water contamination due to chemicals usage
process seems trivial, leaching is one of the key processes of
controlling the rate and direction in which compounds move.
MSW/pesticides/insecticides/chemical fertilizers /septic tanks

93 94

DARCY’S LAW DARCY AND SEEPAGE VELOCITY

• Henri Darcy (1856) established empirically that the
energy lost ∆h in water flowing through a permeable
formation is proportional to the length of the
sediment column ∆L.
• The constant of proportionality K is called the
hydraulic conductivity or permeability.
The Darcy Velocity VD:
• Darcy velocity VD is a fictitious velocity
since it assumes that flow occurs across
the entire cross-section of the sediment
sample. Flow actually takes place only
through interconnected pore channels
(voids), at the seepage velocity VS.

VD = – K (∆h/∆L) In Chemical Engineering we call it superficial velocity

Av voids
and since Q = VD A ( where A = total area) A = total area

Q = – KA (∆h/∆L)

95 96

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DARCY AND SEEPAGE VELOCITIES DARCY AND SEEPAGE VELOCITY:

POROSITY
• From the Continuity Eqn. Q = constant
• Q = A VD = AV Vs ,therefore VS = VD ( A/AV)
• Inputs = Outputs
• Multiplying both sides by the length of the
• Q = A VD = AV Vs medium (L) divided by itself, L / L = 1
Where: • VS = VD ( AL / AVL ) = VD ( VolT / VolV ) we get
Q = flow rate volumes
A = total cross-sectional area • Where:
AV = area of voids VolT = total volume
Vs = seepage velocity VolV = void volume
VD = Darcy velocity • By definition, Volv / VolT = n, the sediment
Since A > AV , and Q = constant, Vs > VD porosity
So the actual velocity: VS = VD / n

97 98

LIMITATIONS OF DARCY’S EQUATION

Example 1

1. For Reynold’s Number, Re, > 10 or where the flow

is turbulent, as in the immediate vicinity of pumped
wells. • A confined aquifer has a source of recharge.
• K for the aquifer is 50 m/day, and porosity n is 0.2.
• The piezometric head in two wells 1000 m apart is
55 m and 50 m respectively, from a common datum.
• The average thickness of the aquifer is 30 m, and
the average width of the aquifer is 5 km = 5000 m.
Darcy’s Law works for 1.0
2.<Where
< Re 10 water flows
through extremely fine-grained A piezometer is a small-diameter observation well used to measure the piezometric head of
groundwater in aquifers.
materials (colloidal clay) Piezometric head is measured as a water surface elevation, expressed in units of length.

99 100

Example 1 Compute Example 1 Solution

• a) the rate of flow through the aquifer
• (b) the average time of travel from the head of the
aquifer to a point 4 km downstream
• Cross-Sectional area= 30(5000) = 1.5 x 105 m2
• Hydraulic gradient dh/dL= (55-50)/1000 = 5 x 10-3
• Find Rate of Flow for K = 50 m/day
Q = (50 m/day) (1.5 x 105 m2) ( 5 x 10-3)
Q = 37,500 m3/day
• Darcy Velocity: V = Q/A
• = (37,500m3/day) / (1.5 x 105 m2) = 0.25m/day

101 102

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Permeability and drainage characteristics of soils

• Seepage Velocity:
Vs = VD/n = (0.25) / (0.2) = 1.25 m/day
k Soil types Drainage
cm/s
• Time to travel 4 km downstream: Coarse gravels
10
T = (4000m) / (1.25m/day) = Very good
1
3200 days or 8.77 years Clean gravels
10-1
10-2
• This example shows that water moves very 10-3 Clean sands
Gravel mixtures Good
slowly in underground. 10-4 aquifers
“Impervious” soils
• The same is applicable to pollutants-heavy 10-5 modified
10-6 Fine sands by effects of
metals/pesticides /insecticides/ fertilizers / Poor
10-7 Clayey sands vegetation & aquifers
POP 10-8 Silts weathering
10-9
Impervious soils e.g., homogeneous clays below Practically
POP: Persistent organic pollutants zone of weathering impervious

103 104

Soil Components Sand

⚫ Most soils have a combination of following ⚫ Gritty feel

⚫ Sand ⚫ Can be seen with the naked eye
⚫ Silt ⚫ Hand sampling: No residue left on hand or in
⚫ Clay pores

105 106

Silt Clay

⚫ Dry: Powdery smooth feel

⚫ Dry: Hard feel
⚫ Wet: Creamy slick, slippery feel
⚫ Wet: Sticky, plastic feel
⚫ No sticky or plastic feel
⚫ Particles can be seen with an electron
⚫ Can be seen with a hand lens or microscope
microscope
⚫ Hand sampling: Coats hand, able to be brushed
off and remains in pores ⚫ Hand Sampling: Thick film residue

107 108

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Particle Sizes
⚫ Clay: less than 0.002 mm
⚫ Silt: 0.002 - 0.005 mm
⚫ Sand: 0.05 – 2 mm
➢ 0.05 - 0.24 mm fine

➢ 0.25 - 0.49 mm medium

➢ 0.5 - 0.99 mm coarse

Types of Soils
➢ 1 - 2 mm very coarse

⚫ Gravels: 2 - 75 mm
⚫ Cobbles:75 - 250 mm
⚫ Stones: 250 - 600 mm
⚫ Boulders: >600 mm

109 110

Fine Textured Soil Coarse Textured Soil

⚫ Large components of silt and clay, making it ⚫ Mostly sand and gravel
"muddy" when wet. ⚫ has large pore spaces and allows water to easily
⚫ Pore spaces are smaller and hold more water run through it
⚫ little surface area for the particle volume
⚫ As clay soils begin to dry, they may still hold
⚫ contaminants travel downward very fast
large quantities of water.
⚫ The small particle size and adhesive in
nature.

111 112

Loamy Soil Soil and Surface Area

⚫ As particle size decreases, surface area
⚫ A mix of sand, silt, and clay that optimizes increases
agricultural productivity ⚫ Clay has about 10,000 times as much surface
area as sand- Bentonites, Fuller's earth (मुल्तानी
ममट्टी)

⚫ Has a big effect on:

⚫ Water holding capacity
⚫ Chemical reactions
⚫ Soil cohesion
⚫ Ability to support microorganisms

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General Influence of Soil Constituents on

Properties and Behaviors of Soils
Other Influences on Soil
Property/Behavior Sand Silt Clay
Water holding Low Med-high high ➢ Organic Matter
Aeration Good Med Poor
➢ Humus
➢ Parent Material
OM decomposition Fast Med Slow
⚫ Sources of Parent Material
Water erosion potential Low High Low
Compactability Low Med High
Sealing (ponds) Poor Poor Good
Nutrient supplying Poor Med-high High

Pollutant leaching High Med Low

115 116

Organic Matter and Humus METHODS OF SOIL PERMEABILITY

DETERMINATION
⚫ Organic Matter is derived from decomposing
plant and animal remains.
1. Constant head method (IS:2720, 1987 Part 36)
⚫ Humus is the dark, moist layer found on the
top of a soil profile. This is because it is made 2. Variable or falling head method (IS:2720, 1986
up of dead and decaying matter. It is fairly
Part 17)
fertile in that the decay process adds nutrients
to the soil that plants love to soak up.
⚫ Composting provides humus
Also called permeameter

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CONSTANT HEAD METHOD CONSTANT HEAD METHOD

Inlet
water Computations
Water
reservoir coefficient of permeability k, is:

V •L (cm/sec)
h k=
Manometer h• A • t
overflow
where: V = quantity of flow, cm3
t = elapsed time, sec
Soil h = loss of head in length, cm
specimen L L = length of soil specimen, cm
Overflow to
maintain A = cross-sectional area of specimen, cm2
constant Porous stone
head
Temperature correction factor for viscosity is to be incorporated

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VARIABLE OR FALLING HEAD METHOD VARIABLE OR FALLING HEAD METHOD

standpipe Computations
cross-sectional α
Coefficient of permeability:

valve B
αL h 1
k= ln (cm/sec)
Αt h 2
where: α = inside area of standpipe, cm 2
Porous stone A = cross sectional area of specimen, cm2
h1
h1 = height of water in standpipe above at time (t=0), cm
h2 h2 = height of water in standpipe above at the end of the test, cm
Soil
L L = length of soil specimen, cm
specimen
t = elapsed time, sec
Cross-
section Α
Temperature correction factor for viscosity is to be incorporated
Water reservoir Water out flow

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TEMPERATURE CORRECTION SOIL SAMPLE PREPARATION

UNDISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE
Temperature correction factor: 1. The pipe and plunger technique is used to take the sample.

nT 2. Remove the protective cover (paraffin wax) from the sampling pipe.
k 20 = kT (cm/sec)
n 20
3. Place the sampling pipe in the sample extraction frame, and push the plunger
to get a cylindrical form sample having height equal to that of specimen holder.
where: k20 = coefficient of permeability at 20 οC temperature of
4. The specimen shall be placed centrally over the porous disc to the drainage
water base.
kT = coefficient of permeability measured at water
temperature Τ οC) 5. The angular space shall be filled with an impervious material such as cement
slurry or wax, to provide sealing between the soil specimen and the specimen
nT = viscosity of water at temperature Τ οC holder against leakage from the sides.
n20 = viscosity of water at temperature 20 οC
6. The drainage cap shall then be fixed.

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SOIL SAMPLE PREPARATION

DISTURBED SOIL SAMPLE
1. The initial moisture content of the sample shall be determined.
2. 2.5 kg sample shall be taken from a thoroughly mixed air
dried or oven dried material.
3. Add required quantity of water to get the desired moisture
content.
4. Mix the soil thoroughly. The End
5. After greasing the inside slightly, clamp it between the
compaction base plate and extension collar.
6. Place the assembly on a solid base and fill it with sample and
compact it.
7. After completion of a compaction the collar and excess soil are
removed.
8. Place the mould with sample in the permeameter, with
drainage base and cap having discs that are properly saturated.

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