CARDI

OVASCULARSYSTEM
I
NTRODUCTI
ON
The t
erm car
diovas
cul
ar i
s us
ed gener
all
y per
tai
ning t
o t
he hear
t and
bl
ood ves
sel
s,andt
hes
yst
em i
nvol
vesci
rcul
ati
onofbl
oodwhi
chi
sthepas
sage
ofbl
oodf
rom hear
ttoar
ter
iest
ocapi
llar
iest
ovei
nandbackt
othehear
t.Thi
s
s
yst
em i
sres
pons
ibl
e f
ort
hecont
inuousci
rcul
ati
onofbl
oodt
hroughal
lthet
iss
ue
i
nanani
mal
.

THEHEART
Car
diol
ogy i
sthe s
tudy oft
he hear
t.I
n mammal
s and bi
rds
,the hear
tisa
hol
low mus
cul
aror
gandi
videdi
ntof
ourchamber
s.Thehear
tfunct
ionst
opump
bl
ood ar
ound t
he body i
n or
dert
o keep t
he t
iss
ue wel
l-s
uppl
ied wi
th bl
ood.
Cont
ract
ionoft
hehear
tis cal
led s
yst
oleand r
elaxat
ion,di
ast
ole.Thehear
tis
di
vided i
ntot
wo hal
ves
,they do not communi
cat
e wi
th each ot
herand t
hey
f
unct
ion s
imul
taneous
ly.Thet
wo hal
vesar
e s
epar
ated by t
hei
nter
atr
ialand
i
nter
vent
ricul
ars
ept
ae.Eachhal
fcons
ist
soft
wo chamber
s,ador
salt
hin-
wal
led
at
rium andavent
ralt
hickwal
ledvent
ricl
e.Thel
eft vent
ricl
ehast
het
hickes
t
wal
lsi
nce bl
ood i
spumped f
rom t
her
etot
he aor
ta and t
hen i
ntot
he l
arge
ar
ter
iesoft
hes
yst
emi
cci
rcul
ati
on,bl
oodi
sret
urnedt
othehear
tvi
a capi
llar
ies
andvei
ns.Ther
ighthal
fdr
ivesbl
oodt
hrought
hear
ter
ies
,capi
llar
iesand vei
ns
oft
hel
ungst
hepul
monar
yci
rcul
ati
on.
The at
ria connect t
o t
he vent
ricl
es t
hrough one-
way val
ves cal
led
t
he at
riovent
ricul
arval
ves
.Bet
weent
hel
eftat
rium andt
hel
eftvent
ricl
eist
he
mi
tral val
ve whi
ch us
ual
ly cons
ist of t
wo membr
anous cus
ps.The r
ight
at
riovent
ricul
arval
vehas t
hreecupsandi
sthi
scal
ledt
het
ricus
pidval
ve.

POSI
TIONOFTHEHEART
Thehear
tli
esi
nthel
owerant
eri
orpar
toft
heches
tcavi
tybet
weent
hel
ungs
,
but pr
oject
ingmor
etot
hel
efts
idet
hant
other
ightasagener
alr
ule,whenan
ani
mali
sst
andi
ngwi
thi
tst
wof
ore-
feett
oget
her
,inapos
iti
onofat
tent
ion,t
he
hear
tli
esr
oughl
y bet
weeni
tst
woel
bowsoral
it
tleabove,andal
inej
oini
ngt
he
poi
ntoft
he el
bows woul
d pas
sthr
ough t
he apex oft
he hear
t.I
tsbas
eli
es
oppos
itet
het
hir
dtot
hes
ixt
h r
ibs
,andi
tsapexl
iesabovet
hel
asts
egmentoft
he
s
ter
num,i
nthe hor
se,and i
nthe ot
her domes
ticat
ed ani
mal
sit
s pos
iti
on i
s
s
omewhats
imi
lari
tli
esi
n cl
ose cont
actwi
th t
he di
aphr
agm att
he t
ime of
maxi
mum expi
rat
ion,butwhent
hedi
aphr
agm r
ecedes dur
ingt
hef
ill
ingoft
he
ches
t,t
hiscl
osecont
actdi
sappear
s.I
not
herani
malt
hant
he hor
se,t
hehear
tand
s
tomachar
eonl
ysepar
atedf
rom eachot
herbyaver
ysmal
lspace, anddi
seas
es
oft
hes
tomachar
eli
abl
etoexer
tani
nfl
uenceupont
hehear
tegwhena cat
tle
nd
s
wal
lowsaf
orei
gnbodyl
ikeat
hree-
inchnai
l,i
tmaybecomel
odgedi
nthe2
s
tomachandevent
ual
lypunct
uret
hehear
twal
l.

CONDUCTI
NGSYSTEM OFTHEHEART
Thes
ino-
atr
ial(
SA)node,t
heat
riovent
ricul
ar(
AV)node,t
hebundl
eofhi
swi
th
i
tsr
ightand l
eftbr
anches
,and t
hepur
kinj
eti
ssuef
ormt
hecar
dicconduct
ion
s
yst
em.
Thehear
tbeat
sor
igi
nat
eint
heSA nodeoft
hehear
tandi
tiscal
ledt
he'
pace-
makeroft
hehear
t.I
nthemammal
ianhear
t,t
heSA nodei
sa col
lect
ionof
s
peci
ali
zed neur
omus
cul
arcel
lsl
ocat
edatt
hej
unct
ionoft
hecr
ani
alvenacava
wi
tht
her
ight at
rium.Thei
mpul
sef
rom t
heSAnodes
preadst
hroughoutt
heat
ria
mus
clescaus
ing t
hem t
ocont
ract
.Thi
sisf
oll
owed byas
hor
tpaus
ewhi
let
he
cont
ract
ionwavei
smovi
ng downt
otheAV nodel
ocat
ed i
nther
ightcaudal
por
tion oft
he AV node conduct
sint
erat
rials
ept
um i
mpul
set
othe vent
ricl
e
t
hrought
hebundl
eofHi
sandpur
kinj
eti
ssue caus
ingt
hevent
ricl
est
ocont
ract
.

FACTORSAFFECTI
NGTHEHEARTRATE
Hear
trat
eist
her
ateatwhi
cht
hehear
tbeatpermi
nut
e.An i
ncr
eas
ed hear
t
r
ate i
scal
ledt
achycar
diawhi
leadecr
eas
edhear
trat
eisbr
adycar
dia.

HEARTRATESOFANI
MALSI
NBEATSPERMI
NUTE
Ani
mal Mean Range

Man 70 58–1
04
 As
s 50 40–56

Camel 30 25–32

Cat 1
20 1
10–1
40

Cat
tle 60 60–70

Dog 90 90–1
30

El
ephant 35 22–53

Goat 90 70–1
35

Hor
se 44 23–70

Sheep 75 60–1
20

Pi
g 70 55–86

Fowl 275 1
50–400

Exper
iment
shaves
hownt
hatt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
oraf
fecthear
trat
e:
(
i)Ar
ter
ial pr
ess
ure: i
ncr
eas
ein pr
ess
ure ei
ther i
nthe aor
ta or i
nthe
car
oti
d s
inushasbeens
hownt
obr
ingaboutas
lowi
ngoft
hehear
tbeatbut
i
tal
so caus
eani
ncr
eas
eint
hei
nter
naldi
amet
eroft
hear
ter
iol
es.
(
ii
)Venous pr
ess
ure: i
ncr
eas
ein venous r
etur
n pr
oduces an i
ncr
eas
ein
hear
trat
e:t
hisphenomenoni
sknownast
heBai
nbr
idger
efl
ex.
(
ii
i)02 andCO2 t
ens
ionoft
hebl
ood:l
ackofoxygeni
nthebl
oodaccel
erat
e
t
he hear
trat
e.When CO2 accumul
ates i
nthe bl
ood,t
he hear
trat
eis
i
ncr
eas
ed.
(
iv) The hear
tspeed up dur
ing i
nspi
rat
ion and s
low down dur
ing
expi
rat
ion.Thi
sis cal
leds
inusar
rhyt
hmi
a.
(
v)I
mpul
ses f
rom t
he hi
gher cent
ers
:Emot
ion may af
fectt
he hear
trat
e.
Dur
ing exci
tementt
hehear
trat
enor
mal
lyaccel
erat
esont
heot
herhand,
s
lowi
ng mayens
uei
fanani
malr
ecei
vesas
uddenemot
ionals
hock
 (
vi) Mos
tpai
nfuls
timul
iqui
ckent
hehear
t,butabl
ow ont
heabdomen
f
or exampl
emaycaus
esl
owi
ngoft
hehear
t.
(
vii
) Ar
isei
nbodyt
emper
atur
eres
ult
sinani
ncr
eas
einhear
trat
e.
(
vii
i) Ci
rcul
ati
ng t
hyr
oxi
nef
rom t
het
hyr
oid gl
and accel
erat
est
hehear
t.
The hear
tisal
so accel
erat
ed by adr
enal
in and nor
adr
enal
inf
rom t
he
adr
enalmedul
la

BLOOD
Bl
ood i
sthe r
ed,s
light
ly al
kal
ine compl
ex and vi
sci
dfl
uidf
ill
ing t
he hear
t
and bl
ood ves
sel
s.Haemat
ology i
sthes
tudy oft
hebl
ood whi
chcons
istofa
col
our
les
sfl
uid, pl
asma,i
nwhi
char
esus
pendedt
her
edbl
oodcel
ls(
eryt
hrocyt
e)
whi
tebl
oodcel
ls(
leucocyt
es)andt
hepl
atel
ets(
thr
ombocyt
es)

FUNCTI
ONOFTHEBLOOD
i
. NUTRI
TION:t
he bl
ood s
uppl
ies t
he t
iss
ue i
nthe body wi
th nut
rient
s
abs
orbed f
rom t
hegas
troi
ntes
tinalt
ract
.Thes
enut
rient
sincl
udegl
ucos
e
ami
noaci
dsand l
ipi
ds.
i
i. EXCRETI
ON:bl
oodcar
riest
heendpr
oduct
sofmet
abol
ismf
rom t
hecel
ls
and was
temat
eri
alsf
rom t
hebodyt
otheor
gansofexcr
eti
ones
peci
all
y
t
he ki
dney.Thi
sincl
udesur
ea(
uri
caci
dinbi
rds
)andcr
eat
ini
ne.
i
ii
. RESPI
RATI
ON:Bl
oodt
rans
por
tsoxygenf
rom t
hel
ungst
othet
iss
ueand
CO2 f
rom t
het
iss
uet
othel
ungs
.
i
v. BODY TEMPERATURE:Bl
ood has a t
emper
atur
eregul
ator
y pr
oper
ty
whi
chi
s duet
opr
oper
tiesofwat
er.Thes
peci
ficheatofwat
erpr
event
s
s
udden al
ter
ati
on i
n body t
emper
atur
e.The hi
gh conduct
ivi
ty ofwat
er
hel
psi
nheat di
ssi
pat
ion(
heatdi
str
ibut
ion)
.
v. Wat
eri
slos
tcons
tant
lyf
rom t
he bọdy t
hrough t
he mout
h,ur
ine,s
weet
,
f
aces andl
ungsi
nor
dert
omai
ntai
nthecons
tantconcent
rat
ionofwat
er
and el
ect
rol
ytesi
nthebody.
vi
. PROTECTI
ON:The l
oss of bl
ood f
rom an i
njur
yisr
educed by an
 i
nher
ent pr
oper
tyofbl
ood.Pl
asmaand pl
atel
etscont
ainal
lthecl
ott
ing
f
act
orsr
equi
red t
opr
eventexces
sivebl
ood l
oss
.Al
sowhi
tebl
ood cel
l
and i
mmunogl
obul
inhel
pindef
endi
ngt
hebodyagai
nsti
nfect
ions
.
vi
i. REGUALTORY FUNCTI
ONS: Pl
asma pr
otei
ns combi
ne wi
th cer
tai
n
s
ubs
tance l
ike haemogbl
obi
n,t
hoxi
ne and gonadal hor
mones t
ofor
m
t
rans
por
tabl
e compl
exes
.Whent
hes
ecompl
exesar
riveatappr
opr
iat
esi
tes
,
t
heact
ive component
sar
erel
eas
edi
nspeci
ficr
egul
ator
yamount
s.Bl
ood
i
sal
so i
nvol
vedi
nthemai
ntenanceofacons
tantbl
oodpH.Thi
scanbedue
- 2+
t
othe pr
esenceofhaemogl
obi
n,bi
car
bonat
e(HCO3)orbi
phos
phat
es(
PO4 )
i
nthe bl
ood.

COMPOSTI
ONOFBLOOD
Bl
ood cons
istof a f
lui
d por
tion (
plas
ma)i
n whi
ch t
hree chi
ef var
iet
ies of
bl
ood cel
lsar
esus
pendeder
ythr
ocyt
es,l
eucocyt
esandt
hrombocyt
e.

PLASMA
Nor
mal
ly,pl
asma compr
ises 50 + 1
0% of t
he bl
ood i
n mammal
s.I
tis
compos
ed ofwat
er(
90+%)t
hreepr
otei
ns,s
alt
s,nut
rient
,(gl
ucos
efat
s)hor
mones
,
was
te pr
oduct (
urea)and ant
ibodi
es.I
n addi
ti
on pl
asma cont
ainsnon-
prot
ein
ni
trogenousmat
eri
alss
uchasani
malaci
dsi
nor
gani
csal
tsofNa+,K+,Ca2+,Cl
-
,
Fe,Cu,Mo,Mn,Zn,,S,and s
eleni
um,gas
es(
CO2 andO2)
.
Thet
hreepl
asmapr
otei
nsar
efi
bri
nogen,s
erum-
globi
nands
erum al
bumi
n.
Fi
bri
nogeni
sofgr
eati
nter
estandi
mpor
tance,owi
ngt
oit
srol
eint
hecoagul
ati
on
oft
he bl
oodwhi
les
erum-
globul
ini
sas
soci
atedwi
thi
mmuni
ty.
Changes i
n col
our of t
he pl
asma may occur under nor
mal phys
iol
ogi
cal
condi
ti
ons hor
sesand cat
tlef
ed ongr
eenf
oraget
ypi
cal
lyhavebr
ightyel
low
pl
asma.Af
teraf
att
y meal
,thepl
asmai
nmos
tani
mal
sismi
lky-
whi
te.However
,
abnor
malchangesmay changet
hecol
ouroft
hepl
asma.Ar
ed-
col
our
edpl
asma
r
esul
tsf
rom i
ncr
eas
edf
ragi
li
ty andr
upt
ureofr
edbl
oodcel
ls.
I
f bl
ood whi
ch has been t
reat
ed t
o pr
event coagul
ati
on i
s cent
rif
uged,
a s
epar
ati
ont
akespl
ace.Thebot
tom por
tionoft
hecent
rif
uget
ubei
sredduet
o
t
he s
edi
ment
ati
onofr
edbl
oodcel
ls,t
het
opi
sayel
lowi
sht
ocl
earpl
asmaandat
t
he i
nter
face oft
hes
etwo l
ayer
sther
eisa t
hick whi
tel
ine (
the buf
fy coat
)
r
epr
esent
ing mos
toft
hewhi
tebl
oodcel
ls.
I
f bl
ood i
s al
lowed t
o cl
othowever
,the s
uper
nat
antf
lui
d whi
ch f
orms i
s
cal
led s
erum.Ser
um i
ses
sent
ial
ly pl
asma mi
nusf
ibr
inogenand mos
tcl
ott
ing
f
act
ors
.

ERYTHROCYTES(
REDBLOODCELLS)
Red bl
ood cel
ls cons
tit
ute about32 % of t
he t
otal amountof t
he bl
ood.
Seen undert
hemi
cros
copet
heyappearasbi
concavedi
scs
,ci
rcul
ari
nshapeand
i
tpos
ses
ses nonucl
eus
,havi
ngl
osti
tbef
oreent
eri
ngt
heci
rcul
ati
on.(
N.B-The
RBC ofbi
rds
,fi
shand r
ept
il
espos
ses
sanucl
eusandbi
convex)Redcel
lsar
e
s
oft
,fl
exi
ble,el
ast
ic envel
opesor caps
ulescont
aini
ng t
he r
ed bl
ood-
pigment
knownashemogl
obi
n
When haemogl
obi
n pi
cks up oxygen t
ofor
m oxyhaemogl
obi
n,t
he cel
lis
br
ight r
edwi
thoutoxygen,haemogl
obi
nisdar
kbl
ue.Thuswhent
hel
ungsar
enot
f
unct
ioni
ng s
ati
sfact
ori
lyani
ndi
vidualmayappearbl
ue.Ther
ear
eabout1
80
mi
lli
on mol
ecul
esof haemogl
obi
nin each r
bc,each mol
ecul
e ofwhi
ch can
r
eadi
lyacceptf
ourmol
ecul
esof Oxygen.
The RBC ar
e des
troyed af
ter3 or4 mont
hsi
nthe ci
rcul
ati
on.The RBC ar
e
f
ormed i
nther
edmar
row oft
hebonesandappearf
irs
tofal
lasnucl
eat
edr
ed
cel
lscal
led er
ythr
obl
ast
s
Er
ythr
ocyt
es ar
e pr
esent i
nlar
ge number
sint
he bl
ood and t
he number
i
s expr
ess
esi
nmi
lli
onspercubi
cmi
lli
met
erofbl
ood.
Meanbl
oodval
uef
orvar
iouss
peci
esofdomes
ticani
mal
s
Ani
mal RBC(
Mil
lion/mm3) WBC(
Thous /mm3)
ands

Cat 6.
8 1
2.5

Cat
tle 7.
0 8.
0

Sheep 1
2.0 8.
0
 Goat 1
3.0 9.
0

Buf
fal
o 7.
0 9.
0

Camel 8.
2 20.
0

Hor
se 9.
5 9.
0

Pi
g 6.
5 1
6.0

Fowl 3.
0 20.
0

LI
FESPANOFRBC
The l
ife s
pan of RBC var
y wi
th t
he s
peci
es of ani
mal
. However
,the
f
oll
owi
ng aver
ageval
ueshavebeenobt
ained:
MAN–1
20days
DOG–1
10
CAT–80
PI
G–86
MONKEY–98
MOUSE–28
CHI
CKEN–28
RABBI
T–50
HORSE–1
45
CATTLE–1
50
SHEEP–1
40
GOAT–1
25
Er
ythr
ocyt
es ar
e des
troyed i
nlar
ge number ever
y day.Cer
tai
nfact
ors ar
e
known t
oshor
tent
hel
ifes
panofRBC.Oneoft
hemos
timpor
tantf
act
orsi
sthe
mal
for
mat
ionof RBCi
nthebonemar
row.Mal
for
medRBCmayhaveabnor
mal
s
hapeort
hecel
lsmaybe ver
yfr
agi
leandwoul
dther
efor
ebedes
troyedwhen
pas
singt
hroughs
mal
lcapi
llar
ies
. Sof
ar,nof
act
ori
sknownt
oincr
eas
ethel
ife
s
panofer
ythr
ocyt
es.
FATEOFRBC
Er
ythr
ocyt
eageandast
heybecomeol
der
,thecel
lmembr
anesbecomemor
e and
mor
efr
agi
le.
Dur
ing one oft
hei
rpas
sage t
hrough t
he capi
llar
iest
hey f
ragmentes
peci
all
y
i
n t
he s
pleen.Once t
he cel
ls have f
ragment
ed,t
he haemogl
obi
n di
ffus
es
i
mmedi
atel
y t
hroughoutt
hepl
asmaandt
hecel
lmembr
anebecomesacr
umbl
ed
s
hel
lwhi
chi
sther
eaf
terknownast
he"
ghos
t"cel
l.The"
ghos
t"cel
lsar
eremoved
i
mmedi
atel
yfr
om ci
rcul
ati
onanddi
ges
tedbyt
hecel
lsoft
her
eți
cul
o-endot
hel
ial
s
yst
em (
RES)whi
chl
ine manyoft
hebl
oodves
sel
sandes
peci
all
ysi
nus
oidsof
t
he s
pleen,l
iver
,bone mar
row and l
ymphoi
dti
ssues
.The di
ges
ted pr
oduct
s
pr
otei
nsandl
ipi
dsar
eei
therus
edf
orener
gyor r
eus
edbyvar
iouspor
tionsoft
he
bodyf
orbui
ldi
ngot
hers
truct
ures
.
Haemogl
obi
nrel
eas
ed i
nto pl
asma l
eakst
hrough t
hecapi
llar
y membr
anei
nto
t
he t
iss
ues
paceswher
eiti
sbr
okendownby cel
lsoft
heRESi
ntohaem and
gl
obi
n.Gl
obi
n whi
chi
sapr
otei
nisbr
okendowni
ntoami
noaci
dsandent
erst
he
ami
noaci
dpool
.
Haem whi
ch gi
ves bl
ood i
tsr
ed col
our i
s br
oken wi
tht
he l
ibr
ati
on of t
he
i
ron cons
tit
uentandf
ormat
ionofbi
li
ver
dinwhi
chi
sthef
irs
tbi
lepi
gment
.Thi
s
pi
gmenti
s uns
tabl
eandi
srapi
dlyr
educedt
obi
li
rubi
nwhi
chi
sthenr
eleas
edi
nto
t
hebl
ood ci
rcul
ati
on.Onr
eachi
ng t
hel
iver
,hepat
iccel
lsr
emovet
hebi
li
rubi
n
f
rom t
hepl
asmaand s
tor
eitasbi
lei
nthegal
lbl
adder
.Thebi
li
rubi
ninbi
le
gi
vesi
tgr
eeni
shyel
low col
our
.
Fai
lur
eoft
hel
ivert
oremovebi
lef
rom pl
asma (
for
eexampl
e duet
orapi
d
des
truct
ionof ofl
argeamountofr
bc)r
esul
tsi
nthepr
esenceofbi
li
nubi
nint
he
body t
iss
ues
.Thi
sin t
urn pr
oduces a yel
lowi
sh di
scol
orat
ion of t
he vi
sibl
e
mucousmembr
anesoft
hebody (
eye,nos
e,mout
handgeni
talor
gans
)acondi
ti
on
knownasj
aundi
ce.

LEUCOCYTES(
WHI
TEBLOODCELLS)
WBC def
erf
rom RBC i
nthatl
eucocyt
espos
sesa nucl
eus
,they ar
efeveri
n
number and l
arger i
nsi
ze.WBC count
s ar
e expr
ess
ed i
nthous
ands ml
.
Leucocyt
es ar
e di
vided i
nto t
wo br
oad gr
oups
; gr
anul
ocyt
es and
Agr
anul
ocyt
es.
Gr
anul
ocyt
es ar
e char
act
eri
zed by s
peci
fic gr
anul
es i
n t
her
e cyt
opl
asm
and accor
ding t
o t
he s
tai
ning char
act
eri
sti
cs. They i
ncl
ude neut
rophi
ls,
eos
inophi
li
sand bas
ophi
ls.Ont
heot
herhand,agr
anul
ocyt
eshavenogr
anul
esor
s
peci
fics
tai
ning char
act
eri
sti
cs.Theyi
ncl
udel
ymphocyt
esandmonocyt
es.
Gener
all
y,l
eucocyt
es can move t
ofor
eign s
oli
d par
ticl
es orbact
eri
aint
he
body and i
nges
tthem.The cel
lsmay di
ges
tbact
eri
a butmay di
efr
om t
he
bact
eri
alt
oxi
ns,t
heywi
llhavehowever
,pr
event
ed t
hebact
eri
afr
om har
ming
t
heani
mal
.WBC can s
lowl
yinges
twood s
pli
nter
s,abs
orb pol
lut
ion par
ticl
es
whi
char
rivet
hebodyvi
athe l
ungs
,orat
tackpr
act
ical
lyanyt
hingf
orei
gnt
othe
ani
mal
sbody.
Neut
rophi
lsf
unct
ionpr
imar
yasphagocyt
esats
itesofi
nfl
ammat
ionand i
nfect
ion.
Theyengul
fbact
eri
a,ar
efoundi
npusandar
ever
yimpor
tanti
ndef
ens
e agai
nst
i
nfect
ion.
Eos
inophi
lsf
unct
ion i
n pr
otect
ing t
he body i
n par
asi
ti
c di
seas
es and i
n
al
ler
gic r
eact
ions
.
Bas
ophi
ls cont
ain hepar
in and hi
stami
ne butt
her
efunct
ionals
igni
ficance i
s
s
til
l notknown.
Monocyt
esar
e hi
ghl
y phagocyt
ic.They engul
fbact
eri
a and f
orei
gn par
ticl
es
i
n chr
oni
cinf
ect
ions
.Lymphocyt
esar
econcer
ned wi
thant
ibody f
ormat
ionand
f
orm bar
rier
sagai
nstl
ocaldi
seas
e.
THROMBOCYTES(
PLATELETS)
Pl
atel
etsar
esmal
lert
hanot
herbl
oodcel
lsandar
econcer
nedwi
tht
hecl
ott
ing
of bl
ood,par
ticul
arl
y att
hes
iteofan i
njur
y.They cl
ump t
ofor
m pl
ugsi
n
damagedbl
o0d ves
sel
s,cont
ribut
etot
hrombopl
ast
inf
ormat
ion(
ess
ent
ialf
orcl
ot
f
ormat
ion)ands
tor
e adr
enal
ineands
erot
oni
nwhi
chcancons
tri
cts
mal
lar
ter
ies
.
Pl
atel
etshavenonucl
eusi
n mammal
s.I
nchi
ckenst
heyar
enucl
eat
edandoval
i
nshape.

BLOODCI
RCULATI
ON
Bl
ood ci
rcul
ati
on i
sthe pas
sage of bl
ood f
rom t
he hear
tto ar
ter
ies t
o
capi
llar
ies t
o vei
ns and back t
othe hear
t.Ther
e ar
etwo t
ypes of bl
ood
ci
rcul
ati
on: s
yst
emi
c and pul
monar
y ci
rcul
ati
on. The s
yst
emi
c ci
rcul
ati
on
i
nvol
vest
heci
rcul
ati
onofbl
oodf
rom t
hel
eftvent
ricl
eoft
hehear
ttot
heaor
ta,
t
o mos
tti
ssuesoft
he body and back t
othe r
ightat
rium oft
he hear
t.The
pul
monar
yci
rcul
ati
oni
nvol
vest
heci
rcul
ati
onofbl
ood f
rom t
her
ightvent
ricl
e
oft
hehear
ttot
hepul
monar
yar
ter
ytot
hel
ungsandbackt
o t
hel
eftat
rium of
t
hehear
t.
Dr
aw s
yst
emi
c&pul
monar
y

ERYTHROPOI
ESI
S
Er
ythr
opoei
sis i
s t
he f
ormat
ion of r
ed bl
ood cel
ls i
n t
he bone
mar
row. Haemopoi
sisi
sthes
ynt
hes
isofbl
ood cel
lsi
nthebonemar
row (
rbc,
pl
atel
ets
, monocyt
es and gr
anul
ocyt
es) and t
he l
ymphoi
d t
iss
ues
(
lymphocyt
es)
. Unl
ikemanyot
hercel
ls-
types
,bl
ood cel
lsar
eshor
t-l
ived.They
s
urvi
vef
ordaysor mont
handt
henar
edes
troyed.Thust
heyar
epr
oducedand
r
emovedcont
inuous
ly.
Manynut
rient
sar
ees
sent
ialf
ort
hispr
oces
s.
i
. Vi
tami
nB1
2funct
ionsi
nthemat
urat
ionofer
ythr
ocyt
es.
i
i. Fol
ic aci
dis neces
sar
yfor RNA s
ynt
hes
isi
nred cel
ls.Bot
h Vi
t.B1
2
Fol
ic aci
dar
erequi
redf
ort
hes
ynt
hes
isofDNA i
nal
lcel
lsoft
hebody
i
ncl
udi
ng er
ythr
ocyt
es.
i
ii
. Cobal
tis a di
etar
y es
sent
ial f
or r
umi
nant
s and i
s needed i
n t
he
bact
eri
al s
ynt
hes
isofVi
t.B1
2int
her
umen
i
v. Ot
her vi
tami
ns t
hat ai
d haemopoi
esi
s ar
e: pyr
idoxi
ne, r
ibof
lavi
n,
ni
cot
ini
c aci
d,pant
otheni
caci
d,t
hiami
nebi
oti
nand as
cor
bicaci
d.When
 t
hes
e vi
tami
ns ar
e def
ici
ent
,gr
owt
h and devel
opmentof er
ythr
ocyt
es
ar
e i
mpai
red.
v. Mi
ner
alsar
eneededf
ort
hes
ynt
hes
isofbl
oodpr
otei
ns.Themi
ner
als mos
t
commonl
y needed ar
e i
ron, copper and cobal
t.I
ron i
s bui
lti
nto
t
he haemogl
obi
n mol
ecul
e and copperi
ses
sent
ialasa co-
enzymesor
cat
alys
tinhaemogl
obi
nsynt
hes
is.
vi
. Ami
no aci
d,wat
er and ener
gy ar
e al
so needed f
or t
he s
ynt
hes
is of
bl
ood pr
otei
ns
Wi
th al
lthes
e nut
rient
s avai
labl
efor t
he mat
urat
ion of er
ythr
ocyt
es,t
her
e
s
til
lremai
n var
iousgover
ning mechani
smsf
ort
hepr
oduct
ion and r
eleas
eof
t
hes
ecel
lsf
rom t
hebonemar
row.Haemor
rhage,haemol
yti
cdi
seas
eschr
oni
c
bl
oodl
oss
,bl
ood s
ucki
ngpar
asi
tesandnut
rit
ionaldef
ici
enci
esel
ici
tther
espons
e
f
orgr
eat
err
edcel
l pr
oduct
ion.
The f
undament
al s
timul
us f
or er
ythr
opoi
sisi
sti
ssues anoxi
a (
decr
eas
e of
O2 t
ens
ion)duet
oanaemi
a(decr
eas
eint
henumberofci
rcul
ati
ng r
bcand or
Hb concent
rat
ion)decr
eas
eabi
li
tyoft
heHbt
ocar
ryO2 (
asi
nsi
ckl
ecel
ldi
seas
e)
andl
ow oxygent
ens
ioni
ntheat
mos
pher
e(asi
nhi
gheral
ti
tudes
).
Ther
eisa pr
imi
ti
ves
tem cel
lint
her
ed bonemar
row whi
chmay f
unct
iont
o
f
orm notonl
yer
ythr
ocyt
esbutal
soagr
anul
ocyt
es,monocyt
esandpl
atel
etsThe
pr
oces
sof haemopoi
esi
stakes70-1
80hour
sand t
hebl
ood cel
lsr
emai
nint
he
bone mar
row f
or anot
her 2-
3 days bef
oret
hey ar
e pus
hed out i
ntot
he
ci
rcul
ati
on.

BLOODCLOTTI
NG
Thi
sis a ver
y compl
ex pr
oces
s and an obvi
ous
lyi
mpor
tantone s
ince t
he
nat
ural ar
res
tofhemor
rhage (
bleedi
ng)dependson i
t.Bl
ood l
osesi
tsf
lui
d
char
act
eri
sti
cdur
ing t
hispr
oces
sandi
sconver
tedi
ntoas
emi
-sol
idmas
s.Thi
s
pr
oces
sinvol
ves i
mpor
tant cont
ribut
ion f
rom t
he bl
ood ves
sel
,pl
atel
ets and
bl
oodcl
ott
ingf
act
ors
.
When t
he i
njur
y gi
ving r
iset
othe bl
eedi
ng occur
s,t
hrombopl
ast
in(
fact
orI
II
)
i
srel
eas
ed f
rom t
he damaged t
iss
ue and f
rom t
hepl
atel
etsand r
eact
swi
th
ci
rcul
ati
on pr
othr
ombi
n(f
act
orI
I)andcal
cium (
fact
orI
V)t
ofor
mthr
ombi
n.Thi
s
r
eact
sint
urnwi
th ci
rcul
ati
ngf
ibr
inogen(
fact
orI
)topr
oducet
hef
ibr
inwhi
ch
f
ormsj
ell
y-l
ikecl
ots
.
Bl
ood cl
ots when t
he s
olubl
e pl
asma pr
otei
nfi
bri
nogen (
fact
or I
)changes
i
nto i
nsol
ubl
efi
bri
n.
Fi
bri
nfor
ms a net
wor
k of l
ong s
trands whi
ch ent
rap bl
ood cel
ls.Thes
e
s
trands ar
est
ickys
othatt
hecl
otadher
est
othes
urr
oundi
ngt
iss
ues
.
The above however
,is onl
y a par
tof t
he s
tor
y,f
or s
ever
alot
her f
act
ors
ar
e knownt
ooper
atef
irs
t.Theyi
ncl
ude:Labi
lef
act
or(
fact
orV)
;pr
oconver
ting
(
fact
orVI
I)
; Ant
ihamophi
li
cfact
orA≡Pl
atel
etcof
act
or(Fact
orVI
II
)Chr
ist
mas
f
act
or(
Fact
orI
X);s
tuar
tfact
or(
Fact
orX)pl
asma t
hrombopl
ast
inant
ecedent
(
Fact
orXI
);Hagemanf
act
or (
Fact
orXI
I)
;andFi
bri
n-St
abi
li
zingf
act
or(
Fact
or
XI
II
).
N.
B:Fact
orVIdoesnotexi
st.
Cl
ott
ing t
imevar
iesi
n di
ffer
ents
peci
esand underdi
ffer
entdegr
eeofheal
th,
but nor
mal
lyi
tt ween21/2 and1
akebet 1mi
nut
esaf
tert
hebl
oodi
sshed.Af
ter
s
omehour
sthef
ibr
incont
ract
sandbl
oods
erum i
ssqueezedoutf
rom t
hecl
ot.
For cl
ott
ing t
o t
ake pl
ace, adequat
e vi
tami
n K i
s neces
sar
y becaus
e
pr
othr
ombi
n (
Fact
orI
I)s
uppl
yisdependentont
hisvi
tami
n.
Cl
ott
ing may be i
nhi
bit
ed by ant
icoagul
ant
s agent
s whi
ch pr
event cl
ott
ing
of bl
ood,as
mal
lamounti
smadei
nthemammal
ianbody.
Ant
icoagul
ant
sincl
udehepar
in,di
coumar
ol,war
far
in,et
hyl
enedi
ami
net
etr
aacet
ic
aci
d( ,Na+oxal
EDTA) ate,andNa+,KorNH4+ci
trat
e.
N.
B t
hes
e ant
icoagul
ant
s have s
peci
fic us
es. E.
g. Bl
ood t
rans
fus
ion Na
ci
trat
e; Bl
oodcol
lect
ion(
EDTAOxal
ate)
,poi
son(
war
far
ingdi
coumar
ol)
.