1st Term Geography SS 2 Lesson Note

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AVITAL COLLEGE
47, BOLAJI BANWO STREET AGUDA SURULERE LAGOS
SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON NOTES
ON
GEOGRAPHY
SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL 2
FIRST TERM
2023/2024 ACADEMIC SESSION
PREPARED BY
ANTHONY THEODORE
SS 2 GEOGRAPHY FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK

2022/2023 ACADEMIC SESSION
SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

WEEK TOPIC SUB-TOPICS LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
ONE Earth’s External Water as an energy At the end of the
Processes and Land system lessons, students
forms- Action of -Stages of rivers and should be able to;
Running Water their characteristics -Describe water as
-Processes associated an energy system
with each stage -Explain erosional
-Features associated processes of running
with each stage water
-Benefits to man -Identify the stages
of rivers and
characteristic
-Explain the
processes associated
with each stage and
-Describe the
features associated
with each stage of
the river and their
benefits
TWO Action of wind -Concept of wind At the end of the
-Identify types of lessons, students
wind should be able to;
- Examples and -Mention examples
characteristics of and characteristic of
desert desert
–Processes of wind -Explain the
erosion processes of wind
-Features of wind erosion
erosion and -Describe the
deposition features of wind
-Features of and erosion and
mode of formation of deposition
–landforms -Analyse man’s
-Man’s survival survival strategy in
strategies in desert desert environment.
environment
THREE Glacial Action -Characteristics of At the end of the
glacial land forms lessons, students
-Features in should be able to;
highland and -Describe
lowland areas characteristics of
-Examples and landform features
modes of formation -Explain with
of these landform examples and modes
features of Formation
- Economic -Examine the
importance of glacial economic
landforms features importance of glacial

to man land
FOUR Action of Waves -Waves, tides, coast, At the end of the
currents lessons, students
-Erosional processes should be able to;
-Erosional features -Distinguish between
of coastal areas and waves, tides and
deposition currents
-Impacts of wave -Explain the
action to man in processes of wave
coast land. erosion
-Describe the
characteristic
landforms/features
of coastal erosion
and deposition.
FIVE Climate II -Concept of climate At the end of the
-Factors affecting lessons, students
climate should be able to:
-Greek koppen’s -Identify climatic
classification of factors
climate -Describe the Greek
-Major and koppen’s
subcategories of classification system
koppen’s -Enumerate
classification of advantages and
climate disadvantages of the
-Advantages and classification types
disadvantages of
classification types
SIX/SEVEN Climate II World major At the end of the
climatic types lessons, students
-Location and areas should be able to:
of climate -Identify world’s
-Characteristics of major vegetation
each climatic types types
-Relevance of -Describe the
world’s climatic distribution and
types to man characteristics of
world’s vegetation
types
-Analyze the
relevance of world’s
climatic types to
man
EIGHT VEGETATION -Major world’s At the end of the
vegetation types lessons, students
-Distribution and should be able to:
characteristics of -Identify world’s
world’s vegetation vegetation types
types -Describe the

-Factors affecting distribution and
their characteristics of
distribution/plant world’s vegetation
communities types
-Economic -Discuss the factors
importance of affecting the
vegetation as an distribution/plant
environmental communities
resource -Examine the
economic
importance of
vegetation as an
environment
resource
NINE Environmental -Meaning of At the end of the
Resource environmental lessons, students
resource should be able to:
-Types of -Define
environmental environmental
resource resource
-Examples of each -Identify the
types of different types of
environmental environmental
resource resource
-Importance of each -Mention examples
type of of each type.
environmental -Discuss the
resource importance of each
type of
environmental
resource
TEN Renewable and Non- -Concept of At the end of the
renewable renewable and non- lessons, students
renewable resource should be able to:
-Examples of non- -Define renewable
renewable resources and non-renewable
-Advantages and resource
disadvantages of -Give examples of
renewable and non- renewable and non-
renewable resources renewable resource
-State the
advantages and
disadvantages of
renewable and non-
renewable resource
ELEVEN Environmental -Environmental At the end of the
Problems problems lessons, students
-Causes of should be able to:
environmental -Define
problems environmental

-Effects on human problem
activities -State the causes of
-Remedies of the environmental
effects on problems
environmental -State the effects of
problems environmental
problems on human
activities
-State remedies on
the environmental
problems
TWELVE/THIRTEEN Revision and
Examination
LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK ONE (1)

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SSS 2
TOPIC: EARTH’S EXTERNAL PROCESS AND LAND
FORM DEVELOPMENT
SUB TOPIC: ACTION OF RUNNING WATER
BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
i. Describe water as an energy system.
ii. Explain the erosional process of running water.

iii. Identify the stages of rivers and characteristics.
iv. Explain the processes associated with each stage of river.
v. Describe the features associated with each stage of the river and their benefits.
CONTENT
ACTION OF RUNNING WATER

Running water is one of the most vital agents of denudation that is, act of stripping off covering or
laying bare of rocks by the washing away of the overlying earth. This removal of the top layer of the
earth is carried out by running water.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH RIVER

There are several terms that are associated with rivers and these terms are:
i. Source of a river: This implies where the river refers to where the river starts its course
or flow. In other words we say, it is the starting point of a river.
ii. Course of a river: This refers to the path through which the rivers flow.
iii. Mouth of a river: This refers to where the river ends or where it enters into the sea,
ocean or lake.
iv. River basin or Catchment area: It refers to all the areas drained by a river and its
tributaries.
v. Water shed or water divide: This refers to the highland area which separates two or
more rivers or two river basins. It is from the water shed that rivers take their source.
vi. River regime: This is the seasonal changes in the volume of water in a river in a year. It
occurs in two kinds of regime:
a. Single regime: This is one period of high volume and one period of low volume.
b. Double regime: This is where there are two distinct periods of high and low volume
in a year.
vii. Confluence of a river: This refers to the meeting point of two or more rivers.
viii. Tributaries: These are smaller rivers or streams that join together to form a large one.
ix. Distributaries: These are channels formed by the division of a river as it flows into the
sea. They are mostly found in the delta region of a river.
x. River energy: This refers to the speed or velocity of a river. The efficiency of a river to
erode and distribute the eroded materials depends very much on the velocity of the
river.
Water as an Energy System of Factors Affecting the Velocity of a River

i. The volume of water released: The higher the volume of water released by a river the
higher the velocity of the flow of river. Also during the dry season, as the volume of the
river reduces that is becomes low, the velocity of the flow of river decreases.
ii. Slope of the river: The steeper the slope of the landmass the higher the velocity of the
water in the river.
iii. Shape of the river valley: The shape or the river valley determines how the river flows
with different rates. If it is a flat-wide valley the river uses more energy than through a
narrow-deep valley which is due that the flat-wide valley has a large surface.
iv. Amount and size of the materials: The greater the speed of a river the greater force it
exerts and the greater loads or materials it can carry along its current. A river uses its
energy to:
a. Overcome friction along its channel.
b. Transport its load.

c. To erode the river valley. It is this energy that is trapped by man to generate
electricity.
STAGES OF A RIVER
The entire length, valley or course of a river is divided into three main parts or stages which are:
i. The upper or torrent stage (youthful stage)
ii. The middle or valley course (maturity stage)
iii. The lower or plain course or senile (old age stage)
Diagram
Upper
Course
Middle
Course River Mouth
Lower
Course
OCEAN
CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH STAGE OF A RIVER

A. The Upper Course of a River
Characteristics of Upper course of a River:
i. It marks the beginning of a river.
ii. It is located around the source of the highland areas.
iii. The upper course has step side, V-shaped valleys.
iv. The dominant river flows swiftly down the steep.
v. Its dominant work is vertical corrosion or erosion.
B. The Middle Course of a River

Characteristics of Middle course of a River:
i. Lateral erosion is dominant over vertical erosion resulting in the widening of the
valley.
ii. It has wide V-shape valleys.
iii. There is the presence of bluffs; river cliffs, meanders, terraces etc.
iv. There is increase in the volume of water which is due to addition of more water from
the tributaries.
v. There is increase in the load of the river.
vi. It has a gentle gradient.
C. The Lower Course of a River

Characteristics of the lower course of a River:
i. This is the last stage towards the mouth of the river.
ii. The gradient at this stage of the river is very gentle.
iii. The flow is sluggish.
iv. Its main work is the deposition of materials.
v. There is active lateral erosion.
THE PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH EACH STAGE OF A RIVER

A. The Process Involved In Upper Course of a River
Processes of river erosion: The load or materials carried by a river are the main agents of
erosion, but the erosive work of a river consists of four interactive processes and they are:
i. Hydraulic action: In this process fast flowing water forces itself into cracks and cavities
within the valley under pressure and enlarges the cracks.
ii. Corrosion: Corrosion is the wearing away of the sides and floor of the river valley with
the aid of sand, pebbles, silts and boulders which are being transported. This material
eventually widen and deepen the river valley.
iii. Attrition: This is the wearing down of the loads as they collide with one another and
with the floor and sides of the valley. Large boulders are broken down into small pieces
like pebbles.
iv. Solution: This refers to the chemical action of water on materials it comes in contact
with while flowing. Rock salts are dissolved and carried away in solution.
B. The Process Involved In Middle Course of a River

Processes of River Transportation: The load of a river is transported along the course of a
river through four main processes. These are:
i. Solution: Some rock materials dissolve in water and are carried in solution from the
upper to lower course of the river.
ii. Suspension: Here, the lighter particles of solid materials are carried in suspension as the
water flows.
iii. Saltation: In this process, the larger particles are moved in series of hops or jumps along
the stream bed.
iv. Traction: In this process, very large fragments of materials which could be rocks, debris
etc are rolled or pushed along in the river.
FEATURES AND BENEFITS ASSOCIATED WITH EACH STAGE OF A RIVER

A. Features of Upper Course of a River
The main features of an upper course of a river are as follows:
i. V-Shaped Valley: This is formed as a result of vertical corrosion or erosion of the river.
The river valley is deepened and narrowed into a steep-sided V-shaped valley.
ii. Gorge: This is formed due to the deepening and narrowing of the river as a result of
vertical erosion. The valley is deep and narrow with vertical sides, resulting in the
formation of the gorge. It is also said to be developed if a river follows a line of weakness
such as a fault.
iii. River capture: This is also called river piracy or river beheading. This is formed when
a river through head ward erosion flows into a water and cuts off the headwater of
another weaker river.

iv. Rapids and Cataracts: These are formed due to uneven resistance of hard and soft rocks
which are crossed by a river. A rapid is a minor upstream or forward jump of such
water in a river while a cataract is a jump of greater dimension.
B. Features of Middle Course of a River

i. Wide V-Shaped Valley: This as a result of lateral erosion which has become more
dominant than vertical corrosion, the river banks widen to produce a wide V-shaped
valley which are less steep.
ii. Meander: This occurs when rivers are unable to flow straight due to low gravity,
sluggish movement of water and heavy loads. Also, the irregularities of the ground force
the river to swing in loops, thus, forming meanders. It is a sharp turn or bend in a stream
course.
Diagram
iii. River Cliff and Slip-OFF Slopes: This is a face of rock standing steeply on the bank of
the river. When the flow of a river water AB enters the bend of the river, it dashes
straight into B, eroding the outer bank to form a steep river cliff at B.
iv. Interlocking spur: This refers to the portion of the valley wall which projects from both
sides of the concave bends of the river as it meanders. They usually obscure the view of
the river valley.
C. Features of Lower Course of a River

The main features of the lower course of a river include:
a. Flood plain
i. It is a gently sloping plane of alluvium covering the valley floor along which the
river flows in a meandering channel.
ii. Flood plain is made up of sediments deposited on lowland areas of the river
valley.
iii. The deposition usually takes place during the annual flooding of a river hence the
name, ‘flood plain’ which is associated with the part of the river where it occurs.
iv. There is usually fertile soil for agriculture.
v. The deposits are sorted one from each other i.e. the coarser materials are
deposited first before the finer ones.

b. Levees: As the river flows, sediments and materials are deposited at the banks of the
river when it is flooded, thereby raising the banks upwards and higher than usual. These
raised banks are called levees.
c. Ox-bow Lake: This is a feature of the lower course of a river. It occurs in marshy areas. It
has horse-shoe shape with a shallow convex bank and a deep concave bank. It also called
bayous or cut-offs.
Diagrams
IMPORTANCE OF RIVER TO MAN

The following are the importance or benefits of river to man:
i. Medium of transportation: it serves as a means of transport from one place to
another especially in places that are enclosed with rivers.
ii. Generation of Hydro-electric power: Rivers at high speed and flow power helps
in the generation of electric power which is known as hydro-electric power
(HEP).
iii. Irrigation purposes: rivers also provide for irrigation i.e. helps in watering of the
farmlands.
iv. Provide water: Rivers also provide water for domestic and industrial uses.
v. Provide food: Rivers also serves as a means of food provision. Examples fish,
prawns, crabs etc
vi. Employment: Rivers provide employment to many people e.g. fishermen and
canoe builders etc.
vii. Centre of tourist attraction: Some important rivers serves as centre for tourism
and thus generate foreign exchange for the nation. Example River Nile in Egypt,
River Mississippi in USA etc.
EVALUATION:
i. Briefly explain the concept of water as energy.
ii. State seven names of river and where they are located.

iii. List the various terms associated with rivers. Briefly explain.
ASSIGNMENT
i. Explain the concept of delta under the following:
a. Characteristics
b. Conditions favourable for formation of delta
c. Mode of formation and types
d. Importance of delta to man
LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK TWO (2)

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SSS 2
TOPIC: ACTION OF WIND

i. Explain the concept of Desert.
ii. State the characteristics of Desert
iii. Explain the concept of Wind and action of wind.
iv. State how the action of wind erosion is carried out.
v. State reasons for the predominance of wind erosion in arid regions than in humid
regions.
vi. Explain the features of and mode of formation of landforms such as:
a. Inselberg
b. Rock pedestal
c. Zeugen
d. M esas and Butto
vii. Describe the features of wind deposition.
CONTENT
CONCEPT OF DESERT
Meaning of Desert
Desert is defined as the large amass of land that is characterized with aridity (dryness) which
is caused by low rainfall, high temperature, cold currents and high evaporation rate. In other
words, we can define desert as a place where scarcely we find living organism due to the harsh
weather or climatic conditions of the place.
Examples of Deserts are:
i. Sahara desert (West Africa)
ii. Kalahari and Namib deserts (South Africa)
iii. Arabian, Iranian and Thar deserts (Middle east)
iv. Australian desert
v. Atacama desert
vi. Mohave desert
CHARACTERISTICS OF DESERTS
i. Extremes of Temperatures: Deserts experience high temperatures during the day and
extreme low temperatures at night.
ii. Low rainfall: Due to the cold currents in the desert, low amount of rainfall is
experienced in the desert.
iii. Absence of vegetation cover: Due to low rainfall there is lack of dense vegetation cover
in the desert.
iv. High evaporation rate: As a result of high temperature in the desert it leads to high
evaporation rate of water in the desert.
v. Wind action: The action of wind is dominant in the deserts due to high temperature and
high evaporation rate.
REASONS FOR PREDOMINANCE OF WIND EROSION IN ARID AREA THAN IN HUMID AREAS
i. The absence of vegetation cover encourages free wind action in the arid regions,
whereas in the humid regions vegetation hinders or prevents the action of wind to the
soil.

ii. In the arid region soil is friable and light due to lack of moisture and thus prone to wind
erosion whereas in humid region, moisture helps to bind the soil particles together and
reduce soil erosion.
iii. Absence of rainfall in the desert encourages soil exposure while in the humid regions,
rainfall encourages soil protection by vegetation in humid regions.
TYPES OF DESERTS
There are five distinct types of desert landscape. These are:
i. Erg or Sandy Desert: These are made of sand and sand dunes or sheets.
ii. Hamada or Rocky Desert: They are made of mainly rocks.
iii. Reg or Stony Desert: This type of desert is up of mainly pebbles and gravels.
iv. Badlands: These are deserts highly eroded by wind.
v. Mountain Desert: These deserts are associated with highlands.
ACTION OF WIND EROSION

Wind erosion is carried out in the following ways:
i. Deflation: This is the blowing away of loose sands and pebbles by wind. It results in the
lowering of the landscape to form large depression called deflation hollows.
ii. Abrasion: It is the process whereby sand particles are carried by wind and are used to
blast or wear away rock surfaces as in rock pedestal, zeugen and yandang.
iii. Attrition: It is the process whereby wind-borne particles collide with one another;
resulting in the wearing away of each other. It results in reduced and rounded sizes of
the particles.
FEATURES OF WIND EROSION IN THE DESERT

A. Rock pedestals
Characteristics or Appearance
i. It consists of horizontal layers of hard and soft rocks.
ii. It looks like a pillar in structure.
iii. It is narrow at its base and broader at the top.
iv. It has flat or dome shape.
Formation: It is formed by wind abrasion. The abrasive action attacks alternate horizontal layers
of hard and soft rocks. Alternate bands of soft and hard horizontal rocks lying perpendicular to the
prevailing winds. The soft rocks are eroded faster than the hard rocks. Abrasion is stronger at the
ground level resulting in serious under cutting. Irregular shaped feature called rock pedestal is
formed.
Diagram
HARD ROCKS
SOFT ROCKS
Diagram

B. Zeugen
Characteristics
i. These are tabular masses with a layer of soft rocks lying beneath a surface layer of hard
rock.
ii. It has a long ridge and furrow landscape with a length of 10-30 meters.
iii. They are also formed by wind abrasion.
Mode of Formation
Zeugen is formed when a tabular mass of rock which has a layer of soft rocks lies under a layer of a
more resistant hard rock. It is lying horizontally to the direction of wind. The mass of the rock is
then attacked by wind abrasion which wears down the mass into a ridge and furrow landscape,
leading to the formation of Zeugen.
Diagram

C. Yardangs
Characteristics
i. Yardang have vertical bands of hard and soft rocks, ridge and furrow of landscape of
about 10-15 metres long.
ii. They are formed in the deserts e.g. Atacama deserts.
Mode of Formation
Yardangs are formed when hard and soft rocks in vertical bands are aligned in the direction of
prevailing winds. Wind abrasion wears the softer rocks into long narrow corridors which separate
the steep-sided ridges of the hard rocks. These hard rocks are called Yardangs.
D. Mesas and Buttes

Characteristics: It is a flat, table like land mass. It has a resistant horizontal top layers with steep
sides and it is made up of soft and hard rocks.
Mode of Formation
Due to the action of denudation, the hard top layers of the rocks protects the softer layer of rocks
from being eroded. At times mesas can be formed in the canyon regions. Canyon develops in the
space between mesas and butte. Denudation may reduce the mesas in areas to become isolated
topped hills called buttes.
E. Inselberg
Characteristics: Inselberg is an arid land form, isolated rocky outcrop having steep sides, round
top and composed of granite. It might rise up to a height of over 500 meters and may occur singly
or in group. Examples are found in Northern Nigeria, Kalahari desert and Western Australia.

Mode of Formation
It is formed from the existence of old plateau. It is caused as a result of weathering and removal of
weathered materials by water and wind. It is an exposure of rock outcrop.
Importance of Inselberg
i. It serves as a tourist centre.
ii. It is also a site for quarry.
Features of Wind Deposition in the Desert
i. Dunes: These are hills or ridges of sand formed by the piling up of sand into hill, shaped
by the action of wind. They are initiated when an obstacle of some kind prevents free
movement of the wind, creating certain shapes against the obstacle until it covers the
latter and falls over to the other side.
Types of Dunes
There are two types of dunes namely:
i. Barchan
ii. Seifs or Longitudinal dunes
EVALUATION:
iv. Briefly explain the concept of desert. Give examples of desert and their locations.
v. State characteristics of desert and briefly explain.
vi. Discuss the action of wind.
ASSIGNMENT
viii. With diagrams explain the two main types of dunes under the following headings:
characteristics, mode of formation.
ix. State the differences between Zeugen and Yardang.
x. State the differences between deflation and abrasion. .

LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK THREE (3)
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SSS 2
TOPIC: GLACIER ACTION
I. Understand the concept of Glacier action.
II. State and explain the terms associated with Glacier.
III. Describe Glacier action.
IV. State the features of Glacier action.
V. State the features of Glacier erosion in highlands.
VI. State the features of Glacier erosion in lowlands.
VII. State the features of Glacier deposition in lowlands.
CONTENT
CONCEPT OF GLACIER ACTION
Glacier action implies the transportation and deposition of materials by the action of snow or
ice which is an agent of erosion. Glacier action is an important agent of erosion which is confined
to mountainous and temperate region.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH GLACIERS

i. Ice: This is known to be solid form of water, resulting from freezing when the
temperature is persistently below 00C.
ii. Glacier: This refers to moving ice, referring to a very large accumulation of ice.
iii. Glaciation: This is the wearing away of the earth’s surface by glacier.
iv. Snow: This refers to frozen water vapour which falls in form of crystals through the
atmosphere.
v. Snow-line: This is the lower limit of perpetual snow cover on a mountain.
vi. Snow field: This is a region that is permanently under snow cover.
ACTION OF GLACIER EROSION

Glacier erosion is carried out in the following ways:
i. Sapping: This is the breaking up of rocks of alternate freezing and thawing of water at
the bottom of cracks between mass of ice and the sides and floor of a valley.
ii. Plucking: it is the tearing away of blocks of rocks which have become frozen on the sides
of bottom of a glacier.
iii. Abrasion: This is the wearing away of rocks beneath a glacier by the scouring action of
the rocks embedded in the glacier.
FEATURES OF GLACIER EROSION IN THE HIGHLAND AREAS

i. Striations: These are scratches or marks left on rocks over which glacier passes. The
fragments of rocks or mountains embedded in the glacier affect the striation of rocks.
ii. Corries or Cirque: A corrie is a deep and rounded hollow or depression with steep sides
formed through erosion by ice. They are arm-chair shaped hollow, resulting from the
plucking of rock materials down the slope.

iii. Arete: Thus refers to when two corries cut back opposite sides of the same mountain,
resulting in the knife-edged ridge called arête.
iv. Pyramid peak: This occurs when two or more corries cut back on the same mountain
and a pinnacle shaped like a pyramid develops and it is called pyramid peak.
v. U-shaped valley or Trough: This is a wide, flat floor with very steep side which has
been eroded by glacier. It involves all the sides and floors, including all debris have been
washed away by glacier.
vi. Hanging valley: This results when glacier action from tributaries erodes materials into
the main or U-shaped valley. It can serve to generate electricity.
GLACIER EROSION IN LOWLAND
The erosional features of glacier which occur in lowland areas include the following:
i. Roche Moutonnee: these are resistant residual rock structures. Its surface is striated by
ice movement. Its upstream side is smooth due to abrasion while the downstream is
rough due to plucking. The surface is also rough.
ii. Crag and Tail: Crag is a mass of hard rock which slopes on the upstream side that
protects the softer leeward slope from erosion and later develops to form the tail.
Diagram
FEATURES OF GLACIER DEPOSITION IN LOWLANDS

i. Boulder clay: it is the ground moraine of the glaciers. It generally consists of stones of
various sizes and shapes in a mass of sand and clay.
ii. Erractics: These are transported rock fragments which are composed of materials
entirely different from the bedrock or rock fragments of the region in which they are
deposited.
iii. Drumlins: These are swarms of oval, elongated whale-back hummocks composed
mainly of boulder clay with their elongation in the direction of the ice flow.

iv. Eskers: These are long, narrow and winding ridges of sand and gravel deposited by
melt-water streams.
v. Terminal moraines: They are made of boulders which are deposited at the edge of the
ice sheet and usually form a large debris deposited at the edge of the ice sheet.
EVALUATION:
i. List the terms associated with glacier and briefly explain.
ii. Discuss the action of glacier erosion.
ASSIGNMENT
i. Explain the following terms below:
a. Outwash plain
b. Bergschrund
c. Rock basin and Rock step
ii. Briefly explain the concept of glacier action. Give examples of glacier erosion that had
occurred in the world.

LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK FOUR (4)
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SSS 2
TOPIC: ACTION OF WAVES
i. Understand the concept of Wave action.
ii. State and explain the terms associated with Waves.
iii. Describe the mechanism of Wave erosion.
iv. State the features produced by Wave erosion.
v. State the features of coastal deposition.
vi. List and explain the types of Coasts.
CONTENT
CONCEPT OF WAVE ACTION
Wave action is one of the agent of erosion, transportation and deposition of materials which is
basically confined to the coastal areas such as the seas and oceans. The rate of wave erosion
depends on the nature of the rocks, the amount of rock exposed to the sea.
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH WAVES
The following are terms associated with waves:
i. Wave: This refers to the turbulent movement of water as a result of wind moving over
the water.
ii. Tide: This is the alternative rise and fall of the surface of the sea, approximately twice a
day.
iii. Current: Ocean current is the movement of the surface water of the ocean in a definite
direction.
iv. Coast: This refers to the meeting point between the land and sea.
v. Shore: This is the part of land that lies between high water and low water.
vi. Beach: This refers to the materials deposited on the shore by the action of waves.
vii. Swash: This is the water thrown up onto the beach by breaking waves.
viii. Backwash: This is the water that sucks back and retreats after wash.
ix. Undertow: This is the water that flows near the bottom away from the shore.
MECHANISM OF WAVE EROSION

i. Corrosion: This is the wearing down of the base of the cliff by wave action.
ii. Attrition: This is the breaking down of materials like pebbles, boulders etc against cliff
faces and against each other, as the wave continues its activities, into smaller particles.
iii. Hydraulic action: In this process , fast moving waves force themselves into cracks and
cavities within the base of the cliff under pressure and enlarge cracks.
iv. Solvent action: This involves the disintegration of rock materials such as limestone in
the coast by the chemical action of the sea.

Diagram Showing Some Terms Associated With Waves Action.
FEATURES PRODUCED BY WAVE ACTION

i. Capes and Bays
Characteristics: These are features of marine erosion in the coastline which can be
made up of hard rock (cape) or soft rock (bay). A bay contains water and can be used as
harbour.
Mode of Formation: Soft rocks along the coastline are worn away to form bays, inlets or coves.
The harder rocks which are left after the wearing away from capes, headlands or promontories.
Cape and bay are formed due to the action of waves on rocks of varying resistance which makes the
coast to be eroded irregularly.
Diagram

ii. Cliffs: These are steep rock faces adjoining the coast and are formed due to the action of
waves on the base of the headland which cuts backwards as the wave action gets more
serious.
Diagram

iii. Coastal Cave
Characteristics: It is a feature of marine erosion. It is an arch-shaped feature found in steep coast
or cliff coast. It may contain blow hole.
Mode of Formation: This is formed by wave erosion when the softer rocks are more quickly
eroded than the harder rocks. The pressure in the cave increases the compression of the air which
then result in the expansion of the hollow.
iv. Arch: When two caves approach each other from either side of the headland, they meet and
unite to form an arch.
v. Stack
Formation: It is formed by wave erosion. There is presence of a headland. Wave erosion attacks
headland both sides. Two caves are formed on both sides of the headland. As the erosion goes
further, it produces arch and when the caves join up, roof of arch collapse and seaward portion of
the headland remains and is known as sack.
Appearance: This is a feature of the coast. The seaward part of the headland is left standing and
this varies depending on the resistance of the rock. Examples are the Needles, Oldman of Hoy etc.
vi. Stump: This is when the stack is seriously eroded to a point that a small portion is just visible
above the sea level, thus a stump is formed.

FEATURES OF COASTAL DEPOSITION
i. Beaches: They are made up of sand and gravel and they are depositional features on the coast.
Beaches are formed when sand and gravel loosened from the land are moved by waves to be
deposited along the shore.
ii. Spits: These are ridges of sand and gravel formed by long shore drift across the entrance to
coastal inlet by lying on one side to the land and the other to the ocean.
iii. Sand Bar
Formation: It starts as under water bar, formed by wave deposition in shallow sandy water.
The break of the waves pushes the sand toward the bank or shore while the backwash and
under low current drag materials down the beach and the deposition on the underwater bar
builds up the bar.
Diagram
Cliff Blow hole
Cave
b. Appearance: Waves open narrow channels in it. There is coastal feature and off-shore bar. A
few metres above sea level lies parallel to the shore and not continuous. Sometimes it is covered by
water at high tide but it is exposed at low tide.
4. Marine dunes and dune belts: These are on shore winds with large amount of coastal sand to
move land ward to form marine dunes. The marine dunes later stretched to dune belts.
TYPES OF COASTS
Coastlines are divided into four major types and they are:
i. Coastlines of Submergence: These coastlines are formed as a result of the sinking of the
land or the rise of the sea. Examples are;
a. Ria coast
b. Fiord coast
c. Estuarine coast
d. Dalmatian coast
ii. Coastlines of Emergence: These coastlines are formed as a result of the uplift of the
land or a fall in the sea-level. Examples of such coast are:
a. Uplift lowland coast
b. Emergent upland coast
iii. Dalmatian or Longitudinal coast: This coast is formed where mountains run parallel or
concordant to the coast. The submergence of the coastline produce long, narrow inlets with

chains of islands parallel to the coast. They are not very good for port development.
Examples are coast of Yugoslavia, Western coast of North and southern America.
iv. Estuarine coast: If a lowland area sinks, the mouths of the rivers are drowned like the Rias.
These drowned mouths produce a funnel shaped structure called estuarine coast. These
include Thames, Elbe and Plate which are sites of great seaports such as London, Hamburg
and Buenos.
EVALUATION:
i. List the terms associated with waves and briefly explain.
ii. Discuss the mechanism of wave erosion.
ASSIGNMENT
i. Explain the following terms below:
a. Uplift lowland coast
b. Emergent upland coast 5 marks
ii. With the aid of suitable diagrams, describe the characteristics of and mode of formation
of the following:
a. Ox-bow lake
b. Zeugen
c. Block mountain 6 marks
iii. Draw the diagram of Fiord coast 4 marks

LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK FIVE (5)
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SSS 2
TOPIC: Climate II
i. Explain the concept of Climate.
ii. Identify climatic factors.
iii. Describe the Greek Koppen’s classification of Climate.
iv. State the major and subcategories of Greek Koppen’s classification of climate.
v. State the advantages and disadvantages of each classification of climate.
vi. Enumerate advantages and disadvantages of the classification types
CONTENT
CONCEPT OF CLIMATE
In Chapter 13 of Essential Geography for Senior Secondary Schools SS 1 section, the introduction
and definition of climate was treated. Hence, we recall the meaning of climate as below:
Climate is the average weather conditions of a place over a long period of time and it is
comparative constant over a long time.
CLIMATIC FACTORS
The climatic conditions varies from one place to another and it is due to the effects of the following
climatic factors.
i. Latitude
ii. Altitude
iii. Continentality or Distance from the sea
iv. Ocean current
v. Planetary wind and pressure belts
vi. Slope and aspect
vii. Cloud cover
viii. Natural vegetation and soil
Latitude: This implies to the location of a place on the earth’s surface in relation to the equator (the
great circle that divides the earth into two equal halves). The tropical latitudes above the equator
where the sun’s altitude is always high possesses high temperature than the lower latitudes where
the sun’s altitude is generally low.
Altitude: The higher the altitude of a place the less the heat experienced and the more cold the area
or place becomes. Altitude implies the height of a place above sea level. (Note: for every 1000m
high, there is a temperature decrease of 6.50C which is also called the normal lapse rate)
Continentality of Distance from the sea: The further the inland is from the sea, the less the
rainfall and also the temperature of the coastal region is much lower than that of the inland. Along
the coast, there is high humidity than the inland.

Ocean currents: Due to the present of the sea close to most places, cold currents from the sea
lower the temperature of adjacent coast lands and also help in the formation of fogs along the
adjacent coastland and coastal desert e.g. Kalahari desert, because of cold Benguella current, Sahara
desert because of cold Canaries current.
Planetary winds and Pressure belts: Wind can affect the climatic condition of a place for
instance, the North-east trade wind brings about harmattan and dry cold while the South-West
trade wind brings about wet season (rainy season) Another example is that warm winds raise the
temperature of adjacent coastlands while cold winds lower the temperature of the adjacent
coastlands.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE
This is a conscious trial at grouping different climates with similar characteristics together and it is
because climate varies from place to place. The common system of classification of climate includes
the Greek and Koppen’s classification.
Greek System of Classification of Climate

This type of classification is one of the earliest, ordinary, simple and rough climatic classifications
and is based on temperature. This system divides the world into three climatic zones which
include:
i. Torrid zone
ii. Temperate zone
iii. Frigid zone
Diagram

Torrid Zone: It is found within the tropics which are basically between the tropic of Cancer and
tropic of Capricorn. The sun’s rays are vertical throughout the year and it is very hot. It has a high
temperature.
Temperate Zone: This zone is found between the torrid and frigid zones and it is also called the
middle zone. The sun is never overhead here and the altitude of the midday sun varies throughout
the year. This zone has mild or moderate temperature. It has seasonal contrast in temperature.
Frigid Zone: The zone is found in the polar regions that is Arctic and Antarctic. It is generally cold
with low temperatures throughout the year. It has a lot of ice caps in the later part of the year.
Koppen’s System of Classification of Climate

The best known system of classification was the one done by Wladimir Koppen of the University of
Graz (Austria) in 1918. The basis for Koppen’s classification is temperature and rainfall
(precipitation).
Features of Koppen’s Classification

Koppen identified five major climatic conditions which corresponds with the vegetation groups and
they are represented by letters as follows:
i. A type-Tropical rainy climate
Features
a. This is moist and hot climate.
b. It has an average monthly temperature above 180C.

c. It has heavy rainfall throughout the year which exceeds annual evaporation.
ii. B type- Dry climate

Features
a. Its annual evaporation exceeds annual rainfall.
b. It lacks supply water and aridity (dryness) is pronounced.
c. Rivers does not flow permanently in this region.
iii. C type- Warm temperate rainy climates (Humid mesothermal climates

Features
a. The medium temperature of the coldest month is below 180C but above -30C.
b. The average temperature of the warmest month is over 100C.
c. This type has both summer and winter seasons.
iv. D type-Snowy and cold climates (Cold snow forest climate)

Features
a. The average temperature of the coldest month is below 30C.
b. The medium warmest month is above 100C.
c. It has a frozen ground and snow cover for about many months.
v. E type-Polar Climates (Ice climate)

Features
i. The average temperature of the warmest month is below 100C.
ii. There is lack of warm season.
iii. Precipitation is in the form of snow.
The above major climate of Koppen is further divided into subcategories for each group. These
subcategories are representation in tabular form:
Koppen’s Classification Subcategories

A TYPE-(Tropical rainy Af, Am and Aw subgroups
climate)
B TYPE-(Dry climate) BS and BW subgroups
C TYPE-(Warm temperate rainy Cw, Cs and Cf subgroups
climate)
D TYPE-(Snowy and cold Df and Dw subgroups
climates)
E TYPE-(Polar climate) ET and EF subgroups
The small letters attached in the Koppen’s classification of climates reflect how seasonal
precipitation is and mean the following:
i. f ¿ no dry season generally
ii. s¿ no dry season in the summer
iii. w ¿no dry season in winter
iv. m ¿ moderate dry season in winter and summer
The capital letters of S and W show the two subdivisions of dry climates:
i. S¿ means Steppe or semi-desert
ii. W ¿ means desert or arid

In Polar climates:
i. T ¿ means Tundra
ii. F ¿ means Ice Cap
ADVANTAGES OF KOPPEN’S CLASSIFICATION

The Koppen’s classification is widely used and accepted over other systems because
i. It is very simple to understand.
ii. It is objective.
iii. It is quantitative because numerical values are used for defining boundaries of climatic
groups.
iv. Koppen’s classification is commonly used in teaching at various levels of education.
v. It uses more than one parameter for classification.
DISADVANTAGES OF KOPPEN’S CLASSIFICATION

i. It did not consider the climate of the highlands.
ii. Letters used are too many and confusing.
iii. There is no clear distinction of one climate from another.
EVALUATION:
iv. List the various climatic factors and briefly explain.
v. Discuss the Greek classification of climate.
ASSIGNMENT
vi. State the difference between Greek and Koppen’s classification of climate.
vii. Draw on a cardboard the Koppen’s classification of climate of the world climates.
viii. In tabular form, write out the characteristics and the areas of the subcategories of
Koppen’s classification of climate

LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK SIX (6) and SEVEN (7)
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SSS 1
TOPIC: CLIMATE II
.
i. Identify and explain the characteristics of major climatic types.
ii. Locate and describe the distribution of the climatic types.
iii. State the relevance of world’s climatic types to man.
CONTENT
Earlier in week five, we visited the concept of climate which is the average weather conditions of
a place over a long period of time and it is comparative constant over a long time. The
climatic condition of the world is subdivided into two major types namely:
i. Hot Climate
ii. Cold Climate
Hot Climate: This implies the average weather condition of an area that is relatively very hot or
relatively has high temperatures over a period of time.
Most areas of the world are either much hotter especially in tropical areas than in temperate
regions. There are two types of hot climates namely:
i. Equitorial climate
ii. Tropical continental (Sudan) climate
Equitorial Climate: The equitorial climate is located within 50 north and south of the equator.
Characteristics of the Climate
i. The temperature of this climate is constantly high all the year round.
ii. The mean monthly temperature is 270C.
iii. The humidity is high.
iv. Relative humidity is over 80% i.e. high relative humidity.
v. There is the presence of large amount of clouds in the sky.
vi. The daily range of temperature is very small.
vii. There is no marked dry season.
viii. The yearly rainfall is 2000mm or can be over 2000mm or 200cm.
ix. In equitorial climate, there is presence of rain throughout the year and the type of rain is
convectional.
Areas Where Equitorial Climate is experienced:

i. Amazon Basin of South America.
ii. The Zaire Basin of Central Africa.
iii. The coasts of West Africa.
Natural Vegetation
The natural vegetation of the equitorial climate is characterize by the following features:
i. Equitorial rain forest
ii. Ever green forest
iii. Some trees shed their leaves, others bear flowers and others bear fruits simultaneously.
iv. Trees are not in pure stand.

v. Trees exist in different species.
vi. The trees form three different layers which are upper, middle and lower layers.
vii. The major trees found in this climate are Mahogany, ebony, walnut, iroko, Sapele wood
climbers, creepers and parasites.
viii. The trees bear buttress roots and the shape of an umbrella.
Human Activities
i. Plantation agriculture: Cash and food crops are grown in this region due to the
condition of the climate.
ii. Lumbering: The presence of hard wood in this region promotes limbering mostly for
furniture construction and source of energy.
iii. Hunting: The local people are also involved in hunting wild animals.
iv. Fishing: Due to the presence of high rainfall and presence of rivers in this region,
provide fishing job for the people.
Tropical Continental (Sudan) Climate: This climate is located between 50 and 200 north and
50- 200 south of the equator.
i. The savanna lands are hot all year round and the temperature is between 32 0C and 350C.
ii. The day times are hot while the night times are cold due to the cloudless cloud.
iii. Rainfall occurs in the summer only and it is a convectional type.
iv. The rainy season is from May to September in the northern hemisphere and in the
southern hemisphere, the rainfall is from October to March.
v. There is low humidity which is less than 30%.
vi. Rainfall varies within the region (from 1219mm in Banjul to 127mm in Khartoum).
Areas Where Tropical Continental Climate is experienced:

i. Central America.
ii. North western part of South America.
iii. Interior upland of Brazil, Bolivia.
iv. West Africa
v. Parts of East Africa.
vi. Parts of India and South East Asia.
vii. Northern Australia.
Natural Vegetation
The natural vegetation of the tropical continental climate is characterized by the following
features:
i. There are tall grasses and clumps of short trees scattered all over the regions in this
climate.
ii. Trees are short and have an umbrella shape to protect the roots from the sun.
iii. Grasses are stiff, dry and yellow in the long dry season and the tallest variety is the
elephant grass.
iv. Common trees associated with this climate include baobab, eucalyptus, kapok, shea
butter and Isoberlina.
Human Activities
i. Livestock agriculture: Due to the presence of abundant grasses and low tsetse fly
infestation, livestock farming is encouraged.

ii. Arable crop cultivation: The cultivation of grain foods such as rice, wheat, maize, millet
etc are practiced in this region.
iii. Hunting: The local people are also involved in hunting wild animals.
iv. Development of game reserve: Due to the kind of vegetation, game reserve which is
the preservation of wild life is encouraged and also used as tourist centres.
Cold Climate: This implies the average weather condition of an area that is relatively very cold or
relatively has low temperatures over a period of time.
Most areas of the world are either much colder especially in temperate areas around the northern
and southern hemispheres. There are two types of hot climates namely:
i. Polar Climate
ii. Tundra Climate
Polar Climate: This climate is located around 900N and S of the equator. It is mostly around the
north poles and south poles.
i. Temperature is generally very low i.e. below 00C.
ii. The annual range of temperature is marginal or negligible.
iii. It has very little temperature in the summer.
iv. Presence of ice throughout the year, forming ice caps on land.
v. The yearly rainfall is low between 10 to 15cm.
vi. Blizzards (or snow storms) are very frequent.
Areas Where Polar Climate is experienced:

i. Interior part of Greenland
ii. Iceland
iii. Antarctica
Natural Vegetation
There is generally lack of vegetation of any sort as the land is ice-capped throughout the year.
Human activities
i. Fishing is done only in the summer.
ii. Hunting of some animals like penguins, sea lions, seals etc by the Eskimos.
iii. Herding of some animals adapted to cold weather.
Tundra Climate: It is located 600- 900 north and south of the equator especially around the Arctic
and the Antarctic circles.
Climatic Characteristics
i. It has long, cold winters and short cool summers.
ii. It has constant low temperatures between -290C and -400C.
iii. Summer temperature is cool which is about 100C with a large annual temperature range.
iv. The annual rainfall is about 25cm in the summer.
v. Presence of snow in winter with low humidity all year round.
Areas associated with Tundra climate

i. Coastal strip of Greenland
ii. Northern Canada
iii. Alaska

iv. Part of Eurasia
v. Antarctica
Natural Vegetation
The natural vegetation of the tundra climate includes mosses, lichen, tundra trees and shrubs. They
also called tundra vegetation. Other plants existing in this climate are crowberry, willow, birch,
puppy and anemone.
Human Activities
i. Semi-nomadism is confined to the coast on fur-bearing animal.
ii. Fishing is carried out in the summer.
iii. Hunting by the Eskimos in Greenland where caribou (American deer) is hunted for meat,
milk and skin.
DESERT CLIMATES
There are basically two major types of desert climates and they are:
i. Hot desert climate
ii. Cold desert climate
Hot desert climate: The hot deserts of the earth are located on the western coasts of continents
within latitudes 150 and 300 north and south of the equator.
Characteristics
i. High temperatures of 500 to 700C.
ii. The annual range of temperature is about 110C.
iii. It is purely arid or dryness.
iv. Annual rainfall is low and less than 250mm.
v. Presence of high evaporation rate due to high temperature in the desert.
vi. Variable trade winds, hot wind in summer and cold in winter.
vii. Rainfall usually sudden and violent.
Areas: Sahara Desert (North Africa), Arabian Desert (Arabia), Iranian Desert (Iran), Thar Desert
(India), Namib and Kalahari Desert (South Africa), Great Australia Desert, Atacama Desert (South
America)
Natural Vegetation
i. Sparse and scanty vegetation
ii. Examples are grasses, shrubs and herbs.
iii. Most plants are drought resistant.
iv. Plants’ roots in the desert are long and deep so as to source for water.
v. Some plants’ thick succulent stems are used to conserve water.
Adaptation of Plants to Desert Climate
There are very few plants that do survive in the desert conditions and it is due to the features
they possess which are:
i. Possession of long roots in search of water in the soil.
ii. Presence of few and wiring leaves or no leaves at all to prevent transpiration.
iii. Presence of wax on leaves to prevent transpiration.
iv. Thick succulent stems in order to store water.
v. Shedding of leaves during drought.

Human Activities
Generally the activities carried out by man in this region (desert climatic conditions ) are as
follows:
i. Food gathering e.g. fruits.
ii. Nomadic hunting for wild animals.
iii. Nomadic pastoral farming, e.g. rearing of cattle.
iv. Trading such as the trans-Sahara trade that occurs in the desert.
v. Mining
Cold Desert Climate: This implies the desert whose temperature is very low and cold is
experienced. The cold deserts of the earth are located in the interior of the continents around 45 0 to
600 north and south of the equator.
Characteristics
i. It is characterized by hot summers and cold winters.
ii. Winters are cold with temperatures below -70C while summers are hot about 380C.
iii. The diurnal (daily cycles that occurs every 24 hours) is about 35 0C while annual range is
400C.
iv. Rainfall is very low about 25cm and unreliable due to the far distance away from the sea.
v. Most rain occurs during late winter and early spring.
Areas: This climate is found in the interiors of Eurasia, North America and Patagonia (South
America).
Natural Vegetation
i. Presence of short grasses.
ii. Presence of drought resistant plants with woody stems and needle-like leaves.
Human Activities
The activities carried out by man in this region (cold desert climatic condition) are as follows:
i. Food gathering e.g. fruits.
ii. Nomadic herding.
iii. Little cultivation of crops.
EVALUATION:
ix. List the various climatic factors and briefly explain.
x. Discuss hot and cold desert climate.
ASSIGNMENT
i. Explain the following types of climate under the following headings; location,
characteristics, vegetation and human activities
a. Warm temperate climate
b. Cool temperate climate
ii. From the internet print the map of the world showing the warm and the cool temperate
climate.

LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK EIGHT (8)
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SSS 2
TOPIC: VEGETATION
i. Identify major world’s vegetation types.
ii. Describe the distribution and characteristics of world’s vegetation types.
iii. Discuss the factors affecting the distribution/plant communities.
iv. Examine the economic importance of vegetation as an environment resource.
CONTENT
DEFINITION AND FACTORS AFFECTING VEGETATION
Vegetation is defined as an association or group of plants growing together in a particular
habitat or environment.
Factors Affecting Vegetation

There are certain factors that affect vegetation in the world and can be grouped into four major
categories. These categories are:
A. Climatic factors
i. High temperature with low rainfall will lead to sparse vegetation.
ii. The higher the rainfall, the denser the vegetation.
iii. High temperature and high rainfall lead to luxuriant vegetation.
iv. Low temperature produces no vegetation.
v. The presence of sunshine provides energy for photosynthesis process which promotes
the luxuriant growth of vegetation.
B. Topographic factors
i. The steeper the slope, the lesser the vegetation.
ii. The rainfall on steep slopes leads to run off, leading to low vegetation.
iii. The erosion of top soil in sloppy area does not support vegetation growth.
iv. Given the same climate and soil, flat or level lands have denser vegetation
C. Edaphic or Soil factors

i. The soil types in a particular area determines the percolation of water.
ii. Sandy soil are loose and have a high porous tendencies and thus, lead to sparse
vegetation.
iii. Clay soil though do not allow percolation but support little vegetation growth than sandy
soil.
iv. Loamy soil support and encourages luxuriant growth of vegetation.
D. Biotic or Human factors

i. Human activities either support vegetation growth or reduce it.
ii. Bush burning which is one of the art of men helps to reduce vegetation.
iii. Cultivation and animal grazing leads to reduction in vegetation.

iv. Deforestation also leads to reduction in vegetation.
v. Afforestation and irrigation activities support vegetation.
CLASSIFICATION OF WORLD VEGETATION

World vegetation can be grouped into two major classes which are:
i. Forest
ii. Savannah
Diagram
Forest: This is characterized by the presence of much trees and very little grasses. These trees are
very tall. The forest vegetation is subdivided into:
i. Tropical rain forest
ii. Temperate forest
Savannah: The savannah is a vegetation belt in the world characterized by presence of abundant
grasses with short scattered trees. It is subdivided into two:
i. Tropical grassland
ii. Temperate grassland

FOREST
(Tropical Rain forest and Cool Temperate Forest)
Topical Rainforest
Location: The tropical rainforest is found and located around the equator (i.e. within the latitudes
50 north and south of the equator) and it is found in areas like:
i. Amazon basin of South America
ii. Zaire (now Congo DR) basin of Central Africa
iii. The coast of West Africa
iv. Interior Malaysia
v. Indonesia
Climatic Conditions Affecting the Vegetation

i. It has favourable temperatures of 260C with an annual range of 20C to 30C.
ii. It has rainfall throughout the year with two peaks (double maxima).
iii. It has an annual rainfall is about 2000mm.
iv. It experiences abundant sunshine and has fertile soils.
Vegetation Characteristics
i. The forest is ever green and could be up to 60m in height with broad leaves.
ii. There are various inter-locking branches having layers of trees- lower, middle and upper
canopies.
iii. There are of great varieties, i.e. trees are heterogeneous big and robust.
iv. The trees are scattered all over and are not in pure stand.
v. Presence of abundant hardwoods.
vi. Presence of creepers, climbers, epiphytes and parasitic plants.
Effects of Climate on Equatorial Rainforest

The effects of climate on equatorial rainforest are as follows:
i. Heavy downpour of rain supports plant growth.
ii. High temperature supports the growth of trees.
iii. It has an annual rainfall of 2000mm which supports the luxuriant growth of trees.
iv. There is rainfall throughout the year which makes the forest evergreen.
Plant Communities: The various plants that exist in the rainforest are mostly deciduous, ever
green and possess broad leaves with net venation. Such trees are iroko, obeche, mahogany, ebony,
Africa walnut, opepe and limba.
Economic Importance
The economic importance of tropical rainforest is as follows:
i. Provision of timber for furniture, building and other construction works.
ii. It provides lumbering occupations to the people due to the availability of numerous
timbers.
iii. It allows cultivation of food and cash crops like yam, cassava, cocoa, oil palm etc.
iv. Hunting of wild lives such as lions, leopards, jaguars etc.
v. Rainforest also serves as tourist centres and provide foreign exchange for the nation.
Cool Temperate Forest

The cool temperate forest is subdivided into two namely:
i. Mediterranean woodland

ii. Temperate coniferous forest
Mediterranean Woodland
Location: It is confined to western portion of continental land masses between 30 0 and 450 north
and south of the equator. The forest is found in the north west of Africa (Libya, Tunisia, and
Morocco) South West of South Africa, Central Chile, Central California, South West Australia etc.
Climatic Conditions Affecting the Vegetation

i. There is presence of dry, warm summer with temperature between 120C and 270C.
ii. Bright sunny weather with hot, dry summer and wet-mild winter.
iii. Abundance of rainfall in winter with mean annual of 600-800mm.
iv. Abundance of sunshine with fertile soils.
i. The trees are ever green.
ii. Plants are adapted to a long period of drought prevalent in the region.
iii. Tough, small, leathery, hairy leaves to guard against excessive transpiration.
iv. Presence of long roots for drawing moisture from deep down the soil.
v. Trees have slow growth throughout the year.
Plant Communities: The various plants that exist in the Mediterranean woodland are mostly ever
green coniferous trees such as pines, firs and cedars. The dominant species are trees such as oak,
wild olive, cypress and redwood. Also, there is presence of Mediterranean bushes and shrubs such
as acacia, laurel, rosemary and macquis.
Economic Importance
The economic importance of Mediterranean woodland is as follows:
i. Orchard farming where wide varieties of circus fruits like grape, lemon, orange etc. are
grown.
ii. Viticulture is commonly grown and common.
iii. Production of oak cork used in corking bottled wine.
iv. Trees also provide wood for timber work.
Temperate Coniferous Forest

Location: This is found only in the Northern hemisphere especially in North America, Former
Soviet Union USSR, Europe and some Scandinavian countries like Norway, Sweden and Finland.
Climatic Factor Affecting Distribution

The climatic factors affecting the distribution of the conditions of the forest are as follows:
i. Presence of cool, brief summer and a long cold winter with light rainfall.
ii. Temperature ranges from 100C to 200C.
iii. Winter is marked by frost and heavy snowfall.
iv. Rainfall is light and convectional, which is about 500mm.
i. The trees present are of moderate density.
ii. Almost all the conifers are evergreen.
iii. The trees are conical in shape i.e. they are cone-shaped trees.
iv. Trees are in pure stand and homogeneous.

v. Leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle-shaped.
Plant Communities: The various plants that exist in temperate coniferous forest are mostly ever
green coniferous trees such as pines, firs, spruce and larch. It provides temperate soft wood.
Economic Importance
The economic importance of Mediterranean woodland is as follows:
i. The forest provides the world’s chief source of softwood timber used for building
construction, paper, pulp and matches making.
ii. The major occupation of the people is lumbering.
iii. The people are also involved in hunting and trapping of some games.
SAVANNA
Tropical and Temperate Grassland
Tropical Grassland
Location: The tropical grasslands are located between 5 0 and 200 north and south of the equator.
The areas where grasslands are found are Central America, North Western part of South America,
interior of Brazil, West Africa, part of East Africa etc.
Climate Associated with Tropical Grassland

i. It has two distinct seasons known as wet and dry seasons.
ii. The dry season is long while the wet season is short.
iii. Temperatures are uniformly high, ranging between 270C and 320C.
iv. Yearly temperature range is about 110C.
v. Rainfall is mainly convectional and it falls in the wet season.
vi. Relative humidity is high during the rainy season about 60%.
vii. Clouds are thick and low during the rainy season.
i. The dominant vegetative crop is the grass hence, it’s name savanna or parkland.
ii. There is presence of tall grasses that are fibrous when old.
iii. Presence of short scattered trees.
iv. Grasses are succulent.
v. Trees have large trunks during the dry season.
vi. The trees are deciduous that is, they shed their leaves during the dry season to reduce
transpiration.
Plant Communities: The major plants in this region are grasses called savanna (in Africa and
Australia), Campos (in Brazil) and lanos (in Orinoco in South Africa). Trees include acacia, baobab
and shea butter.
Economic Importance
i. It encourages livestock farming due to the presence of abundant grasses and low tsetse
fly infestation.
ii. Arable crop production in rice, maize, millet, sorghum and barleys.
iii. Hunting of wild animals such as hyena, lion, zebra etc.
iv. Nomadic herding is encouraged here in the region.
v. It is also used for game reserved.
EVALUATION:

xi. Define vegetation.
xii. Briefly discuss the various vegetation types.
ASSIGNMENT
i. Explain temperate grassland under the following heading:
a. Location
b. Climatic factors affecting distribution
c. Vegetation characteristics
d. Plant communities
e. Economic importance
ii. In tabular form, state the difference between tropical grassland and temperate grassland.

LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK NINE (9)
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SSS 2
TOPIC: ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE
i. Define environmental resource
ii. Identify the different types of environmental resource
iii. Mention examples of each type.
iv. Discuss the importance of each type of environmental resource
CONTENT
Meaning of Environmental Resources
Environmental resources are useful things both biotic and abiotic (living and non-living
things) occurring naturally within a particular geographical location which are of benefits to
man, animals or plants. These useful things can be located on land, in water, vegetation and the
atmosphere which are all examples of environmental resources.
Types of Environmental Resources

There are basically five types of environmental resources and they are:
i. Atmospheric resources
ii. Water resources
iii. Vegetation resources
iv. Human resources
v. Mineral resources
Atmospheric Resources: Atmosphere is the mixture of gases that envelopes the earth crust and
hence, the gases are the resources in the atmosphere which are of benefit to man, plants and
animals.
Types of Atmospheric Resources
There are various types of atmospheric resources namely:
i. Atmospheric gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon-dioxide, water vapour, ozone layer
and inert gases.
ii. Wind
iii. Rain
iv. Solar energy etc.
Importance of Atmospheric Resources

A. The gases
i. Oxygen gas is used by plants and animals for respiration and also support lives on
earth. It also brings about chemical weathering when it reacts with water vapour and
used for industrial purposes.
ii. Carbon-dioxide helps in plant photosynthesis as well as carries out the process of
carbonation. It also helps in absorbing the heat to control atmospheric temperature in
the carbon cycle.

iii. Nitrogen gas is mostly required by plants for protein production and combines with
water to produce food for plants as well as can be used in electrical industry.
iv. Ozone acts as blanket to the earth in the atmosphere where it protects the earth and its
living things against the burning effects ultra-violet rays of the sun.
v. Water Vapour is vital for rain formation which is used by plants and animals for their
respective activities. It also helps to moderate the atmospheric temperature.
vi. Sunlight provides solar energy which is used for powering electrical appliances through
the solar panel invented as well as used for drying agricultural goods and clothes
washed.
Problems Involve in Harnessing Solar Energy
i. Poor intellectual knowledge of implementation of solar energy as a source of power
supply.
ii. The high cost of harnessing solar energy.
iii. The fear of competition with established energy sources.
iv. The periods of unreliability especially when the sun is not overhead.
Ways in Which Human Activities Affect the Composition of the Atmosphere
i. Human activities such as emission of carbon substances such as carbon-dioxide through
burning fossils and other harmful substances have caused depletion of the ozone layer
and green house effect.
ii. Pollution emitted from industrial activities.
iii. The cutting down of trees for furniture and building purposes which is deforestation
destroys the composition of the atmosphere thus, reducing the composition of carbon-
dioxide needed by plants.
iv. The burning of bush leads to negative impact of the atmosphere.
v. Release of toxic waste.
Water Resources
Meaning: Water resources implies to any useful material (living or non-living) inside water
which are of benefit to man, animals and plants.
Sources of Water: There are various sources of water such as rivers, rain, lakes, seas, springs,
wells, boreholes, streams, reservoirs etc.
Importance of Water Resources
i. Water serves as a source of food supply.
ii. It serves also as a means of hydro-electric power generation through the use of the
dams.
iii. Water from lakes, rivers or streams can be used for irrigation purposes especially in
areas of low rainfall.
iv. Water serves as a medium of transportation of people and goods between lands
separated by water.
v. It is used for domestic purposes such as cooking, washing of plates and clothes, bathing
and drinking.
vi. Water serves as a means for job opportunities such as fishermen, canoe and ship
builders etc.
vii. It is also used for industrial purposes.
Problems of Degradation of Water Resources
i. Destruction of aquatic lives.
ii. Water poisoning
iii. Inadequate fresh and pure water for domestic and industrial use.

iv. Unemployment for fishermen.
v. Scarcity of sea foods.
Ways by Which Human Activities Limit the Use of Water Resources

i. Discharge of industrial waste into water bodies.
ii. Presence of oil spillage in water bodies.
iii. Sharing of the same water source with animals.
iv. Damming of rivers up stream.
v. Applications of chemicals to catch fishes limit the use of water.
vi. Dumping of untreated sewage inside water bodies.
Vegetation Resources
Meaning: This refers to all the resources derived from the forest and savanna belts for the
benefit of man, animals and plants. It includes timber, roots, leaves, barks of trees, latex, fruits
etc.
Importance of Vegetation Resources

i. Resources from the vegetative forest such as fruits, vegetables and bush meat serves as
food supply to man.
ii. It serves as a source for timber which is used in the production of furniture and
provision of foreign exchange.
iii. Vegetative resource provides firewood used for cooking.
iv. It also serves as a means of job opportunities such as one being a forest guide, hunters,
lumber men etc.
v. It helps to prevent erosion which erodes the soil nutrients from the top surface.
vi. Forest and savanna can serve as a means of tourist attraction that can generate foreign
exchange for the nation.
Problems Resulting from Exploitations of Vegetation Resources

i. The exploitation of vegetation resources especially from the forest zone can lead to soil
erosion.
ii. The continuous usage of vegetation resources also leads to the depletion of the natural
forest products.
iii. There is very high cost in the exploitation of the vegetation resources especially in
timber production.
iv. As a result of the capitalization of the vegetation resources which led to depletion will
bring about high leaching of the soil nutrients.
v. It can lead to flooding of the soil or area.
vi. It can also lead to disappearance of wildlife.
Solution to the Problems Resulting from Exploitation of Vegetation Resources

i. The policy of planting two trees in an area where one is cut down should be
implemented and carried out.
ii. Roads should be constructed around lumber areas for easy transportation and carriage.
iii. There should policies that guide the cutting of trees and encourage re-afforestation.
iv. Bush fallowing should be encouraged.
v. Laws should be enacted to prevent bush burning.

Human Resources
The human resource is a major factor that controls and organizes other resources and it
depends on the level of education, technology and culture
Factors that Determine the size of Human resource
i. Birth rate or natality
ii. Death rate or mortality
iii. Migration
iv. Level of fertility
v. Medical facility
vi. Education
vii. Technology
viii. Climate
Importance of Human Resources
i. Human resources supply the labour needed so as to improve the economic and
development of the nation.
ii. Human due to their intelligence they can control other resources for maximum input.
iii. Large population of a nation provides the required armed forces for defence purpose.
Mineral Resources
Meaning: Mineral resources are the solid, liquid and gaseous substances derived from the earth
through various activities such as mining, drilling etc. for the benefit of man and the nation as a
whole. Examples of the mineral resources are coal, gold, petroleum, natural gas, aluminium,
zinc, copper, tin, graphite etc.
MAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING SOLID MINERALS
Importance of Mineral Resources

i. Provision of job opportunities.
ii. It serves as source of foreign exchange.
iii. It helps in the provision of social amenities.

iv. It serves as a source of fuel and energy.
v. Mineral resources help the nation in industrial development.
vi. Provision of raw materials for industries.
vii. Mineral resources can also serve as a source of ornaments and jewelleries.
EVALUATION:
i. Define Environmental resource. 2.5 marks
ii. List the various types of environmental resource. 2.5 marks
ii. Briefly discuss the various types of environmental resource. 5 marks
ASSIGNMENT
i. Explain the following terms:
a. Renewable natural resources
b, Non-renewable natural resources
2. In a tabular form, differentiate between renewable and non-renewable
Natural resources.
3. State FIVE (5) problems resulting from the exploitation of mineral resources.
4. Explain the following Population classification and state the economic effects
of any two:
i. Age distribution
ii. Occupational distribution
iii. Geographical distribution
LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK TEN (10)

SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY
CLASS: SSS 2
TOPIC: ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

i. Define environmental problem.
ii. State the causes of environmental problems.
iii. State the effects of environmental problems on human activities.
iv. State remedies on the environmental problems
Meaning of Environmental Hazards or Problems

Environmental hazard or problem is referred to as any natural or human-induced event which
poses a serious danger or risk to the lives or properties of people in their environment.
In other words, we redefine environmental problems as
“disasters caused by nature or man which pose a serious threat or risk
to lives and properties of people in the environment.”
Types of Environmental Problems

There are several types of environmental problems namely:
i. Volcanic eruptions vi. Deforestation
ii. Earthquake vii. Soil erosion
iii. Drought viii. Tornadoes
iv. Pollution ix. Hurricanes
v. Desert encroachment x. Flooding etc.
The above types of environmental problems are classified into two namely:
i. Natural problems
ii. Artificial (man-made) problems
Natural Problems: These are referred to as any natural event that poses serious threat, danger
or risk to human lives and properties in their environment. Examples are volcanic eruptions,
flood, drought, desert encroachment, hurricane, tornado, earthquake etc
Soil Erosion
Meaning: Soil erosion is the washing or wearing away of the top soil from the earth by agents
of erosion such as water, wind and glacial ice. In other words, it can be defined as the gradual
removal of the top layer of the earth surface by agents of erosion.
Causes of Soil Erosion

The following are causes of soil erosion namely:
i. Deforestation: The act of cutting down trees for the purpose f furniture making and
other
relevancies thus expose the top soil to erosion.
ii. Bush Burning: The act of bush burning exposes the top soil to agents of erosion which
washes away the soil nutrients and thus causes improper growth or loss of crop foods to the
erosion.
iii. Overgrazing: The excessive eating of plants by animals when the land is overgrazed leads
and exposes the land to soil erosion.
iv. Excessive rainfall and wind: The excessive down pour of rain and the effect of wind on the
soil causes erosion to increase and thus, nutrients are lost.

v. Absence of Vegetative cover: The absence of vegetative cover which serves as umbrella to
the soil helps promote soil erosion.
Effects of Soil Erosion

i. Soil erosion leads to loss of soil nutrients and as a result shortage of food stuffs.
ii. It causes the loss of lives and properties.
iii. It leads to damage of roads and railway lines.
iv. Soil erosion creates environmental imbalance.
v. It leads to the formation of bad lands.
Control of Soil Erosion

i. There should be planting of trees which help to reduce wind erosion.
ii. Few animals should be allowed to graze on an area to avoid erosion.
iii. There should be improved farming methods.
iv. Terracing should be applied most especially on steep land so as to prevent water erosion.
v. The general public needs to be enlightened on the danger of soil erosion.
Desert Encroachment
Meaning: It implies the spread or extension of desert and its properties to areas which were
originally not deserts before. This is common to areas which are close to the desert such as
Sokoto state, North-East of Nigeria etc.
Causes of Desert Encroachment

The following are causes of desert encroachment namely:
i. Deforestation: The act of cutting down trees for the purpose furniture making and other
relevancies thus expose the land to desert characteristics.
ii. Bush Burning: The act of bush burning exposes the top soil to features of desert and hence,
encourages desert encroachment.
iii. Overgrazing: The excessive eating of plants by animals also encourages desert
encroachment.
iv. Climatic change: The climate change of a place from wet to dry areas encourages or
promotes desert encroachment..
v. Prolonged drought: When there is prolong drought in a particular area it encourages
desertification.
vi. High speed of winds: The great speed of wind which is one general feature of a desert also
encourages desert encroachment by depositing the sand it carried.
Effect of Desert Encroachment

i. It can lead to displacement of people and settlement
ii. It leads to crop failure and poor yields.
iii. Desert encroachment can lead to serious farming activities.
iv. Desert encroachment can lead to shortage of foods.
v. It causes the loss animal feed.
vi. It leads to loss of pasture and livestock.
Control of Desert Encroachment

i. There should be planting of trees which help to reduce desrtification.
ii. Few animals should be allowed to graze on an area to avoid desert encroachment.

iii. There should be improved farming methods.
iv. There should controlled use f wood as fuel and source of energy.
v. The general public needs to be enlightened on the danger of desertification.
Flooding
Meaning: This is the occurrence of large volume of water in areas which are usually not
waterlogged. In other words, it can be defined as the accumulation of excessive water in a
particular area not waterlogged but the water has refused to percolate or flow away.
Causes of Flooding
The following are causes of flooding namely:
i. Excessive rainfall.
ii. Refuse dumping into drainage system.
iii. Poor engineering and construction of drainage system.
iv. Settlements along river channels.
v. Bursting of weak dams.
vi. Tsunamis
vii. Strong tidal waves along the coast.
Effects of Flooding
i. Flooding causes loss of lives and properties.
ii. It leads to the interruption of socio-economic activities.
iii. Flooding creates health hazards by way of pollution.
iv. It washes away roads and railways.
v. It leads to diversion of public funds.
vi. Flooding creates the need for emergency relief supply.
vii. It can spread water-borne diseases.
Control of Flooding
i. Laws should be promulgated against dumping of refuse in drainage system.
ii. There should be efficient urban planning system.
iii. There should be general public enlightenment about the concept of flooding in its entirety.
iv. Construction of dams to create reservoirs.
v. There should be proper channeling of the drainage system and cleaning.
vi. Environmental education in all the schools.
Drought
Meaning: It can be defined as a state of prolonged and abnormal moisture deficiency and a
general state of dryness in a particular area. It can also be referred to as absence of rainfall for a
long period of time enough to cause dryness.
Causes of Drought
The following are causes of drought namely
i. Prolonged break in rainfall.
ii. Presence of high daily temperature.
iii. High rate of evapo-transpiration.
iv. Climatic change
v. Presence of green house gases
vi. Overgrazing
vii. Deforestation.

Effects of Drought
The following are effects drought in our environment:
i. It threatens plant life which leads to famine.
ii. It can lead to malnutrition of the young ones.
iii. Surface streams or rivers can dry out.
iv. It might lead to migration of people and animals.
v. Drought causes reduction in agricultural activities.
vi. It can also lead to desertification.
vii. Drought creates the problems of refugees.
Control of Drought
The following are ways in which drought are being controlled:
i. The planting of trees can help reduce drought in an area.
ii. The construction of artificial water supply (irrigation) can help suffice the drought.
iii. Drought resistant trees and crops can be planted.
iv. Avoidance of over grazing.
v. Enlightenment to the general populace should be given continually.
vi. Laws should be made against the cutting down of trees.
Deforestation
Meaning: Deforestation is the indiscriminate felling of trees for construction works.
Causes of Deforestation
The following are causes of deforestation in our environment:
i. Trees are cut for furniture making.
ii. Bush is cleared for grazing purpose.
iii. Trees are cut down for fuel purpose.
iv. Trees are cut down because of farming purpose.
Effects of Deforestation
The following are effects of deforestation:
i. Deforestation exposes the land to soil erosion.
ii. It leads to deterioration of the land.
iii. It decreases transpiration.
iv. Deforestation increases evaporation and lowers the water table.
v. It prevents the existence of wildlife.
vi. Deforestation lowers the nutrients of the soil.
Control of Deforestation
The following are ways in which deforestation are being controlled:
i. Afforestation
ii. Laws should be promulgated against illegal felling f trees.
iii. Issuance of licenses to authorized persons to fell trees.
iv. Public awareness campaigns on the effects of deforestation.
EVALUATION
a) In your own words, define environmental hazard

b) Briefly explain the following types of environmental problems:
 Earthquake
 Lightning
 Hurricane
c) Write short notes on coastal erosion under the following subtopics:
i. Meaning ii. Causes iii. Control
ASSIGNMENT
a) Write short note on environmental pollution under the following topics:
i. Meaning
ii. Types
iii. Five causes of each types of environmental pollution.
iv. Five effects of each types of environmental pollution.
v. Five controls of each types of environmental pollution.

Z


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SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON NOTES

SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL 2

2023/2024 ACADEMIC SESSION

SS 2 GEOGRAPHY FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK ONE (1)

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

ACTION OF RUNNING WATER

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH RIVER

Water as an Energy System of Factors Affecting the Velocity of a River

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH STAGE OF A RIVER

B. The Middle Course of a River

C. The Lower Course of a River

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

THE PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH EACH STAGE OF A RIVER

B. The Process Involved In Middle Course of a River

FEATURES AND BENEFITS ASSOCIATED WITH EACH STAGE OF A RIVER

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

B. Features of Middle Course of a River

C. Features of Lower Course of a River

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

IMPORTANCE OF RIVER TO MAN

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

LESSON NOTE FOR WEEK TWO (2)

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

ACTION OF WIND EROSION

FEATURES OF WIND EROSION IN THE DESERT

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

D. Mesas and Buttes

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH GLACIERS

ACTION OF GLACIER EROSION

FEATURES OF GLACIER EROSION IN THE HIGHLAND AREAS

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

FEATURES OF GLACIER DEPOSITION IN LOWLANDS

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

ii. State and explain the terms associated with Waves.

iii. Describe the mechanism of Wave erosion.

iv. State the features produced by Wave erosion.

v. State the features of coastal deposition.

vi. List and explain the types of Coasts.

MECHANISM OF WAVE EROSION

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

FEATURES PRODUCED BY WAVE ACTION

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

Cliff Blow hole

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

Greek System of Classification of Climate

SCHEME OF WORKS AND LESSON NOTES

Koppen’s System of Classification of Climate

Features of Koppen’s Classification