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CHAPTER 2 SOURCES OF WATER

By:
Arun Prasad Parajuli
- M.Sc (Environmental Engineering)
-B.E. (Civil Engineering)
Associate Professor/Head
Department of Civil Engineering,
Sagarmatha Engineering College,
Sanepa, Lalitpur
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Chapter 2 Sources of Water

2.1 WATER CYCLE OR HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

Some terms Some terms

a. Water Bearing Strata/Aquifer a. Hydrology
Sand bed b. Evaporation:
a. Aquiclude c. Interception
Clay d. Transpiration:
a. Aquifuge e. Infiltration:
Granite Bed f. Ground Water Table (GWT)
a. Porosity: Vv/V g. Percolation
b. Permeability: Property of h. Precipitation
passing water
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2.2 RAINFALL AND RUNOFF

Rainfall
Major form of precipitation
Measured by rain gauges

Runoff
Runoff or stream flow or discharge =
surface flow or surface runoff + base flow

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2.3 INTRODUCTION OF SOURCES 2.5 TYPES OF SOURCES • Definition

• Place where water is obtained • Quality
• Primarily obtained from Rain/Snow • Quantity
• Aquifer and Aquiclude
• Waste water reclamination (First Windhock in
africa)
2.4 SELECTION OF SOURCES
a. Location:
b. Quantity: sufficient
c. Quality: wholesome – less impurities
d. Cost:
e. Suistainable and safe
f. Reliable
g. Non confliction among users 7 8

A. SURFACE SOURCES
A. SURFACE SOURCES 2. River:
1. Stream:  Formed by combination of the streams & spring from hill to

 Formed by smaller catchment surface runoff at higher the low land and sea.

altitudes in the mountainous region  in hills they are small & larger in the low land

 Discharge maximum in rainy season  classified into two:

 Non-perennial stream (Rainly stream) : Dry up in summer a. Perennial Rivers: Water available throughout the year.

 Perennial streams/Spring fed stream: formed by snow (Snowfed and springfed rivers)

melting and springs, water is available at all times b. Non Perennial Rivers: Rainfed river, need of Impound

 Little quantity of water than in river Reservoir

 Quality good in high altitudes  sufficient quantity of water

 Source of water to the village of the hills  Polluted due to sewage disposal and agricultural lands/ poor
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A. SURFACE SOURCES A. SURFACE SOURCES

3. Pond: 4. Lake:

 Formed in small natural or artificial depression
when the large quantity of excavation for
constructing highway, bridge, building etc.
 Surface runoff and the village wastewater flows to
the pond so contaminated
 Not reliable for water supply due to poor quality
and quantity
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• Natural basin at higher or lower altitudes. Eg.
Phewa, Rara, Begnas, Tscho Rolpa lakes.
• Good in quality and quantity if in mountainous
region and may be used in water supply but quality
degrades at lower altitude.
• Quantity of water depends upon the basin capacity,
catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of ground
etc.
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A. SURFACE SOURCES A. SURFACE SOURCES

5. Sea:
• Quantity more but quality poor due to salts 7. Waste water reclamation:

• High degree of treatment required. • High degree treated wastewater can be used
• Costly due to treatment requirement and pumping • First in Windhock (Africa)

6. Stored Rainwater/Rainwater harvesting: • Not reliable due to quality and quantity.

• Rainwater collected in tanks from roofs of buildings.

• In Rajesthan, Arabian countries, some parts of Nepal
8. Fog water harvesting:
• Rainwater is collected in watertight tanks from roofs and
pucca courtyard through channels. • Less in quantity
• Contain impurities and treatment necessary • Not reliable due to quality and quantity.
• Cannot used for water supply due to less quantity.
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A. SURFACE SOURCES
9. Impounded Reservoir: B. GROUND SOURCES
1. Spring
 Artificial reservoir to store water for dry seasons.
• natural outflow of ground water under the suitable
 To impound/store water in a portion of stream flow
geological conditions.
 Used for water supply.
• Most favorable in Nepal and suitable for water supply
 Water quality is same as in the streams and rivers.
schemes in village area
 Need three parts: • Small quantity and used for water supply in rural areas
 A dam to hold backwater. • Quality good so not costlier because of less treatment
 A spillway for overflow • Classified as:
 A gate with valves to regulate flow a. Gravity Spring: i. Depression ii. Surface/contact
iii. Artesian Spring

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b. Non gravity/pressure/ fissure spring 16

B. GROUND SOURCES B. GROUND SOURCES

a. Gravity Spring
• Water flows under the influence of gravity
i. Depression Spring
• Due to the overflowing of the water table at the
intersection of ground surface and water table
• Deep trench may be constructed for larger
quantity so used for water supply
ii. Surface/contact Spring
• Due to a permeable water bearing formation
over lying a less permeable/impermeable
formation
• Deep trench may/ may not be constructed for
larger quantity so not used in water supply

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B. GROUND SOURCES B. GROUND SOURCES

iii. Artesian Spring b. Non-Gravity/Pressure/Fissure Spring

• Formed due to earthquakes
• Result from release of water under pressure and volcano and flows
from confined aquifers under pressure
• May or may not have large quantity
• Generally not used in water supply because dries • results from fractures
at dry period extending to the great
depths in the earth’s crust

• Lesser quantity

• May discharge hot water

due to sulpher

• Not suitable for water

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B. GROUND SOURCES B. GROUND SOURCES

2. Infiltration Galleries 3. Porous Pipe Galleries

• Located near a perennial recharge source such • In marshy land
as the bank/bed of a river
• The quantity and quality depends upon the
location and area of coverage.

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B. GROUND SOURCES B. GROUND SOURCES

4. Wells b. Driven or precussion well
a. Open/dug/draw/percolation well
• By driving 2.5 to 15 cm dia pipes upto 12 m deep
• Rower pump

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B. GROUND SOURCES B. GROUND SOURCES

c. Tube well

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B. GROUND SOURCES B. GROUND SOURCES

5. Artesian Wells 6. Infiltration Wells

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2.6 Capacity calculation of Impounding Reservoir Capacity calculation of Impounding Reservoir

1. Analytical Method (Calculation) 1. Analytical Method (Calculation)

2. Mass Curve or Graphical Method 2. Mass Curve or Graphical Method

Fig 2.19 Mass Curve method for reservoir

Fig 2.17 Mass curve of supply or inflow capacity
(Source: Punmia et al., 2005)
(Source: Punmia et al., 2005)

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2.7 Measurement of yield from sources 2. Using V- notch

1. Bucket watch method

• Take stop watch and a bucket of known
volume ‘V’
• Note time required to fill the bucket ‘T’
• Now Yield or Discharge
Q = V/T
Suitable for small stream and rivers
• Suitable for Spring sources

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3. Velocity Area Method 3. Velocity Area Method

 Measure velocity using current meter or by float

 For velocity by float:

• Mark 50 m or suitable length ‘L’ along the river bank
• Measure time ‘T’ for any float from u/s to d/s mark.
• Then find velocity (V) =L/T
• multiply by factor 0.85 to 0.95 for actual velocity.

 For area across the stream:

• Take depth using sounding rod at regular intervals
• Find area A by adding individual areas.
 Find discharge(Q) =AV
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 Suitable for large streams and rivers 38

4. Salt dilution Method

• In this method, the change of conductivity level of

stream due to pouring of known quantity of
predefined diluted salt are measured with a
standardized
interval.
conductivity meter at regular
THANK YOU
• Q is calculated by using formula

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