Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

CHAPTER 2

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

2.1 Introduction

There are two basic types of instrument transformers: voltage transformers (VTs), formerly called
potential transformers (PTs), and current transformers (CTs).

The voltage transformers and current transformers continuously measure the voltage and current
of an electrical system and are responsible to give feedback signals to the relays to enable them to
detect abnormal conditions. The values of actual currents in modern distribution systems varies
from a few amperes in households, small industrial/commercial houses, etc. to thousands of
amperes in power-intensive plants, national grids, etc., which also depend on the operating
voltages. Similarly, the voltages in electrical systems vary from few hundreds of volts to many
kilo volts. However, it is impossible to have monitoring relays designed and manufactured for each
and every distribution system and to match the innumerable voltages and currents being present.
Hence the voltage transformers and current transformers are used which enable same types of
relays to be used in all types of distribution systems ensuring the selection and cost of relays to be
within manageable ranges.

The main tasks of instrument transformers are:

• To transform currents or voltages from usually a high value to a value easy to handle for
relays and instruments.
• To insulate the relays, metering and instruments from the primary high-voltage system.
• To provide possibilities of standardizing the relays and instruments, etc. to a few rated
currents and voltages.

Instrument transformers are special versions of transformers in respect of measurement of current

and voltages. The theories for instrument transformers are the same as those for transformers in
general. They offer the following distinct advantages:

• simple, economical and reliable.

• provide electrical insulation from power system voltages.
• accurate and would tolerate overloading to some extent.

Fig. 2.1 shows a schematic representation for the VT and CT. The voltage transformer is open-
circuited (infinite impedance) and current transformer is short-circuited (zero impedance). In a
practical situation, the relay’s current element presents a small (but not zero) impedance to the
secondary of a CT, and the relay’s voltage element presents a high (but not infinite) impedance to
the secondary of a VT. The loading of an instrument transformer is commonly known as “burden”
and is expressed in terms of VA rather than impedance. VA for a VT expresses current at rated
voltage and for a CT expresses voltage at rated current. For such instruments, their secondaries are
generally rated in the vicinity of 50 VA; this could be lower for transformers feeding electronic
relays.

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Fig. 2.1 Schematic Representation of Instrument Transformers

2.2 Voltage Transformer

Loading introduces error in voltage transformer because of voltage drops in leakage reactance of
the windings. For system protection, extremely high accuracy in VTs is usually not required. It is
therefore reasonable to model the VT as an ideal transformer, i.e.

N 
V2 =  2  V1 (2.1)
 N1 

A standard secondary voltage is 67 V (line-to-neutral) and 67  3 = 116 V (line-to-line).

Commonly available voltage ratios are shown in Table 2.1. Fig. 2.2 shows a 34.5 kV voltage
transformers with 34.5 kV: 115/67 volt VT ratios.

Fig. 2.2 Three 34.5-kV Voltage Transformers with 34.5 kV: 115/67 volt VT Ratios

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Table 2.1 Standard VT Ratios

1:1 20:1 300:1 2000:1
2:1 40:1 400:1 3000:1
2.5:1 60:1 600:1 4500:1
4:1 100:1 800:1
5:1 200:1 1000:1

2.3 Current Transformer

In CTs, the primary winding usually consists of a single turn which is the power conductor itself
(along with its return circuit, it forms a single turn). The core is toroidal in shape through which is
threaded the power conductor (primary), and on which are wound a few turns of the secondary.
CTs are available in standard ratios given in Table 2.2, wherein the secondary current rating is 5
A. CTs are also available with the secondary current rating of 1 A.

Table 2.2 Standard CT Ratios

Current Ratios
50:5 300:5 800:5 1600:5 3200:5
100:5 400:5 900:5 2000:5 4000:5
150:5 450:5 1000:5 2400:5 5000:5
200:5 500:5 1200:5 2500:5 6000:5
250:5 600:5 1500:5 3000:5

Fig. 2.3 shows a simple overcurrent protection schematic with: (1) one type of instrument
transformer—the current transformer (CT), (2) an overcurrent relay (OC), and (3) a circuit breaker
(CB) for a single-phase line. The function of the CT is to reproduce in its secondary winding a
current I/ that is proportional to the primary current I. The CT converts primary currents in the
kiloamp range to secondary currents in the 0–5 ampere range for convenience of measurement,
with the following advantages:

• Safety: Instrument transformers provide electrical isolation from the power system so that
personnel working with relays will work in a safer environment.
• Economy: Lower-level relay inputs enable relays to be smaller, simpler, and less expensive.
• Accuracy: Instrument transformers accurately reproduce power system currents and
voltages over wide operating ranges.

The function of the relay is to discriminate between normal operation and fault conditions. The
OC relay in Fig. 2.3 has an operating coil, which is connected to the CT secondary winding, and a
set of contacts.

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Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

Fig. 2.3 Overcurrent Protection Schematic

When I / exceeds a specified ‘‘pickup’’ value, the operating coil causes the normally open
contacts to close. When the relay contacts close, the trip coil of the circuit breaker is energized,
which then causes the circuit breaker to open.

Note that the circuit breaker does not open until its operating coil is energized, either manually or
by relay operation. Based on information from instrument transformers, a decision is made and
‘‘relayed’’ to the trip coil of the breaker, which actually opens the power circuit, hence the name
relay. Fig. 2.4 shows a typical three 25 kV Class Current Transformers.

Fig. 2.4 Three 25 kV Class Current Transformers

The transformer primary is connected to or into the power system and is insulated for the power
system voltage. The VT reduces the primary voltage and the CT reduces the primary current to
much lower, standardized levels suitable for operation of relays.

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Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

For system-protection purposes, VTs are generally considered to be sufficiently accurate.

Therefore, the VT is usually modeled as an ideal transformer, where

V/ = 1 ( n )V (2.2)

Where, V/ is a scaled-down representation of V and is in phase with V. n is the transformation

ratio. A standard VT secondary voltage rating is 115 V (line-to-line).

Ideally, the VT secondary is connected to a voltage-sensing-device with infinite impedance, such

that the entire VT secondary voltage is across the sensing device. In practice, the secondary voltage
divides across the high impedance sensing device and the VT series leakage impedances. VT
leakage impedances are kept low in order to minimize voltage drops and phase-angle differences
from primary to secondary.

The primary winding of a current transformer usually consists of a single turn, obtained by running
the power system’s primary conductor through the CT core. The normal current rating of CT
secondaries is standardized at 5 A in the United States, whereas 1 A is standard in Europe and
some other regions. Currents of 10 to 20 times (or greater) normal rating often occur in CT
windings for a few cycles during short circuits.

Ideally, the CT secondary is connected to a current-sensing device with zero impedance, such that
the entire CT secondary current flows through the sensing device. In practice, the secondary
current divides, with most flowing through the low-impedance sensing device and some flowing
through the CT shunt excitation impedance. CT excitation impedance is kept high in order to
minimize excitation current. An approximate equivalent circuit of a CT is shown in Fig. 2.5,
where,
Z/ = CT secondary leakage impedance
Xe = (Saturable) CT excitation reactance
ZB = Impedance of terminating device (relay, including leads).

Fig. 2.5 CT Equivalent Circuit

The total impedance ZB of the terminating device is called the burden and is typically expressed
in values of less than an ohm. The burden on a CT may also be expressed as volt-amperes at a
specified current.

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Associated with the CT equivalent circuit is an excitation curve that determines the relationship
between the CT secondary voltage E/and excitation current Ie. Excitation curves for a multiratio
bushing CT with ANSI classification C100 are shown in Fig. 2.6.

Current transformer performance is based on the ability to deliver a secondary output current I/
that accurately reproduces the primary current I. Performance is determined by the highest current
that can be reproduced without saturation to cause large errors. Using the CT equivalent circuit
and excitation curves, the following procedure can be used to determine CT performance.

STEP 1 Assume a CT secondary output current I/.

STEP 2 Compute E/ = (Z/+ZB)I/.
STEP 3 Using E/, find Ie from the excitation curve.
STEP 4 Compute I = n(I/+Ie).
STEP 5 Repeat Steps 1–4 for different values of I/, then plot I/ versus I.

For simplicity, approximate computations are made with magnitudes rather than with phasors.
Also, the CT error is the percentage difference between (I/+Ie) and I/, given by:

Ie
CT error =  100% (2.3)
I + Ie
/

Fig. 2.6 Excitation Curves for a Multiratio Bushing CT with A C100 ANSI
Accuracy Classification

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The following examples illustrate the procedure:

EXAMPLE 1: Current transformer (CT) performance.

Evaluate the performance of the multiratio CT in Fig. 2.6 with a 100:5 CT ratio, for the following
secondary output currents and burdens:
(a) I/ = 5 A and ZB = 0.5 Ω;
(b) I/ = 8 A and ZB = 0.8 Ω; and
(c) I/ = 15 A and ZB = 1.5 Ω.
Also, compute the CT error for each output current.

SOLUTION

From Fig. 2.6, the CT with a 100:5 CT ratio has a secondary resistance Z/ = 0.082 Ω. Completing
the above steps:

a) STEP 1 I/ = 5 A
STEP 2 From Fig. 2.5,
E/ = (Z/ + ZB)I/ = (0.082 + 0.5) (5) = 2.91 V
STEP 3 From Fig. 2.6, Ie = 0.25 A
STEP 4 From Fig. 2.5, I = (100/5) (5 + 0.25) = 105 A

0.25
CT error = 100% = 4.8%
5.25

b) STEP 1 I/=8 A
STEP 2 From Fig. 2.5,

E/ = (Z/ + ZB)I/ = (0.082 + 0.8) (8) = 7.06 V

STEP 3 From Fig. 2.6, Ie = 0.4 A
STEP 4 From Fig. 2.5, I = (100/5) (8 + 0.4) = 168 A

0.4
CT error =  100% = 4.8%
8.4

c) STEP 1 I/=15 A
STEP 2 From Fig. 2.5,

E/ = (Z/ + ZB)I/ = (0.082 + 1.5) (15) = 23.73 V

STEP 3 From Fig. 2.6, Ie = 20 A

STEP 4 From Fig. 2.5, I = (100/5) (15 + 20) = 700 A

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20
CT error = 100% = 57.1%
35

Note that for the 15 A secondary current in (c), high CT saturation causes a large CT error of
57.1%. Standard practice is to select a CT ratio to give a little less than 5 A secondary output
current at maximum normal load.

From (a), the 100:5 CT ratio and 0.5 Ω burden are suitable for a maximum primary load current
of about 100 A. This example is extended in Problem 2. to obtain a plot of I/ versus I.

EXAMPLE 2: Relay operation versus fault current and CT burden.

An overcurrent relay set to operate at 8 A is connected to the multiratio CT in Fig. 2.6 with a 100:5
CT ratio. Will the relay detect a 200 A primary fault current if the burden ZB is (a) 0.8 Ω, (b) 3.0
Ω?

SOLUTION

Note that if an ideal CT is assumed, (100/5) × 8 = 160 A primary current would cause the relay to
operate.

a. From Example 1(b), a 168 A primary current with ZB = 0.8 Ω produces a secondary output
current of 8 A, which would cause the relay to operate. Therefore, the higher 200 A fault
current will also cause the relay to operate.

b. STEP 1 I/= 8 A
STEP 2 From Fig. 2.5,

E/ = (Z/ + ZB)I/ = (0.05 + 3.0) (8) = 24.4 V

STEP 3 From Fig. 2.6, Ie = 30 A

STEP 4 From Fig. 2.5, I = (100/5) (8 + 30) = 760 A

With a 3.0 Ω burden, 760 A is the lowest primary current that causes the relay to operate.
Therefore, the relay will not operate for the 200 A fault current.

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