Exergy as a useful tool for the

performance assessment of aircraft gas

turbine engines: A key review Yasin
Sohret
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Progress in Aerospace Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paerosci

Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas

turbine engines: A key review
Yasin Şöhret a,n, Selcuk Ekici b, Önder Altuntaş b, Arif Hepbasli c, T. Hikmet Karakoç b
a
Aircraft Technology Program, Keciborlu Vocational School, Suleyman Demirel University, TR-32700 Keciborlu, Isparta, Turkey
b
Department of Airframe and Powerplant Maintenance, Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Anadolu University, TR-26470, Eskisehir, Turkey
c
Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Yasar University, TR-35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: It is known that aircraft gas turbine engines operate according to thermodynamic principles. Exergy is
Received 25 October 2015 considered a very useful tool for assessing machines working on the basis of thermodynamics. In the
Received in revised form current study, exergy-based assessment methodologies are initially explained in detail. A literature
11 March 2016
overview is then presented. According to the literature overview, turbofans may be described as the most
Accepted 11 March 2016
investigated type of aircraft gas turbine engines. The combustion chamber is found to be the most ir-
reversible component, and the gas turbine component needs less exergetic improvement compared to all
Keywords: other components of an aircraft gas turbine engine. Finally, the need for analyses of exergy, exergo-
Exergy economic, exergo-environmental and exergo-sustainability for aircraft gas turbine engines is empha-
Thermodynamic analysis
sized. A lack of agreement on exergy analysis paradigms and assumptions is noted by the authors. Exergy
Aircraft
analyses of aircraft gas turbine engines, fed with conventional fuel as well as alternative fuel using ad-
Gas turbine engine
Review vanced exergy analysis methodology to understand the interaction among components, are suggested to
those interested in thermal engineering, aerospace engineering and environmental sciences.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. A brief history of aircraft gas turbine engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Classification of aircraft gas turbine engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3. Thermodynamic fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.1. Mass and energy balance relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.2. Exergetic relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3.3. Exergo-economic relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.4. Exergo-environmental relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.5. Exergo-sustainability relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Literature overview on exergy-based assessment studies of aircraft gas turbine engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1. Exergetic assessment studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2. Exergo-economic assessment studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3. Exergo-environmental assessment studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4. Exergo-sustainability assessment studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Results and discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5. Concluding remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ysohret@gmail.com (Y. Şöhret).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001
0376-0421/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
2 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

Nomenclature in Inlet
k kth Component
Yk̇ kth component related environmental impact rate L Loss
(mPts h
1) out Outlet
Zk̇ kth component cost (US$ h
1) P Exergetic product
Ḃ Environmental impact rate (mPts h
1)
Ė Exergy rate (kW) Superscripts
Q̇ Heat flow rate (kW)
R̄ Universal gas constant (kJ kmol
1 K
1) ph Physical
Ẇ Work rate or power (kW) ch Chemical
cp Constant pressure specific heat capacity (kJ kg
1 K
1) k Kinetic
ē Molar specific exergy (kJ kmol
1) p Potential
fed Exergy destruction factor
ṁ Mass flow rate (kg s
1) Greek Letters
reef Environmental effect factor
rre Recoverable exergy rate
Θ Exergetic sustainability index
rwe Waste exergy ratio
ε Exergy efficiency
e Specific exergy (kJ kg
1)

Acronyms
Subscripts

AC Air compressor
0 Ambient condition
CC Combustion chamber
1,2,3… Station number
DF Ducted fan
a Air
GT Gas turbine
D Destruction
LHV Lower heating value
exh Exhaust
NZ Exhaust nozzle
F Exergetic fuel
PT Power turbine
f Fuel
g Gas

1. Introduction
In accordance with the lexical meaning of thermodynamics, it can
be described as efforts to convert heat into power. Thermodynamics is
a science, which also deals with the utilization of energy resources
effectively and efficiently. However, developments in the 21st century
and the rise of energy demand made utilizing energy efficiently more
and more important. For this reason, people interested in thermal
engineering are concerned with this issue.
Two natural laws provide the basis of thermodynamics. These
fundamental laws are well-known as the first and second law of
thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics deliberates energy
conservation and asserts that energy can change form, though the
amount of the total energy is always constant in the course of a
thermal process. An evaluation of any thermal system or process in
the framework of the first law provides insight into how energy is
consumed or morphed into another form. It is easy to see this in our
daily lives with power plants, which generate electricity from various
energy sources, air conditioners and even the human body [1–3].
In the late 1950s, the Slovenian scientist Zoran Rant defined the
term exergy as ‘technical working capacity’. After years of discussion,
Gibbs stated exergy to be S in a certain state SA is the maximum
theoretical useful work obtained if S is brought into thermodynamic
equilibrium with the environment by means of ideal processes in
which the system interacts only with this environment’. After the
1970s, the definition of the term exergy improved, and the well-
known exergy definition emerged. Within modern thermodynamics,
the definition of exergy is accepted as being the maximum shaft work
that can be done by the composite of a system and in a specified
reference environment that is assumed to be infinite, in equilibrium,
and ultimately enclosing all other systems. Following the 1980s, the
studies of Szargut [4] and Kotas [5] led to progress in thermal en-
gineering. Later, exergy-based thermodynamic assessment of various
thermal processes and systems attracted intensive attention [6]. Bejan
[7], Cengel [8] and Dincer [9] had a great influence on the evolution of
thermodynamics and the term exergy. Studies performed post 1990
show how to benefit from the term exergy for evaluation of thermal
processes and systems.
Exergy assessment is no longer only a method to understand en-
ergy utilization quality. It is also a useful tool to analyse and optimize
thermal systems with regard to economics, environmental and sus-
tainability issues. The exergo-environmental assessment method at-
tracts attention when common environmental issues (e.g. ozone de-
pletion, global warming) gain importance based on the strong bond
between energy consumption and ecology. However, air pollutants
come into existence as a result of energy generation, transformation
and transportation processes. Likewise, sustainable development and
sustainable energy technology related to environmental issues are
great concerns. However, it is essential to deplete energy sources ef-
ficiently for sustainability and a reduction of the impact on the en-
vironment thermal processes. It is obvious that thermal systems with
higher exergy efficiency affect the environment less and contribute
more to sustainable development [9–11].
Considering the working principles of aircraft gas turbine engines
is sufficient to comprehend the significance of an exergy-based ap-
proach. The working fluid of a system carries exergy as well as energy.
In any type of aircraft gas turbine engine, exergy is destroyed or en-
tropy is generated throughout the power-generation process, as with
other thermal systems. Thus, exergy analysis and optimization are
required for aircraft gas turbine engines. In addition, exergy analysis
forms a basis for environmental and economic improvement and for
the optimization of aircraft gas turbine engines as mentioned above
[12–19].
The current paper is intended to show the state of the art and
emphasize the necessity of exergy-based analyses for aircraft gas
turbine engines. From this point of view, previous accessible

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
studies are reviewed. The authors’ intention is to explain accep-
table assessment methodologies with reference to the literature.
2. Background
The explanation of essential knowledge about aircraft gas tur-
bine engines and the required basic principles of thermodynamics
for the assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines are made in this
section.
2.1. A brief history of aircraft gas turbine engines
Basic heat engines, invented by the Egyptians and Greeks, are the
basis of modern engines. However, in the 19th century, the idea of
impulse and reacting air tubes is a milestone in gas turbine engine
development. The first patent for a simple system similar to modern
gas turbines was issued in England, in 1791. This design, namely a
separate reciprocating compressor, produces air through a fuel fired
basic combustor. The combustion gases are used to energize an im-
pulse wheel by way of a nozzle. Unfortunately, any generated power is
insufficient to drive both compressor and the wheel. Thus, the design
could not be realized. However, sketches of the design inspired the
design of modern gas turbine engines. Eventually, the first successful
working gas turbine engine was built in 1903, comprising a three
cylinder multistage reciprocating compressor, a combustion chamber
and an impulse turbine. Air supplied by the compressor was burnt
with liquid fuel in the combustion chamber. Combustion gases were
cooled by water injection and then fed to the impulse turbine. This
device was the first working prototype gas turbine engine in history
[20,21].
In 1905, the German scientist Hans Holzwarth began studies on
gas turbine engines and developed a device called an explosion tur-
bine. This design is accepted as the first modern gas turbine engine by
many. Further research focusing on efficiency improvement was
conducted in the following years. In the 1930s, a research group
achieved an efficient gas turbine engine for aircraft jet propulsion. The
first flight of an airplane powered by this design took place on 15th
May 1941. Later, research on axial-flow compressor development was
conducted to achieve higher pressures, flow rates and greater effi-
ciency. At about the same time, progress in Germany resulted in a
successful working aircraft gas turbine engine. This operational air-
craft gas turbine engine consisted of a single centrifugal compressor, a
combustor and a radial-flow turbine. This was the first operational
aircraft gas turbine engine which was flight tested on 27th August,
1939. Later, an improved version of the engine, namely the HeS 8A,
made its first flight in 1941. These advances in Germany led to the
Jumo 004 engine in 1942. Later, propellers driving gas turbine engines
Fig. 1. Classification of aircraft gas turbine engines [23].
Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
3
(turboprops) and modern jet engines (turbojets) were developed.
Related to the progress in turbomachinery technology and material
science, advanced aircraft gas turbine engines (turbofans) for large
aircraft have been developed in recent decades [20–22].
2.2. Classification of aircraft gas turbine engines
In aerospace technology, the main function of an engine is to
provide the required power for the aerial vehicle and the thrust to
move. As shown in Fig. 1, aerospace engines are classified into two
main categories; air breathing and non-air breathing engines. Non-air
breathing engines are also known as rocket engines. However, air
breathing engines have two main sub classes; jet propulsion engines
and reciprocating engines. Gas turbine engines are the best known
class of jet propulsion engines, in addition to scramjets, ramjets,
pulsejets, turbo ramjets and turbo rockets. An explanation of gas
turbine engine types, which are discussed in the present paper with
an exergy approach, is given in Ref. [23].
Turbojet, turboprop, turboshaft, turbofan, propfan and ad-
vanced ducted fan engines are all gas turbine engine types de-
veloped over the years. Turbojet engines are the early type of gas
turbine engine, which were used to produce thrust for aircraft in
the 1940s. This type of gas turbine engine consists of an air inlet,
an air compressor, a combustion chamber, a gas turbine and an
exhaust nozzle. Turbojet engines can be categorised as one and
two spool engines. In a one spool turbojet engine, air flow is ab-
sorbed into an air inlet and passes through an air compressor after
flow regulation. Next, the air reaches high pressure and gets
warmer during the compression process. Pressurized air reacts
with fuel within the combustion chamber. As a result of this
chemical reaction, a large amount of heat is released. Combustion
gases at high temperature go through the gas turbine and enable
the generation of power to supply the air compressor and other
accessories. Exhaust gases leaving the gas turbine reach high ve-
locity while passing through the exhaust nozzle. Exhaust gases at
high velocity can produce thrust and aerial vehicles can move
thanks to the thrust. As a result of advances in technology, after-
burner turbojet engines emerged and it is possible to react exhaust
gases with fuel to increase thrust generation [21,22].
Turboprop engines are a combination of turbojet engines and
propeller. Here, unlike the turbojet engine, the gas turbine com-
ponent of the engine supplies power to the propeller by way of a
gearbox, in addition to the air compressor and accessories. The
propeller is a rotating part and it compresses air before intake and
enables the engine to absorb more air mass flow rate. As a result of
the pre-compression, high density air runs through the air com-
pressor. Additionally, propeller plays a vital role for thrust gen-
eration because of low contribution of the core exhaust gas to the
4 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

thrust on the basis of low exhaust speed. It is a fact that, most of capacity of the air under constant pressure can be found by [25–
the energy carried out by the core engine passing through the gas 27]:
turbine component is utilized to drive the shaft. Turboprop en-
383. 719 9. 45378 2 5. 49031
gines are classified depending on the turbine driving the propeller. cp, a=1. 04841 − T+ T −
106 107 1010
In the first class, the propeller is driven by a turbine which also
7. 92981 4
provides power to the air compressor. In another class of the T 3+ T
1014 (3)
turboprop engine, an additional turbine, named the power turbine
(free turbine) runs the propeller. Turboshaft engines work ac-
cording to the principle of turboprops. The main difference be- 2.3.2. Exergetic relations
tween a turboshaft engine and a turboprop engine is that tur- The constituents of the exergy are well defined in Refs.
boshafts are used to operate helicopters. The primary purpose of [4,10,29,30]. However, the following approach to divide exergy
turboshaft engines is to power a shaft driven propeller, not to into four elements is well-accepted in the literature [26–29]:
generate thrust, but they do generate a small proportion of thrust
e=e ph +e ch +e k +e p (4)
[21,22].
Turbofan engines are the most advanced type of gas turbine en- Here, the specific physical exergy of a perfect gas can be ex-
gines used on aerial vehicles, especially on commercial aircraft. Tur- pressed as [9,27,28]:
bofan engines may have one or two spools similar to the turbojet and
⎛ T P⎞
turboprop. However, before the intake of the core engine, an air fan is e ph=cp ( T −T0 )−T0 ⎜ cp ln −R ln ⎟
mounted. This fan rotates at high speed and compresses air flow like a ⎝ T0 P0 ⎠ (5)
compressor. Different to from other types of gas turbine engines, the
The chemical exergy expression varies depending on the
air flow is separated in two ways. The primary air passes through the
working fluid. In order of gas mixtures (air, gas and so on) and
core engine while the secondary air passes through the fan nozzle and
liquid fuel, the chemical exergy is formulated as follows [9,28]:
mixes with stack gases in the exhaust nozzle of the engine. The
ch ch
generated thrust of a turbofan engine is mostly provided by secondary ̅ = ∑ xi ei̅ +RT
emix ̅ 0 ∑ xi ln xi (6)
air. Turbofan engines can be classified in many groups. This classifi-
cation can be found in many texts [23,24]. ⎡ h o s
e ch
fuel =LHV ⎢ 1. 0401 + 0. 1728 +0. 0432 +0. 2169
⎣ c c c
2.3. Thermodynamic fundamentals
⎛ h ⎞⎤
⎜ 1 − 2. 0628 ⎟ ⎥
For an assessment of an aircraft gas turbine engine, using main ⎝ c ⎠⎦ (7)
terms within the scope of thermodynamics, it is important to make an
In Eq. (7); h, c , o and s represent the fuel ingredients of hy-
association with energy conservation, exergy and entropy balance.
drogen, carbon, oxygen and sulfur atomic fractions.
Hence, primary thermodynamic terms are presented in addition to
A literature survey shows that many researchers neglect the
exergy-based methodology under the following subheadings for bet-
changes in kinetic and potential energies and exergies. For this
ter understanding.
reason, the kinetic and potential elements of exergy are not
2.3.1. Mass and energy balance relations mentioned in the present study.
In accordance with the first law of thermodynamics, mass and From the view point of thermodynamic laws, the exergy bal-
energy balance equations for any component of an aircraft gas ance equation for a steady-state system, such as air compressors,
turbine engine, as well as the overall engine, under consideration combustion chambers and turbines may be stated as [9,28]:
of steady-state conditions, are expressed as [5–9]: ̇ −Eout
Ein ̇ −EḊ −EL̇ =0 (8.a)
∑ ṁ in= ∑ ṁ out (1)
EḞ −EṖ −EḊ −EL̇ =0 (8.b)

Q̇ −Ẇ + ∑ ṁ in ⎡⎣ hin + Vin

( 2
/2 +gzin ⎤⎦− ∑ ṁ out ⎡⎣ hout + Vout
) (2
/2 +gz out ⎤⎦
) Eqs. (8.a) and (8.b) are a representation of exergy balance ac-
=0
In Eqs. (1) and (2), ṁ , Q̇ and Ẇ denote mass flow rate, net rate
of work and heat transfer rate respectively. In light of these gov-
erning equations, mass balance and energy conversion statements
are summarized in Table 1 for each component of the gas turbine
engine. To conduct the first law analysis of aircraft gas turbine
engine components, according to the table, the specific heat
cording to in–out and fuel-product paradigms of exergy analysis
(2)
respectively. In the accessible literature, both of these approaches
are used. Here, in and out subscripts denote the inlet and outlet
sections of the system, whereas fuel means exergetic fuel, which is
supplied to the system for energy provision. Similarly, the product
represents the exergetic product, and being gained from the sys-
tem. On the other hand, the fuel-product approach is preferred by
authors to avoid confusion of the nomenclature in the next steps

Table 1
First law statements for aircraft gas turbine engine components [25].

Component Mass balancea Energy conversiona

DF ṁ in=ṁ out ,1+ṁ out ,2 Ẇ DF =ṁ out ,1cp, out ,1Tout ,1+ṁ out ,2 cp, out ,2 Tout,2−ṁ in cp, in Tin
AC ṁ in=ṁ out =ṁ a Ẇ AC =ṁ a (cp, a, out Tout −cp, a, in Tin )
CC ṁ g =ṁ a +ṁ f ṁ a cp, a, out Ta, out +ṁ f ηc LHV = ṁ g cp, g Tg
GT ṁ in=ṁ out =ṁ g Ẇ GT =ṁ g (cp, g , in Tin−cp, g , out Tout )

a
in and out subscripts denote inlet and outlet section of each component unique and
separately.

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 5

Table 2 BḊ , k=bF , k EḊ , k (16)

Exergetic fuel and product terms of aircraft gas turbine engine components [28].
The following equation states the environmental impact bal-
Component Fuel Product
ance for the overall gas turbine or one of its components [40]:
DF Ẇ DF ̇ −Ein
Eout ̇ Nout Nin
AC Ẇ AC ̇ −Ein
Eout ̇ ∑ ̇ , k +Yk̇ = ∑ Bin
Bout ̇ ,k
CC Eḟ ̇ −Ein
Eout ̇ out in (17)
GT Eiṅ −Eout
̇ ̇
WGT In Eq. (17), the right hand of the equation is the total en-
vironmental impact associated with input streams, whereas the
left hand side is the entire environmental impact associated with
of the analysis. However, the fuel-product approach is commonly-
output streams [40].
used for economic and environmental analysis of aircraft gas tur-
bine engines on the basis of exergy [28].
2.3.5. Exergo-sustainability relations
If heat transfer from the engine components through the am-
The defined measures to evaluate sustainability with the aid of
bient environment is disregarded as in former studies, the exergy
exergy are the waste exergy ratio, the recoverable exergy rate, the
balance equation is derived from Eqs. (8.b)–(28):
exergy destruction factor, the environmental effect factor and the
EḞ −EṖ −EḊ =0 (9) exergetic sustainability index [40,41]. The waste exergy ratio can
be found by dividing the total waste exergy stream by the total
The exergetic fuel and product terms of the aircraft gas turbine inlet exergy stream [41,42]:
engine components are given in Table 2 according to the inlet and
outlet sections of each component. ∑ EL̇ + ∑ EḊ
rwe=
∑ Eiṅ (18)
2.3.3. Exergo-economic relations
The recoverable exergy rate is the exergy amount recovered
Exergo-economic evaluation methodology is a combination of
from the system [41,42]:
exergy analysis and economic aspect analysis. Numerous methods can
be found in the literature for this: exergy economic approach (EEA); ̇
Eexh
rre=
thermoeconomic functional analysis (TFA); first exergoeconomic ap- ̇
∑ Ein (19)
proach (FEA); engineering functional analysis (EFA); exergetic cost
theory (ECT); last-in first-out approach (LIFOA); structural analysis The exergy destruction factor means the reduction of the sys-
tem's positive effect on exergetic sustainability. The positive im-
approach (SAA); specific exergy costing (SPECO); exergy cost energy
pact of the system is the supply of more desired exergy output and
mass analysis (EXCEM); and modified productive structure analysis
a decrease in the exergy destruction and minimization of the
(MOPSA) [30–39]. However, the SPECO approach is commonly used
waste exergy output. The exergy destruction factor is zero in actual
and well-accepted in the accessible literature.
cases and it is found by dividing the exergy destruction rate by the
As explained in Refs. [28,37], according to the SPECO method,
total inlet exergy stream [41,42]:
cost balance equations are written for each component of the
system, according to the following statements: ∑ EḊ
fed =
̇
∑ Ein (20)
ĊP, k=ĊF , k+Zk̇ (10)
The environmental effect factor is expressed by the following
cP, k E ̇P, k=cF , k EḞ , k+Zk̇ (11) Eq. (19) [41,42]:
rwe
The exergo-economic evaluation of the system is based on the reef =
ε (21)
relative cost difference and exergoeconomic factor. These criteria
are expressed respectively as follows [28,37]: The exergetic sustainability index varies from 0 to 1 and can be
written as follows [41,42]:
cP, k − cF , k
r=
cF , k (12) 1
Θ=
reef (22)
Zk̇
fk =
Zk̇ + CḊ , k (13)
3. Literature overview on exergy-based assessment studies of
aircraft gas turbine engines
2.3.4. Exergo-environmental relations
The exergo-environmental analysis comprises exergy analysis
In this section of the paper, previously performed accessible
and life cycle assessment (LCA). Exergo-environmental analysis is
studies are classified according to exergy and exergy-based as-
comprised of three steps. Firstly, an exergy analysis of the system
sessment methodologies. The authors endeavor to present the
components is conducted. Next, a life cycle assessment of the
state of the art as far as possible.
examined component and the overall system is performed. At the
last step, the environmental impact of each component is revealed,
3.1. Exergetic assessment studies
with the aid of the following measures, according to the fuel-
product analogy [40]: Aircraft gas turbine engines have been investigated with the
BḞ , k=bF , k EḞ , k (14) aid of exergy terms by many researchers. The earliest accessible
study in this framework was conducted by Roth and Mavris [43]
Thermodynamic losses in an aircraft gas turbine engine are ana-
BṖ , k=bP, k EṖ , k (15)
lysed in this paper. According to assumptions of an 85%

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6 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
compressor isentropic efficiency, a 90% turbine isentropic effi-
ciency, and a 5% pressure loss in the combustor, various perfor-
mance parameters of the J-79 turbojet engine are presented. Ex-
ergy parameters of the engine are determined for sea level con-
ditions and 6.09 km (20000 ft.) altitude.
In Ref. [44] the exergy performance variation of a turbojet en-
gine is examined for the altitude range from 0 km to 15 km. The
authors conclude that the decrease of real engine efficiency is
proportional to an increase in altitude. Riggins [45] developed an
exergetic approach to assess the performance sustainability of jet
engines in his paper. As a result, he was able to present losses
through irreversibility. The importance of the flow exergy for en-
gine design and optimization processes is underlined.
Karakoc et al. [46] discuss the exergy parameters of a turbofan
engine fed with hydrogen as fuel. Hydrogen utilization, instead of
kerosene for equivalent engine power, has great impact on fuel
consumption. In addition, by decreasing the specific fuel con-
sumption rate by 39.2%, the highest exergy destruction was found
to be 45.6 MW in the combustor. In another study [47], a kerosene
fed turbofan engine with afterburner was investigated ex-
ergetically at sea level and an altitude of 11 km. An exergy analysis
was performed based on the engine components (fan, air com-
pressor, combustor, turbine and afterburner). It was shown that
the highest exergy destruction occurred in the afterburner under
both operating conditions. Contrary to other studies, exergy effi-
ciency was calculated using two different approaches. A variation
of exergy efficiency, depending on the approach is emphasized by
the authors. The highest exergy efficiency was found to be 88.5%
for the turbine component of the engine at sea level conditions.
Additionally, it is asserted that exergy efficiency is inversely pro-
portional with altitude as a result of a decrease in temperature.
An exergy analysis of the J69-T25A turbojet engine, using ex-
perimental data obtained from the Turkish Air Force Maintenance
Center was presented in Ref. [48]. External irreversible losses of
aircraft gas turbine engines, because of the thermodynamic equi-
librium of exhaust gases with the environment, are discussed by
Struchtrup and Elfring [49]. The impact of bypass ratio on exergy
destruction in the exhaust stream are presented in this paper. As a
concluding comment of the study, the use of high bypass turbofan
engines in aircraft is recommended whereas exergy efficiency of
the overall engine is found to be 34.84%.
A CF6-80 turbofan engine was evaluated exergetically in an-
other paper [50]. In contrast to other studies, the impact of the
engine components' isentropic efficiency variation on exergy de-
struction and exergy efficiency was examined. The greatest exergy
destruction was determined to be in the fan exhaust component.
Additionally, based upon the rise in the isentropic efficiency of the
components, exergy efficiency of the components and overall en-
gine increased according to the paper. Tona et al. [51] present the
exergy parameters of a turbofan engine. The major exergy para-
meters of each component were calculated for the take-off, climb,
cruise, descent, holding and landing phases of a flight. Also, the
influence of an anti-icing system on the exergy performance of the
engine was examined.
Aydin et al. [52] put forth an exergy evaluation of a CT7-9C tur-
boprop/turboshaft engine under various operating conditions and
engine loads. The authors propound the main parameters (e.g. exergy
destruction rate, exergy efficiency, improvement potential and fuel
depletion rate) of the engine components in the paper. Turan [25]
presents the impact of design parameters on a small turbojet engine
exergetically based on theoretical cycle data, and the variation of ex-
ergy parameters for several air pressure ratios and turbine inlet
temperatures. It is emphasized that the exergy efficiency of the
compressor is proportional with the air pressure ratio and is in-
dependent from the turbine inlet temperature. In addition, a higher
air pressure ratio had a positive impact on the combustor exerge-
Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
tically. Additionally, Turan discusses the requirement of thermo-
dynamic optimization for operating conditions with high turbine inlet
temperature in a case study.
In Ref. [53] altitude impact on the exergy performance of a
turbofan engine was investigated. Specific exergy based metho-
dology was preferred by the researcher and the achievement of
higher exergy efficiency at low altitudes was deduced as a result of
the study. Ehyaei et al. [54] performed an exergy analysis of a
turbojet engine with afterburner. The examined engine was con-
sidered at two different altitudes and two different inlet velocities.
Differently from former studies, the kinetic energy and exergy of
the working fluids were taken into account. As a concluding
comment of the paper, it was stated that the exergy efficiency of
the engine components decreased as the air inlet velocity was
lowered.
An exergy assessment of a turboprop engine is presented at var-
ious loads in Ref. [55]. The maximum energy and exergy efficiencies of
the turboprop engine were found to be 30.7% and 29.2%, respectively.
The authors emphasize that the optimum functional load conditions
of the engine are observed at higher loads. Balli and Hepbasli [23]
analyse a T56 turboprop engine exergetically in their paper. The en-
gine was evaluated at four different loads and under two different
environmental conditions. The authors emphasize an increase in fuel
mass flow for more engine shaft power. Furthermore, kinetic energy
and exergy rates had an impact only on efficiencies and improvement
potential.
The local exergy destruction in the air inlet and fan components of
a CF6-50 engine was studied using a computational fluid dynamics
approach by Hassan [56]. This approach sets the study apart from
others with entropy generation in the components calculated as-
suming flow area with regard to viscosity. The author concludes that
the exergy destruction in the air inlet could be negligible.
The exergy performance of a JT8D turbofan engine at take-off
mode is revealed in Ref. [57]. The thrust specific fuel consumption,
fuel depletion rate, productivity lack and the improvement po-
tential of the engine components are all evaluated. Balli [58] dis-
cusses the impact of the afterburner on a J85-CAN-15 turbojet
engine exergetically. According to the paper, the energy and ex-
ergy efficiency of the engine decreases while the afterburner is
activated.
In another paper, accessed in the literature, energy and exergy
approaches of thermodynamics were used to develop a genetic
algorithm for design optimization of a turbofan engine [59]. The
algorithm aims to determine the optimum values of various design
parameters of the turbofan engine with the aid of exergy. Bakla-
cioglu et al. [60] assess the exergy efficiency of turboprop engine
components and develop a hybrid code with the aid of genetic
algorithms and artificial neural networks to reveal component
performances from the view point of exergy.
Ref. [61] deals with the exergy analysis of a turboprop engine
under take-off conditions. At the end of that study, the exergy
efficiency of the entire engine was found to be 26.74%. Ekici et al.
[62] evaluate the sustainability of a turboprop engine fueled with a
conventional aviation and methanol mixture. Within this frame-
work, an exergy analysis was conducted by the authors. It is
concluded that the first and second law efficiencies of the engine
increase in respect to the ratio of the methanol rise in the fuel
mixture.
In another text [60], advanced exergy analysis of a gas turbine
is presented as a new methodology for performance evaluation.
While performing the methodology, the exergy analysis of the
engine was conducted as a first step. Sohret et al. [64] examine a
turbofan engine of a UAV during a typical flight mission. Here, the
impact of a number of measures such as flight altitude and var-
iation of ambient conditions, flight Mach number on exergy
parameters of the engine are revealed.
 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 7

3.2. Exergo-economic assessment studies
Economic analysis and optimization studies of aircraft gas turbine
engines with the aid of exergy are rare in the accessible literature. Due
to secrecy within the aviation industry, it is difficult to obtain any
economic aspects of aircraft gas turbine engines. However, an exergo-
economic evaluation of a J69-T25A engine was introduced in 2008
[48]. In this paper, the authors derive exergy and exergo-economic
cost balance equations for each component of the engine. Cost balance
equations are used to find cost formation. Turgut et al. [65] present a
new parameter to define thrust cost rate, while calculating the cost of
exergy destruction, the relative cost difference and the exergo-eco-
nomic factor for a turbofan engine. For the examined engine, the cost
rate of thrust was found to be 304.35 $/hkN and 138.96 $/hkN for hot
and cold thrust respectively. In another paper, Tona et al. [51] put
forward the economical aspects of a turbofan engine using exergy
assessment methodology. The authors mostly aimed to illustrate an
exergy analysis of an aircraft gas turbine engine, but the presented
methodology is considered to be a benchmark for future studies. In
2012, Aydin et al. [24] revealed an exergo-economic analysis of a
modern turboprop engine used for a medium-range twin-engine
transport plane. Authors investigated the main components of the
engine (the compressor, the combustor, the gas generator, the power
turbine and the exhaust) in order to calculate exergy parameters along
with exergo-economic parameters. Another turboprop engine was
examined by Balli and Hepbasli [66] using exergy-based methodolo-
gies. The environmental damage cost rates of the engine were cal-
culated to be 423.94 $/h at a 75% load, 576.97 $/h at a 100% load,
634.93 $/h at military operating conditions and 665.85 $/h at take-off
operating conditions. The total cost rate consisted of the sum of the
fuel costs, the capital investment costs, the operating and main-
tenance costs, and the cost of the environmental damage. The total
cost rates of the engine were determined to be 1702.59 $/h at a 75%
load, 2100.26 $/h at a 100% load, 2220.42 $/h at military operating
conditions and 2284.50 $/h at take-off operating conditions.
3.3. Exergo-environmental assessment studies
Studies on the environmental assessment of aircraft gas turbine
engines within the framework of exergy are scarce in the litera-
ture. Research into the accessible literature reveals a lack of ex-
ergo-environmental analyses of aircraft gas turbine engines. One
study conducted by Atilgan et al. [67] presents an investigation of
a turboprop engine that is in service on regional aircraft. It is
shown in this paper that the air compressor, combustion chamber,
gas turbine, power turbine and exhaust nozzle create 9%, 69%, 13%,
7%, and 2% of total environmental impact, respectively. The au-
thors recommend improvement of the compressor and gas turbine
components of the engine, primarily in respect of the environ-
mental impact. The authors also recommend exergo-environ-
mental methodology as a useful tool to estimate the environ-
mental impact indicators of aircraft and engines.
3.4. Exergo-sustainability assessment studies
In the accessible literature, studies regarding the exergo-sustain-
ability analysis of aircraft gas turbine engines have been conducted by
numerous researchers. In one of these, exergy-based sustainability
indicators (exergy efficiency, waste exergy ratio, exergy destruction
ratio, and environmental effect factors and exergetic sustainability
index) of a turboprop engine for eight flight phases were introduced.
Exergy efficiency, waste exergy ratio and the exergetic sustainability
index of a turboprop aircraft engine were found to be in the range of
0.274–0.290, 0.726–0.708 and 0.380–0.410 respectively [68]. The sus-
tainability of a PW6000 turbofan engine was assessed with an exergy-
based approach in another paper [69]. For this purpose, detailed

Table 3
A summary of exergy-based aircraft gas turbine engine studies examined.

Ref Year Engine/Component Type Fuel type Energy Exergy Economics Environmental Sustainability

[43] 2001 Turbojet N/A þ þ

[44] 2001 Turbojet Methane (CH4) þ þ
[45] 2003 Turbojet/Scramjet Hydrogen þ þ
[46] 2007 Turbofan Hydrogen þ þ
[47] 2007 Turbofan Hydrogen þ þ
[48] 2008 Turbojet Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[49] 2008 Turbofan N/A þ þ
[65] 2009 Turbofan Kerosene þ þ þ
[50] 2009 Turbofan Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ
[51] 2010 Turbofan Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[52] 2012 Turboshaft/Turboprop Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ
[53] 2012 Turbofan JP-8 (C12H23) þ þ
[26] 2012 Turboprop Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[27] 2012 Turbojet JP-8 (C12H23) þ þ
[25] 2013 Turboprop JP-8 (C12H23) þ þ
[54] 2013 Turbojet Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ
[55] 2013 Turboprop JP-8 (C12H23) þ
[56] 2013 Intake Fan N/A þ
[67] 2013 Turboprop Jet-A1 þ þ þ þ
[68] 2013 Turboprop Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[66] 2014 Turboprop JP-8 þ þ þ
[69] 2014 Turbofan Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[57] 2014 Turbofan Jet-A1 þ þ
[58] 2014 Turbojet JP-8 (C12H23) þ þ
[59] 2014 Turbofan Kerosene (C12H23.5) þ þ
[60] 2015 Turboprop JP-8 (C12H23) þ þ
[63] 2015 Turbofan Kerosene (C11H21) þ þ
[64] 2015 Turbofan Kerosene (C11H21) þ þ
[70] 2015 Turbofan Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[71] 2015 Turbofan Jet-A1 (C12H23) þ þ þ
[61] N/A Turboprop Jet-A (C11H23) þ þ
[62] N/A Turboprop Kerosene (C12H26)/Methanol (CH3OH) þ þ þ
[72] N/A Turbofan Hydrogen (H2) þ þ þ

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8 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

exergy analyses were implemented to identify the exergy efficiency, useful tool for the performance evaluation of energy systems.
waste exergy ratio, exergy destruction factor, environmental effect From the emergence of the methodology, the popularity and ex-
factor and exergo-sustainability index as sustainability indicators. tensive use of exergy for this purpose has been steadily increasing.
These sustainability parameters were found to be 9.7%, 70.3%, 59.4%, According to the present literature review, using exergy for the
2.367 and 0.423 for the engine under maximum take-off flight con- performance evaluation of aircraft gas turbines began in 2001. In
ditions, respectively. A third exergy aided sustainability assessment the last three years, exergy analysis has been extensively used for
study was conducted for a turbofan engine on the basis of test cell the performance evaluation of different aircraft gas turbine engine
data [70]. As a result of the study, the exergy efficiency, waste exergy types.
ratio, exergy destruction factor, recoverable exergy rate, environ- It is a well-known fact that there are many types of conven-
mental effect factor and exergetic sustainability index of the engine tional aviation fuels, such as JP-8, Jet-A, Jet-A1 and so on [23–
were found to be 0.315, 0.685, 0.408, 0, 2.174 and 0.460 respectively. In 25,48,50–55,57–60,63–71]. However, the chemical formula of the
these early papers, the relationship among design parameters of the fuel injected into combustion chambers is C12H23, but the naming
gas turbine engine and the environmental impact and sustainable of the fuel varies as summarized in Table 3. One underlying reason
development were highlighted by the authors. In another piece of for this is the number of papers by different authors. Each author's
research [71], exergy was presented as useful in assessing the sus- reference for the chemical composition of fuel differs from that of
tainability of a high bypass turbofan engine. Within this framework, other authors. Another point to note from the summary tables is a
sustainability indicators of the evaluated engine were discussed in preference for hydrogen, methanol and methane, rather than
detail. Similarly Kaya et al. [72] used exergy to introduce sustainability
conventional aviation fuels, for instance, JP-8, Jet-A and Jet-A1
parameters of a turbofan engine fed by hydrogen. Contrary to earlier
[44–47,62]. Opting for alternative fuels or a mixture of alternative
papers, the heating of the fuel provided to the examined engine by
fuel and conventional fuel, any exergy analysis of aircraft gas tur-
exhaust gases was simulated.
bine engines can be seen as a milestone. With respect to advances
in alternative fuel production technology, it is predicted that al-
ternative fuels will become more popular in aircraft gas turbine
4. Results and discussion
engine exergy analyses in the future. Thus, the impact of alter-
native fuels on the performance of aircraft gas turbine engines will
In the present study, the current situation of exergy-based appli-
be discussed more extensively [62].
cations to aircraft gas turbine engines is introduced. In Table 3, former
Another point of note in the compiled literature is that four dif-
studies are summarized from this perspective. According to this table,
ferent air composition assumptions were used in earlier studies.
the number of studies conducted on an exergo-economic evaluation
of aircraft gas turbine engines is six whereas only two of the com-
Table 5
pletely exergy-based methodology papers deal with environmental Characteristic values of examined engines in the framework of pure exergy analysis
impact of aircraft gas turbine engines. On the other hand, exergo- studies.
sustainability assessments of aircraft gas turbine engines have been
Ref. Year AFR SFC (kg/kWh) TSFC (g/kNs)
discussed in only five papers.
Most of the papers related with aircraft gas turbine engine [25] 2013 56.49 0.385/0.337 N/A
exergy analysis present a state of the art for performance evalua- 45.15 0.353/0.316 N/A
tion. In 31% of the papers in the accessible literature, turboprop 42.96 0.342/0.307 N/A
engines were examined with 22% focusing on turbojet engines and 47.88 0.332/0.299 N/A
[26] 2012 43.50 N/A N/A
47% focusing on turbofan engines. As mentioned earlier, exergy is a [27] 2012 N/A N/A 63.76–63.86
[43] 2001 67.56 N/A 20.97
Table 4 68.02 N/A 27.61
Air composition assumption made by researchers in pure exergy analysis studies. [44] 2001 N/A N/A N/A
[46] 2007 N/A N/A N/A
Ref. Year N2 (%) O2 (%) CO2 (%) H2O (g) (%) P0 (kPa) T0 (K) [47] 2007 N/A N/A N/A
[48] 2008 56.00 N/A N/A
[25] 2013 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 93.60 298.15 [50] 2009 N/A N/A 10.03–17.55
[26] 2012 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 93.00 279.00 [51] 2010 N/A N/A N/A
[27] 2012 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 30.73 229.50 [52] 2012 54.4 N/A N/A
[43] 2001 N/A N/A N/A N/A 101.32 288.33 50.9 N/A N/A
[44] 2001 79.67 18.77 0.03 1.53 101.32 288.00 46.2 N/A N/A
[46] 2007 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 306.50 43.9 N/A N/A
[47] 2007 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 298.00 42.3 N/A N/A
[48] 2008 74.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 289.26 41.1 N/A N/A
[50] 2009 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 306.50 [53] 2012 N/A N/A N/A
[51] 2010 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A [54] 2013 N/A N/A N/A
[52] 2012 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 92.40 281.00 [55] 2013 N/A 0.3824 N/A
[53] 2012 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 ISA values N/A 0.3220 N/A
[54] 2013 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 298.1 N/A 0.2875 N/A
77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 298.1 N/A 0.2780 N/A
77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 23.40 220.15 N/A 0.2731 N/A
77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 23.40 220.15 N/A 0.2704 N/A
[55] 2013 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 92.40 281.00 [57] 2014 64.0 N/A N/A
[57] 2014 N/A N/A N/A N/A 101.35 288.15 [58] 2014 50.0 0.266 25.82
[58] 2014 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 101.32 298.15 N/A 0.348 48.22
[59] 2014 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 N/A N/A [59] 2014 N/A N/A N/A
[60] 2015 77.48 20.59 0.03 1.90 N/A N/A [60] 2015 N/A N/A N/A
[61] N/A 79.00 21.00 0.00 0.00 101.32 298.15 [61] N/A N/A N/A N/A
[62] N/A 79.00 21.00 0.00 0.00 101.32 298.15 [62] N/A 48.96–49.81 N/A N/A
[63] 2015 75.67 20.35 0.03 3.03 101.35 288.15 [63] 2015 N/A N/A N/A
[64] 2015 75.67 20.35 0.03 3.03 8.0–104.0 230.0–290.0 [64] 2015 N/A N/A N/A

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
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 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 9

Commonly-used air composition in exergy analysis refers to a book by
Bejan et al. [27]. According to this assumption, air is comprised of
77.48% nitrogen, 20.59% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, and 1.90%
water vapor. The summary presented in Table 4 reveals that all air
composition assumptions are theoretical. However, experimental data
of the measured air composition would improve the quality of the
future studies. In former studies, an agreed air composition was pre-
ferred despite disagreement concerning theoretical ambient (dead
state) conditions. In other words, ambient pressure was assumed to be
101.32 kPa, similar to theoretical conditions, whereas ambient tem-
perature varied according to researchers’ theoretical assumptions. For
this reason, studies conducted recently have used two approaches:
ambient condition variations dependent on altitude, and flight phase
(Mach number) variable ambient conditions. Within this scope, in-
ternational standard atmosphere (ISA) tables are used to obtain the-
oretical ambient conditions.
Table 5 summarizes air to fuel ratio (AFR), specific fuel con-
sumption (SFC) and thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) values
of the examined engines in the accessible literature. According to
the table, the AFR of the engines varies from 40 to 70, with an
approximate average of 51. In the papers reviewed in the current
study, specific fuel consumption is preferred to thrust specific fuel
consumption by researchers. The average value of the specific fuel
consumption is found to be 0.31 for previously examined gas
turbine engines.
In Table 6, the exergy efficiency calculation results of previous
studies are summarized. If air compressor exergy efficiency values
are focused on, it averages at 88.42%. Variation of air compressor
exergy efficiency occurs for a number of reasons. These underlying
reasons are: variability of isentropic and adiabatic efficiency as-
sumptions; ambient conditions; mass flow rate; air composition;
compressor load; pressure ratio; ducted fan performance (if it is

Table 6
Exergy efficiency values obtained as a result of pure exergy analysis studies.

Ref Year Paradigm Exergy efficiency (%)

DF AC CC GT PT NZ Overall

[25] 2013 in–out N/A 87.42 66.04 99.54 N/A 98.75 23.8
[26] 2012 in–out N/A 90.60 79.90 96.20 95.20 98.10 30.0
[27] 2012 fuel-product N/A 82.87 55.83 87.48 N/A 85.31 N/A
N/A 84.16 57.29 87.53 N/A 86.60 N/A
N/A 85.03 58.57 87.69 N/A 88.03 N/A
N/A 85.68 59.72 87.91 N/A 88.54 N/A
[43] 2001 in–out N/A 95.8 69.2 97.8 N/A 99.5 N/A
N/A 96.4 73.4 98.1 N/A 99.2 N/A
[44] 2001 fuel-product N/A 0.01 0.00 0.01 N/A 0.17 N/A
N/A 0.00 0.00 0.01 N/A 0.15 N/A
[46] 2007 in–out 89.79 95.84 72.09 98.25–97.56 N/A N/A 87.41
fuel-product 90.13 95.16 72.31 97.01–97.27 N/A N/A 85.41
[47] 2007 fuel-product 80.60 70.40 66.70 88.50 N/A N/A 66.10
86.90 94.30 65.80 66.90 N/A N/A 54.20
in–out 81.60 93.30 70.40 93.90 N/A N/A 71.10
74.00 85.50 63.50 90.10 N/A N/A 59.80
[48] 2008 in–out N/A 81.33 55.13 96.05 N/A 88.41 34.84
[50] 2009 fuel-product 94.11 83.41–95.17 80.72 96.69–96.91 N/A N/A N/A
[51] 2010 N/A Results are not clearly given.
[52] 2012 in–out N/A 85 76 92.3 93.3 N/A N/A
N/A 84.4 79.2 94.5 93.8 N/A N/A
N/A 84.2 81.1 97.4 90.3 N/A N/A
N/A 84.1 81.7 97.0 91.1 N/A N/A
N/A 84.1 82 96.7 91.8 N/A N/A
N/A 83.8 82.1 97.1 91.7 N/A N/A
[53] 2012 fuel-product 89.0 80.0 73.0 88.0–81.0 N/A 75.0 48.91
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 48.92
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 49.30
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 49.67
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 50.01
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 50.34
[54] 2013 in–out N/A 96.7 80.40 92.3 N/A 93.7 N/A
N/A 97.5 48.00 80.80 N/A 93.3 25.60
N/A 95.70–97.0 84.5 63.6 N/A 90.5–94.8 50.70
N/A 97.0 56.3 48.6 N/A 96.40 25.00
[55] 2013 in–out N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 20.60
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 24.20
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 27.5
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 28.4
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 28.9
N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 29.2
[57] 2014 in–out N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[58] 2014 in–out N/A 83.33 60.40 98.67 N/A 97.08 29.81
N/A 83.33 60.40 98.67 N/A 67.21 22.77
[59] 2014 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[60] 2015 in–out N/A 83.8–85.0 76–82.14 92.3–92.8 90.18–94.67 N/A N/A
[63] 2015 fuel-product N/A 89.0–86.0 60.6 98.6 N/A N/A 3.13
[61] N/A in–out N/A 86.95 82.16 97.86 85.52 N/A 26.74
[62] N/A in–out N/A 89.14 75.06–75.45 98.51–98.52 94.19–94.20 N/A 30.23–30.46
[64] 2015 fuel-product 79.39–95.93 94.79–95.46 58.24–64.88 98.53–98.09–90.97–92.15 N/A N/A N/A

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
10 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

considered); calculation approach of specific heat capacity under
constant pressure and ratios of bleed and cooling air mass flows
drained from the compressor inter stages. Depending on these
factors, exergy efficiency of air compressors varies from 80% to 90%
approximately. The variation in exergy efficiency of combustion
chambers is shown in Table 6. Adiabatic operating conditions,
combustion chamber inlet air conditions (temperature, pressure
and mass flow rate), fuel mass flow rate, physical phase (liquid or
gas) of the fuel, fuel chemical composition (especially oxygen in-
cluding), lower heating value of fuel, air composition, and the
approach to calculate specific heat capacity assumptions play a
vital role in variations of exergy analysis results of the combustion
chamber. As stated in numerous previous studies, the exergy ef-
ficiency of the combustion chamber is lowest compared to all
other gas turbine components, because of the irreversibility of the
combustion process. The main reasons for irreversibility of the
combustion process are discussed in detail by many researchers
[73–75]. According to Table 6, the exergy efficiency of combustion
chambers is on average 69.36% and varies generally from 60% to
70%. The gas turbine component is a turbomachine as well as the
air compressor and exergy efficiency is dependent on some of the
design parameters of the turbine and assumed data. These include
isentropic and adiabatic efficiencies, combustion gas conditions
(temperature, pressure and mass flow rate), composition of com-
bustion gas mixture, expansion ratio assumptions effect on turbine
exergy efficiency variety, in addition to the specific heat capacity
calculation approach and cooling air flow rate. As indicated in
Table 6, the turbine components of the examined gas turbine
engines are the most efficient components, with an average value
of 98%, compared to all other components.
In the current paper, two paradigms are presented for exergy
analysis. Using the in–out or the fuel-product paradigm affects the
exergy efficiency values found, as it is clearly comprehended from the
Table 6. The preferred paradigm in the analysis has a significant in-
fluence on the exergy efficiency of each component and the overall
engine. Exergy efficiency is named universal efficiency for the in–out
paradigm, whereas a functional efficiency term is used for the fuel-
product paradigm. Additionally, the in–out paradigm is mostly pre-
ferred by researchers dealing with aircraft gas turbine engine exergy
analysis. Table 7
In the present paper, the sum of the exergy destruction rates and
the exergy loss rates are referred to as exergy consumption rate ac-
cording to the definition in Ref. [27]. Most researchers neglect exergy
losses and only regard exergy destruction in the previous studies
based on adiabatic condition assumptions, neglecting friction loss
within the components. As a result, the exergy consumption rate
equals the exergy destruction rate. Up until now, the highest exergy
consumption rate was found to be at the combustion chamber among
all other components by researchers examining aircraft gas turbine
engines with the aid of the exergy. Chemical processes, high heat loss
rate, heat transfer across large temperature differences between
working fluid (air) and fuel can be stated as the main reasons for high
exergy consumption rates within the combustion chamber. According
to the comparison of components, the relative irreversibility of the
combustion chambers is shown to vary between 60% and 90% in re-
viewed papers. Conversely, the gas turbine component has the lowest
exergy consumption rate among all other gas turbine engine
components.

Table 7
Exergy consumption rates found at the end of pure exergy analysis studies.

Ref Year Paradigm Exergy consumption rate [EḊ + EL̇ ] (kW)

DF AC CC GT PT NZ

[25] 2013 in–out N/A 618.83 4846.29 149.21 N/A 37.44

N/A 618.83 5853.53 111.30 N/A 45.97
N/A 618.83 6095.29 81.73 N/A 48.55
N/A 618.83 6234.13 39.80 N/A 49.18
[26] 2012 in–out N/A 205.00 1308.00 197.00 139.00 27.00
[27] 2012 fuel-product N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[43] 2001 in–out N/A 25.58a 180.10a 13.72a N/A 3.25a
N/A 22.09a 162.35a 11.86a N/A 4.65a
[44] 2001 fuel-product N/A 24.20 323.60 4.20 N/A 19.30
N/A 18.20 284.60 2.70 N/A 19.70
[46] 2007 in–out 3870 2860 45670 2100–1300 N/A 55790
fuel-product 3870 2860 45170 2100–1300 N/A 55290
[47] 2007 fuel-product 2520 9970 25930 6090 N/A N/A
780 1070 10680 1840 N/A N/A
[48] 2008 in–out N/A 292.76 3691.06 179.32 N/A 317.43
[50] 2009 fuel-product 2190 2850 3154 2060 N/A N/A
[51] 2010 N/A Results are not clearly given.
[52] 2012 in–out N/A 198 940 233 101 N/A
N/A 262 981 204 119 N/A
N/A 325 1084 119.9 253.8 N/A
N/A 358 1164 154 257 N/A
N/A 373 1204 179 249 N/A
N/A 396 1254 166 270 N/A
a
[53] 2012 fuel-product 4.35 6.70a 38.43a 6.90a–11.39a N/A 11.24a
[54] 2013 in–out N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[55] 2014 in–out N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[58] 2014 in–out N/A 915.12 7701.46 76.36 N/A 182.72
N/A 915.12 7701.46 76.36 N/A 10800.79
[59] 2014 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[60] 2015 in–out N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[61] N/A in–out N/A 337.12 1461.87 69.74 269.22 N/A
[62] N/A in–out N/A 265.61 1995.35–2039.22 39.80–40.20 105.06–105.26 N/A
[63] 2015 fuel-product N/A 1709–2818 46777 543 N/A N/A
[64] 2015 fuel-product 27.48–557.58 28.64–445.13 1269.74–14492.39 6.84–146.47–33.61–578.28 N/A N/A

a
Values are specific exergy amount.

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 11

Table 8
Measures calculated in exergo-economic analysis studies.

Ref. Engine type Method component cost (US$ h
1) Fuel exergy cost (US$ Maximum exergoeconomic fac- Maximum relative cost dif-
GW
1) tor (%) ference (%)
AC CC GT Exhaust Total

[26] Turboprop SPECO 96.25 38.81 153.69 21.73 310.48 25.20 N/A N/A
[48] Turbojet SPECO 98.02 37.70 124.41 11.31 282.75 13.42 N/A N/A
[51] Turbofan SPECO N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
[65] Turbofan N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 31.10 37.81
[66] Turboprop N/A 101.41 40.56 95.32 16.23 304.23 25.20 91.87 53.85

Table 9
Calculated sustainability indicators in exergo-sustainability analysis research.

Ref. Year Exergy efficiency Waste exergy Recoverable exergy Exergy destruction Environmental effect Exergetic sustainability
(%) ratio rate factor factor index

[62] N/A 30.23–30.46 0.69–0.70 0.00 0.40 2.29–2.31 0.43

[69] 2014 29.70 0.70 0.00 0.59 2.36 0.42
[70] 2015 31.5 0.68 0.00 0.40 2.17 0.46
[71] 2015 29.60 0.20 0.00 0.50 0.67 1.48
[72] N/A Results are given in figures.

According to a literature study, the specific exergy costing
(SPECO) methodology is the most commonly-used method in ex-
ergoeconomic analysis of aircraft gas turbine engines. The total
costs of the engine and its components, which consists of hourly
levelised capital investment costs (US$ h
1) and hourly operating
and maintenance costs (US$ h
1), are given for previously con-
ducted studies in Table 8. The turbine and compressor components
of an engine have the highest cost rates compared to other engine
components. The average total cost of an engine varies from
282.75 US$ h
1 to 310.48 US$ h
1 according to previous studies.
Fuel exergy cost is directly affected by the total number of hours of
engine operation. While the fuel exergy cost was fixed for the
turbofan engine at 25.20 US$ GW
1 (for 700 h per year), it was
calculated at 13.43 US$ GW
1 for turboprop engines (for 250 h per
year).
Two important exergoeconomic parameters, the relative cost
difference and the exergoeconomic factor, were calculated in Refs.
[65,66]. Turgut et al. [65] calculated the relative cost difference
and exergoeconomic factor as 37.81% at low pressure compressor
and 31.10% low pressure turbine, separately. Balli and Hepbasli [66]
found the values for the relative cost difference and ex-
ergoeconomic factor as 53.85% for the combustion chamber and
91.87% for the gas turbine component at take-off.
According to a literature survey, only one study discussing the
environmental assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines from the
viewpoint of exergy was found. In this study [67], an investigation
of a turboprop engine was conducted. It was found as a result of
this research that the air compressor, combustion chamber, gas
turbine, power turbine and exhaust nozzle create 9%, 69%, 13%, 7%,
and 2% of the total environmental impact, respectively. It was
concluded that the improvement requirement of the compressor
and gas turbine components of the engine are important regarding
environmental impact.
As mentioned earlier, six indicators (exergy efficiency, waste
exergy ratio, recoverable exergy rate, exergy destruction factor,
environmental effect factor and exergetic sustainability index) are
used to reveal the exergy-based sustainability of an energy system.
Table 9 presents these indicators for the evaluated aircraft gas
turbine engines. Exergy efficiency calculation approaches were
mentioned at the beginning of this section. The value of the waste
exergy ratio, as the second indicator, is approximately 70%, ac-
cording to the reviewed studies. This indicates that a large amount
of exergy rate provided to the system is wasted. The recoverable
exergy rate is zero for all aircraft gas turbine engines. The reason of
that situation is exhausting the combustion gases from the nozzle
into the atmosphere. Therefore, emitted gases are not recoverable
for aircraft gas turbine engines. Another sustainability indicator is
the exergy destruction factor. The exergy rates of the emitted
combustion gases and losses are disregarded while calculating the
exergy destruction factor. The value of the exergy destruction
factor was calculated for aircraft gas turbine engines in the range
of 0.40 and 0.60. The environmental effect factor is an indicator of
the environmental damage of an energy system. This indicator
varies from 0.67 to 2.36 for aircraft gas turbine engines. Two dif-
ferent paradigms and efficiency definition differences can be sta-
ted to be the underlying causes of this wide range. The exergetic
sustainability index of aircraft gas turbine engines is in the range
from 0.43 to 1.48. According to Table 8, it mostly clusters to a range
of 0.43–0.46.
5. Concluding remarks
In the present study, an overview of the exergy-based analysis
of aircraft gas turbine engines is made. Some concluding remarks,
drawn from the results of the present study, may be listed as
follows:
 Exergy-based evaluation studies related to aircraft gas turbine
engines mostly discuss the turbofan engines with 47% while
22% deal with turbojet engines.
 The number of papers covering the exergy analysis of aircraft
gas turbine engines has risen in the last three years, and this
methodology is essential for aircraft gas turbine engine perfor-
mance evaluation.
 A definition of exergy efficiency and calculation methodology
(in-out or fuel-product) are presented with a literature result
comparison.
 The effects of parameters and assumptions made (component
design parameters, fuel specifications, ambient condition and so
on) regarding the exergy analysis results are discussed in detail.
 Examination of the aircraft gas turbine engine using experi-
mental data with the aid of exergy is emphasized as necessary.
 Exergy-based analysis methodology is revealed to be a useful tool

Please cite this article as: Y. Şöhret, et al., Exergy as a useful tool for the performance assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines: A key
review, Progress in Aerospace Sciences (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2016.03.001i
12 Y. Şöhret et al. / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
for economic, environmental and sustainability assessments, in
addition to performance evaluation for aircraft gas turbine engines.
With respect to the literature overview, the authors suggest
further research into the following topics to create awareness and
contribute to the literature in the future:
 Agreement on the exergy analysis paradigms and assumptions.
 Discussion of the environmental impact assessment of aircraft
gas turbine engines from the perspective of exergy.
 Investigation of aircraft gas turbine engines, fed with conven-
tional fuel and alternative fuel mixtures, within the framework
of theoretical and experiments.
 Investigation of aircraft gas turbine engines with aid of exergy
under different flight conditions (different altitude and Mach
numbers) both theoretically and using experimental data.
 Assessment of aircraft gas turbine engines for different pur-
poses (commercial aircraft, regional aircraft, military aircraft
and UAV and so on) using exergy-based methodology.
 Use of advanced exergy analysis to understand the relation among
the components, avoiding possibility of exergy consumptions.
Acknowledgments
The support provided by Anadolu, Suleyman Demirel and Yasar
Universities in Turkey is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also
appreciate the helpful and constructive comments of the valuable
reviewers.
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been so much approved, that we can recommend it with some
confidence, as it stands. Modern taste would perhaps be rather in
favour of rich brown gravy and thick tomata sauce, or sauce
poivrade.
82. A deep oblong dish of suitable size seems better adapted to this purpose.
In dishing the pig lay the body flat in the middle, and the head and
ears at the ends and sides. When very pure oil can be obtained, it is
preferable to butter for the basting: it should be laid on with a bunch
of feathers. A pig of three weeks old is considered as best suited to
the table, and it should always be dressed if possible the day it is
killed.
1-1/4 to 1-3/4 hour.
 BAKED PIG.

Prepare the pig exactly as for roasting; truss, and place it in the
dish in which it is to be sent to the oven, and anoint it thickly in every
part with white of egg which has been slightly beaten; it will require
no basting, nor further attention of any kind, and will be well crisped
by this process.
 PIG À LA TARTARE

When the shoulders of a cold roast pig are left entire, take them off
with care, remove the skin, trim them into good form, dip them into
clarified butter or very pure salad oil, then into fine crumbs highly
seasoned with cayenne and mixed with about a half-teaspoonful of
salt. Broil them over a clear brisk fire, and send them quickly to table,
as soon as they are heated through and equally browned, with
tomata sauce, or sauce Robert. Curried crumbs and a currie-sauce
will give an excellent variety of this dish; and savoury herbs with two
or three eschalots chopped small together, and mixed with the
bread-crumbs, and brown eschalot sauce to accompany the broil,
will likewise be an acceptable one to many tastes.
 SUCKING PIG EN BLANQUETTE. (ENTRÉE.)

Raise the flesh from the bones of a cold roast pig, free it from the
crisp outer skin or crackling, and cut it down into small handsome
slices. Dissolve a bit of butter the size of an egg, and throw in a
handful of button-mushrooms, cleaned and sliced; shake these over
the fire for three or four minutes, then stir to them a dessertspoonful
of flour and continue to shake or toss them gently, but do not allow
them to brown. Add a small bunch of parsley, a bay-leaf, a middling-
sized blade of mace, some salt, a small quantity of cayenne or white
pepper, half a pint of good veal or beef broth, and from two to three
glasses of light white wine. Let these boil gently until reduced nearly
one third; take out the parsley and mace, lay in the meat, and bring it
slowly to the point of simmering; stir to it the beaten yolks of three
fresh eggs, and the strained juice of half a lemon Serve the
blanquette very hot.
 TO ROAST PORK.

When the skin is left on the joint which is to be roasted, it must be

scored in narrow strips of equal width, before it is put to the fire, and
laid at a considerable distance from it at first, that the meat may be
heated through before the skin hardens or begins to brown; it must
never stand still for an instant, and the basting should be constant.
Pork is not at the present day much served at very good tables,
particularly in this form; and it is so still less with the old savoury
stuffing of sage and onions, though some eaters like it always with
the leg: when it is ordered for this joint, therefore prepare it as
directed for a goose, at page 160, and after having loosened the skin
from the knuckle, insert as much as can well be secured in it. A little
clarified butter or salad oil may be brushed over the skin quite at first,
particularly should the meat not be very fat, but unless remarkably
lean, it will speedily yield sufficient dripping to baste it with. Joints
from which the fat has been pared, will require of course far less
roasting than those on which the crackling is retained. Brown gravy,
and apple or tomata sauce, are the usual accompaniments to all
roasts of pork except a sucking pig; they should always be
thoroughly cooked.
Leg of pork of 8 lbs., 3 hours; loin of from 5 to 6 lbs., with the skin
on, 2 to 2-1/2 hours; spare rib of 6 to 7 lbs., 1-1/2 hour.
 TO ROAST A SADDLE OF PORK.

The skin of this joint may be removed entirely, but if left on it must
be scored lengthwise, or in the direction in which it will be carved.
The pork should be young, of fine quality, and of moderate size.
Roast it very carefully, either by the directions given in the preceding
receipt, or when the skin is taken off, by those for a saddle of mutton,
allowing in the latter case from three quarters of an hour to a full
hour more of the fire for it in proportion to its weight. Serve it with
good brown gravy and tomata sauce, or sauce Robert; or with apple
sauce should it be preferred. 20 minutes to the pound, quite [TN: text
missing.]
 TO BROIL OR FRY PORK CUTLETS.

Cut them about half an inch thick from a delicate loin of pork, trim
them into neat form, and take off part of the fat, or the whole of it
when it is not liked; dredge a little pepper or cayenne upon them,
and broil them over a clear and moderate fire from fifteen to eighteen
minutes: sprinkle a little fine salt upon them just before they are
dished. They may be dipped into egg and then into bread-crumbs
mixed with minced sage, and finished in the usual way.[83] When
fried, flour them well, and season them with salt and pepper first.
Serve them with gravy in the pan, or with sauce Robert.
83. If broiled, with the addition of these a little clarified butter must be added to
the egg, or sprinkled on the cutlets.
 COBBETT’S RECEIPT FOR CURING BACON.

“All other parts being taken away, the two sides that remain, and
which are called flitches, are to be cured for bacon. They are first
rubbed with salt on their inside, or flesh sides, then placed one on
the other, the flesh sides uppermost in a salting trough, which has a
gutter round its edges to drain away the brine; for to have sweet and
fine bacon, the flitches must not be sopping in brine, which gives it
the sort of taste that barrel-pork and sea-junk have, and than which
is nothing more villainous. Everyone knows how different is the taste
of fresh dry salt from that of salt in a dissolved state. Therefore,
change the salt often; once in four or five days. Let it melt and sink
in, but let it not lie too long. Change the flitches, put that at the
bottom which was first on the top. Do this a couple of times. This
mode will cost you a great deal more in salt than the sopping mode;
but without it your bacon will not be so sweet and fine, nor keep so
well. As to the time required for making the flitches sufficiently salt, it
depends on circumstances; the thickness of the flitch, the state of
the weather, the place wherein the salting is going on. It takes a
longer time for a thick than for a thin flitch; it takes longer in dry than
in damp weather, it takes longer in a dry than in a damp place. But
for the flitches of a hog of five score, in weather not very dry or very
damp, about six weeks may do; and as yours is to be fat, which
receives little injury from over-salting, give time enough; for you are
to have bacon till Christmas comes again. The place for salting
should, like a dairy, always be cool, but always admit of a free
circulation of air; confined air, though cool, will taint meat sooner
than the midday sun accompanied with a breeze. With regard to
smoking the bacon, two precautions are necessary: first to hang the
flitches where no rain comes down upon them, and next, that the
smoke must proceed from wood, not peat, turf, nor coal. As to the
time that it requires to smoke a flitch, it must depend a good deal
upon whether there be a constant fire beneath, and whether the fire
be large or small. A month will do if the fire be pretty constant, and
such as a farm house fire usually is. But oversmoking, or rather, too
long hanging in the air, makes the bacon rust. Great attention
should, therefore, be paid to this matter. The flitch ought not to be
dried up to the hardness of a board, and yet it ought to be perfectly
dry. Before you hang it up, lay it on the floor, scatter the flesh-side
pretty thickly over with bran or with some fine saw-dust, not of deal
or fir. Rub it on the flesh, or pat it well down upon it. This keeps the
smoke from getting into the little openings, and makes a sort of crust
to be dried on.
“To keep the bacon sweet and good, and free from hoppers, sift
fine some clean and dry wood-ashes. Put some at the bottom of a
box or chest long enough to hold a flitch of bacon. Lay in one flitch;
and then put in more ashes, then another flitch, and cover this with
six or eight inches of the ashes. The place where the box or chest is
kept ought to be dry, and should the ashes become damp they
should be put in the fire-place to dry, and when cold, put back again.
With these precautions the bacon will be as good at the end of the
year as on the first day.”
Obs.—Although the preceding directions for curing the bacon are
a little vague as regards the proportions of salt and pork, we think
those for its after-management will be acceptable to many of our
readers, as in our damp climate it is often a matter of great difficulty
to preserve hams and bacon through the year from rust.
 A GENUINE YORKSHIRE RECEIPT FOR CURING HAMS AND
BACON.

“Let the swine be put up to fast for twenty-four hours before they
are killed (and observe that neither a time of severe frost, nor very
damp weather, is favourable for curing bacon). After a pig has been
killed and scalded, let it hang twelve hours before it is cut up, then
for every stone or fourteen pounds’ weight of the meat, take one
pound of salt, an ounce and a quarter of saltpeter, and half an ounce
of coarse sugar. Rub the sugar and saltpetre first into the fleshy
parts of the pork, and remove carefully with a fork any extravasated
blood that may appear on it, together with the broken vessels
adjoining; apply the salt especially to those parts, as well as to the
shank-ends of the hams, and any other portions of the flesh that are
more particularly exposed. Before the salt is added to the meat,
warm it a little before the fire, and use only a part of it in the first
instance; then, as it dissolves, or is absorbed by the meat, add the
remainder at several different times. Let the meat in the meanwhile
lie either on clean straw, or on a cold brick or stone floor: it will
require from a fortnight to three weeks’ curing, according to the state
of the atmosphere. When done, hang it in a cool dry place, where
there is a thorough current of air, and let it remain there until it is
perfectly dry, when the salt will be found to have crystallized upon
the surface. The meat may then be removed to your store, and kept
in a close chest, surrounded with clean outer straw. If very large, the
hams will not be in perfection in less than twelve months from the
time of their being stored.”
Pork 20 stone; salt, 20 lbs.; saltpetre, 20 oz.; sugar, 10 oz.; 14 to
21 days.
 KENTISH MODE OF CUTTING UP AND CURING A PIG.

To a porker of sixteen stone Kentish weight (that is to say, eight

pounds to the stone, or nine stone two pounds of common weight),
allow two gallons of salt, two pounds of saltpetre, one pound of
coarse sugar, and two pounds of bay-salt well dried and reduced to
powder. Put aside the hams and cheeks to be cured by themselves;
let the feet, ears, tail, and eye-parts of the head be salted for
immediate eating; the blade-bones, and ends of the loins and ribs
reserved for sausage-meat should it be wanted, and the loin and
spare-ribs for roasting. Divide and salt the remainder thus: Mix well
together the saltpetre, sugar, and bay-salt, and rub the pork gently
with them in every part; cover the bottom of the pickling tub with salt,
and pack in the pork as closely as possible, with a portion of the
remaining salt between each layer. A very little water is sometimes
sprinkled in to facilitate the dissolving of the salt into a brine, but this
is always better avoided, and in damp weather will not be needed. If
in a fortnight it should not have risen, so as almost entirely to cover
the meat, boil a strong brine of salt, saltpetre, sugar, and bay-salt; let
it remain until perfectly cold, and then pour it over the pork. A board,
with a heavy stone weight upon it, should be kept upon the meat to
force it down under the brine. In from three to four months it will be fit
for table, and will be delicate and excellent pickled pork.
The pickling parts of a porker of sixteen stone (Kentish weight, or
nine stone two pounds of common weight, or fourteen pounds to the
stone); common salt, 2 gallons; saltpetre, 2 lbs.; coarse sugar, 1 lb.:
bay-salt, 2 lbs.
 FRENCH BACON FOR LARDING.

Cut the bacon from the pig with as little lean to it as possible. Rub
it well in every part with salt which has been dried, reduced to
powder, and sifted; put the layers of bacon close against and upon
each other, in a shallow wooden trough, and set in a cool, but not a
damp cellar; add more salt all round the bacon, and lay a board, with
a very heavy weight upon it. Let it remain for six weeks, then hang it
up in a dry and airy place.
Pork, 14 lbs.; salt, 14 oz.: 6 weeks.
 TO PICKLE CHEEKS OF BACON AND HAMS.

One pound of common salt, one pound of the coarsest sugar, and
one ounce of saltpetre, in fine powder, to each stone (fourteen
pounds) of the meat will answer this purpose extremely well. An
ounce of black pepper can be added, if liked, and when less sugar is
preferred, the proportion can be diminished one half, and the
quantity of salt as much increased. Bacon also may be cured by this
receipt, or by the Bordyke one for hams. A month is sufficient time
for the salting, unless the pork be very large, when five weeks must
be allowed for a ham. The ingredients should be well mixed, and all
applied at the same time.
To each 14 lbs. of pork, salt, 1 lb.; coarse sugar, 1 lb.; saltpetre, 1
oz.; pepper (if used), 1 oz.: 4 to 5 weeks.
 MONSIEUR UDE’s RECEIPT, HAMS SUPERIOR TO
WESTPHALIA.

(Excellent.)
“Take the hams as soon as the pig is sufficiently cold to be cut up,
rub them well with common salt, and leave them for three days to
drain; throw away the brine, and for a couple of hams of from fifteen
to eighteen pounds weight, mix together two ounces of saltpetre, a
pound of coarse sugar, and a pound of common salt; rub the hams in
every part with these, lay them into deep pickling-pans with the rind
downwards, and keep them for three days well covered with the salt
and sugar; then pour over them a bottle of good vinegar, and turn
them in the brine, and baste them with it daily for a month; drain
them well, rub them with bran, and let them be hung for a month high
in a chimney over a wood-fire to be smoked.”
Hams, of from 15 to 18 lbs. each, 2; to drain 3 days. Common salt,
and coarse sugar, each 1 lb.; saltpetre, 2 oz.: 3 days. Vinegar, 1
bottle: 1 month. To be smoked 1 month.
Obs.—Such of our readers as shall make trial of this admirable
receipt, will acknowledge, we doubt not, that the hams thus cured
are in reality superior to those of Westphalia. It was originally given
to the public by the celebrated French cook, Monsieur Ude. He
directs that the hams when smoked should be hung as high as
possible from the fire, that the fat may not be melted; a very
necessary precaution, as the mode of their being cured renders it
peculiarly liable to do so. This, indeed, is somewhat perceptible in
the cooking, which ought, therefore, to be conducted with especial
care. The hams should be very softly simmered,[84] and not over-
done. They should be large, and of finely-fed pork, or the receipt will
not answer. We give the result of our first trial of it, which was
perfectly successful, the ham cured by it being of the finest possible
flavour.
84. We have not had the trial made ourselves, but we think they would be even
finer baked than boiled.
 Leg of Suffolk farm-house pork, 14 to 15 lbs.; saltpetre, 1-1/4 oz.;
strong coarse salt, 6 oz.; coarse sugar, 8 oz.: 3 days. Fine whitewine
vinegar, 1 pint. In pickle, turned daily, 1 month. Smoked over wood, 1
month.
Obs.—“When two hams are pickled together, a smaller proportion
of the ingredients is required for each, than for one which is cured by
itself.”
 SUPER-EXCELLENT BACON.

For several successive years, after first testing the above receipt,
we had it adopted for curing bacon, with even more highly
satisfactory results, as it was of incomparable flavour, and remained
good for a great length of time, the vinegar preserving it entirely from
becoming rusted. Well-fed pork of delicate size was always used for
it, and excellent vinegar. The ingredients were added in the
proportions given in the receipt for the Suffolk ham which preceeds
this, and the same time was allowed for the salting and smoking.
 HAMS.

(Bordyke Receipt.)
After the hams have been rubbed with salt, and well drained from
the brine, according to our previous directions, take, for each
fourteen pounds weight of the pork, one ounce of saltpetre in fine
powder mixed with three ounces of very brown sugar; rub the meat
in every part with these, and let it remain some hours, then cover it
well with eight ounces of bay-salt, dried and pounded, and mixed
with four ounces of common salt: in four days add one pound of
treacle, and keep the hams turned daily, and well basted with the
pickle for a month. Hang them up to drain for a night, fold them in
brown paper, and send them to be smoked for a month. An ounce of
ground black pepper is often mixed with the saltpetre in this receipt,
and three ounces of bruised juniper-berries are rubbed on to the
meat before the salt is added, when hams of a very high flavour are
desired.
Ham, 14 lbs.; saltpetre, 1 oz.; coarse sugar, 3 oz.: 8 to 12 hours.
Bay-salt, 1/2 lb.; common salt, 4 oz.: 4 days. Treacle, 1 lb.: 1 month.
To heighten flavour, black pepper, 1 oz; juniper-berries, 3 oz.
 TO BOIL A HAM.

The degree of soaking which must be given to a ham before it is

boiled, must depend both on the manner in which it has been cured,
and on its age. If highly salted, hard, and old, a day and night, or
even longer, may be requisite to dilate the pores sufficiently, and to
extract a portion of the salt. To do either effectually the water must
be several times changed during the steeping. We generally find
hams cured by any of the receipts which we have given in this
chapter quite enough soaked in twelve hours; and they are more
frequently laid into water only early in the morning of the day on
which they are boiled. Those pickled by Monsieur Ude’s receipt need
much less steeping than any others. After the ham has been
scraped, or brushed, as clean as possible, pare away lightly any part
which, from being blackened or rusty, would disfigure it; though it is
better not to cut the flesh at all unless it be really requisite for the
good appearance of the joint. Lay it into a ham-kettle, or into any
other vessel of a similar form, and cover it plentifully with cold water;
bring it very slowly to boil, and clear off carefully the scum which will
be thrown up in great abundance. So soon as the water has been
cleared from this, draw back the pan quite to the edge of the stove,
that the ham may be simmered softly but steadily, until it is tender.
On no account allow it to boil fast. A bunch of herbs and three or four
carrots, thrown in directly after the water has been skimmed, will
improve it. When it can be probed very easily with a sharp skewer, or
larding-pin, lift it out, strip off the skin, and should there be an oven
at hand, set it in for a few minutes after having laid it on a drainer;
strew fine raspings over it, or grate a hard-toasted crust, or sift upon
it the prepared bread of Chapter V., unless it is to be glazed, when
neither of these must be used.
Small ham, 3-1/2 to 4 hours; moderate sized, 4 to 4-1/2 hours;
very large, 5 to 5-1/2 hours.
Obs.—We have seen the following manner of boiling a ham
recommended, but we have not tried it:—“Put into the water in which
it is to be boiled, a quart of old cider and a pint of vinegar, a large
bunch of sweet herbs, and a bay leaf. When it is two-thirds done,
skin, cover it with raspings, and set it in an oven until it is done
enough: it will prove incomparably superior to a ham boiled in the
usual way.”
 TO GARNISH AND ORNAMENT HAMS IN VARIOUS WAYS.

When a ham has been carefully and delicately boiled, the rind
while it is still warm, may be carved in various fanciful shapes to
decorate it; and a portion of it left round the knuckle in a semi-
circular form of four or five inches deep, may at all times be easily
scollopped at the edge or cut into points (vandykes). This, while
preserving a character of complete simplicity for the dish, will give it
an air of neatness and finish at a slight cost of time and trouble. A
paper frill should be placed round the bone.
The Germans cut the ham-rind after it has been stripped from the
joint, into small leaves and similar “prettinesses,”[85] and arrange
them in a garland, or other approved device, upon its surface. In
Ireland and elsewhere, bread evenly sliced, and stamped out with
cutters much smaller than a fourpenny-piece, then carefully fried or
coloured in the oven, is used to form designs upon hams after they
are glazed. Large dice of clear firm savoury jelly form their most
appropriate garnish, because they are intended to be eaten with
them. For the manner of making this, and glaze also see Chapter IV.
85. This should be done with a confectionary or paste cutter.
The ham shown in Plate V., which follows the directions for
“Carving,” is of very good appearance; but in common English
kitchens generally, even the degree of artistic skill required to form
its decorations well, is not often to be met with.