CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Construction by a general contractor
Construction Industry
- Includes design, renovation, manufacture and
supply of materials and equipment.
- One of the largest industries in the country.
- The increasing rate of technological
development and growing international
competition in the industry are serving to
accelerate the development of new
construction methods, equipment, materials,
and management techniques.
Project Development
- Steps in development process:
o Recognizing the need for the project.
o Determining the technical and
financial feasibility of the project.
o Preparing detailed plans,
specifications, and cost estimates.
o Obtaining approval from
regulatory agencies. This involve
ascertaining compliance zoning
regulations, building codes,
environmental, local ordinance and
other regulations.
How Construction is Accomplished
1. Construction employing an owner
construction force or “Construction by
Administration”
­ For organization that have their own
engineering departments, they
prepare the plans and specifications
for their projects.
­ For individuals, they will have
architects or civil engineers prepare
the plans, specifications and estimate
of their project. They usually hire the
design professionals to supervise the
construction.
2.
­ The project owners hire professionals
to prepare the plans, specifications
and estimate of their project. After
that they will have contractors for their
projects.
­ There are two ways:
1. One have the project bided.
They will hire a project
manager to conduct the
bidding and act as owner’s
representative during the
construction of the project.
2. Second is by negotiation,
where the owner negotiates
with a preferred contractor
for the contract price for the
project.
­ This system is common for public and
private projects. In Philippines,
government projects are governed by
the
the RA 9184 Government
Procurement Reform Act.
3. Construction by design and build “TURNKEY”
­ The designer of the project is also
contracted by the owner to construct
the project.
­ For large project, this is classified as
“turnkey project”. The contractor
prepares all the plans and
specifications. Upon approval of the
owners, the contractor construct the
project. Usually, the designer finances
the construction. When the project is
completed, the project owner pays the
contractor the agreed price. The
contractor then turns over the “key” to
the project.
 Codes and Regulations

1. National Building Code

­ Primarily concerned with public safety,
provide minimum design and
construction standards for structural
and fire safety.
­ For Buildings, building permit should
be secured.
2. Zoning Regulations
­ Imposed by local government units.
­ Areas are classified as industrial,
commercial, residential, and
agricultural. There are ordinances to
4. Construction utilizing construction
be followed in an area where the
management contract.
project is located.
­ A construction manager (CM) acts as
3. Environmental Laws
the owner’s agent to direct and
­ The DENR (Department of
construction of a facility.
Environment and Natural Resources)
­ Three separate contracts are awarded
through the EMB (Philippine
by the owner for:
Environmental Management Bureau)
1. Design
require application for ECC (Employees
2. Construction
Compensation Commission) for certain
3. Construction Manager
projects.
­ This arrangement offers potential
4. Occupational Safety and Health Standards
savings in both time and cost
­ The DOLE imposes regulation on the
compared to conventional procedures
safety and health of workers.
as a result of of the close coordination
between design and construction. Quality Management
­ CM typically assumes little or no
- In all construction projects, steps must be
financial responsibility for the project
taken to ensure that the construction project
and that cost of his/her services may
meets the requirements according to
outweigh any savings resulting from
appropriate plans and specifications.
improved coordination.
- Construction contractors is primarily
­ Another form is Guaranteed
responsible for the construction quality.
Maximum Price Construction
o Quality assurance inspection and tests
Management. The CM guarantees that
performed by the owner’s
the project cost will not exceed a
representative or government agency
specified amount. Under this system,
provide little more than spot checks to
the CM takes the contractor’s risk.
verify that some particular aspect of
the project meets minimum
requirements.
- Extra cost associated with rework are
ultimately carried by the contractor.
- Poor quality will affect contractor’s reputation
for poor work. The combined effect of
increased cost and poor reputation often leads
to construction company failure.
Safety and Health ▪ Job conditions
▪ Weather conditions
- Construction is inherently a dangerous
process. Conclusion
- Construction operations found to account for
- Construction business is a risky business but if
majority of serious injuries.
done and managed very well is a very
Worker Health profitable business.
- Many of the present multi-billion construction
- Major environmental hazards are:
companies started small but became big due to
o Noise
good management.
o Dust
o Radiation
o Toxic Materials
o Extreme Temperature

Construction Company Failure

- Some major causes of company failures:

o Lack of Capital
o Poor cost estimating
o Inadequate cost accounting
o Lack of general management ability

Conditions Affecting the Accuracy of Construction

Estimates

- Certainty Factors
- Risk Factors
- Uncertainty Factors
o Uncertainty associated with the future
o Mistakes in calculations
- Error in belief

Cost Elements of a Project

- Materials
- Labor
- Equipment
- Overhead
- Contigency
- Profit

Labor

- One of the cost elements that is hard to

estimate. Most often, the labor cost is
determined from historical data available.
Labor cost is affected by productivity.
o Factors affecting productivity
▪ Condition of the national
economy
▪ Availability of skilled labor
▪ Supervision and project
management
▪ Construction methods and
equipment
CHAPTER 2: EARTHMOVING MATERIALS
AND OPERATIONS
2-1 INTRO TO EARTH MOVING
Earthmoving Process
- The process of moving soil or rocks from one
location to another and processing it so that it
meets the construction requirements of
location, elevation, density, moisture content
and so on.
- Activities includes excavating, loading,
hauling placing, compacting, grading and
finishing.
o Soil drainage characteristics is
important.
- Loadability
o It is a measure of the difficulty in
excavating and loading a soil.
o Loose granular are highly loadable,
while compacted cohesive soils and
rock have low loadability.
Moisture Content (%)

Equipment Selection
Or
- has a major influence on the efficiency and
profitability of construction operation. 𝑾𝒎 − 𝑾𝒅
𝒘= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
- Most important criterion: ability of the 𝑾𝒅
equipment to perform the required work.

Production of Earthmoving Equipment

Sample Problem (Moisture Content)
- The basic relationship for estimating the
production of all earthmoving equipment:
o The volume per cycle should represent
the average volume of material moved
per equipment cycle.

2-3 SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

- The cost per unit of production may be
estimated as follows: Fundamental material type:

• Gravel (6mm < gravel < 76mm)

• Boulders (rock particles > 76mm)
• Sand (No. 200 sieve < sand < gravel)
• Silt (pass No. 200, silt > 0.002mm)
• Clay (0.002 mm in diameter >clay)
2-2 EARTHMOVING MATERIALS • Organic Soil – contains partially decomposed
vegetable matter
General Soil Characteristics
• Peat – highly organic soil having fibrous
- Trafficability texture. Normally identified by its dark color,
o The ability of soil to support the weight odor, and spongy feel.
of vehicles under repeated traffic.
o It is a function of soilt type and
moisture conditions.
o Drainage, stabilization of haul routes,
or the use of low-ground pressure
construction equipment may be
required when poor trafficability
condition exist. Soil Classification Systems
 - Two principal soil classification systems are
used for design and construction.
o 1. AASHTO (American Association of
State Highway and Transportation
Officials)
o 2. Unified System

2-4 SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE CHARACTERISTICS

Soil Conditions

There are 3 principal condition or states in which Shrinkage

earthmoving material may exist:
- When soil is compacted, some of the air is
1. Bank – Materials in its natural state before forced out of the soil’s void spaces. As a result,
disturbance. Often referred to as “in place” or the soil will occupy less volume than it did
“in situ”. The unit volume is identified as bank under either bank or loosse conditions.
cubic meter (BCM).
2. Loose – Materials that has been excavated or
loaded. A unit volume is identified as loose
cubic meter (LCM).
3. Compacted – Material after compaction. Unit
volume is identified as compacted cubic meter
(CCM). Sample Problem (Shrinkage)

Swell

- A soil increases in volume when it is excavated

because the soil grains are loosened during
excavation and air fills the void spaces created.
- As a result, a unit volume of soil in the bank
condition will occupy more than one unit
volume after excavation.

Load Factor

- Because haul unit and spoil bank volume are

commonly expressed in loose measure, it is
Sample Problem (Swell) convenient to have a conversion factor to
simplify the conversion of loose volume to
bank volume.

- Bank Volume = Loose volume x LF

Shrinkage Factor the soil) varies with the soil’s physical
characteristics and its moisture content.
- A factor used for conversion of bank volume
to compact volume.

- Compacted Volume = Bank Volume x SF

- Bank Volume = Compacted Volume/SF
Triangular Spoil Bank
Sample Problem (Load and Shrinkage Factor)

𝟏
𝑽= 𝑩𝑯 × 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝟐

2-5 SPOIL BANKS

Conical Spoil Pile
- When planning and estimating earthwork, it is
necessary to determine the size of a pile of
material that will be created by the material
removed from excavation.
- If pile of material is long in relation to its width,
it is referred to as “Spoil Banks”
- Spoil banks are characterized by a triangular
cross section. If the material is dumped from a
fixed position, a spoil pile is created which has 𝟏 𝝅 𝟐
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = ( 𝑫 ) × 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
a conical shape. To determine the dimensions 𝟑 𝟒
of spoil banks or piles, it is first necessary to
convert the volume of excavation from in-
place conditions (BCY or BCM) to loose
conditions (LCY or LCM).
- A soil’s angle of repose is the angle that the
sides of a spoil bank or pile naturally form with
the horizontal when the excavated soil is
dumped onto the pile. The angle of repose
(which represents the equilibrium position of
Sample Problem (Triangular Spoil Bank) Pit Excavations

For these cases simply multiply the horizontal area of

excavation by the average depth of excavation

Sample Problem (Pit Excavation)

Sample Problem (Conical Spoil Bank)

2-6 ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME

It is often necessary to estimate the volume of material
to be excavated or placed as fill. Trench Excavation

The procedures to be followed can be divided into The volume of excavation required for a trench can be
calculated as the product of the trench cross-sectional
three principal categories:
area and the linear distance along the trench line.
- 1. Pit excavations (small, relatively deep
excavations such as those required for
basements and foundations)
- 2. Trench excavation for utility lines Sample Problem (Trench Excavation)
- 3. Excavating or grading relatively large areas.
- 4. For construction of roads and airport, the
estimation of earthwork volume is done using
MASS DIAGRAM
Large Areas

To estimate the earthwork volume involved in large or

complex areas, one method is to divide the area into a
grid indicating the depth of excavation or fill at each
grid intersection.

Sample Problem (Large Areas)

2-7 CONSTRUCTION USE OF THE MASS DIAGRAM

A mass diagram is a continuous curve representing the
accumulated volume of earthwork plotted against the
linear profile of a roadway or airfield

Characteristics of a Mass Diagram

• The vertical coordinate of the mass diagram
corresponding to any location on the roadway
profile represents the cumulative earthwork
volume from the origin to that point.
• W/in a cut, the curve rises from left to right.
• W/in a fill, the curve falls from left to right.
• A peak on the curve represents a point where
the earthwork changes from cut to fill.
• A valley (low point) on the curve represents a
point where the earthwork changes from fill to
cut.
• When a horizontal line intersects the curve at
two or more points, the accumulated volumes
at these points are equal. Thus, such a line
represents a balance line on the diagram

Steps:

1. Add Corner Depths

2. Add Border Points
3. Add Interior Depths
4. Sum of Weight = Corner pts + 2(border) +
4(interior)
5. Average Depth
6. Volume = Area x Average Depth
Using the Mass Diagram
Some of the information which a mass diagram can
provide a construction manager includes the following.
• The length and direction of haul within a
balanced section.
• The average length of haul for a balanced
section.
• The location and amount of borrow (material
hauled in from a borrow pit) and waste
(material hauled away to a waste area) for the
project.
CHAPTER 3: EXCAVATING AND LIFTING o Revolving superstructure containing
power and control units (revolving
EXCAVATING AND LIFTING EQUIPMENT deck or turntable)
• Excavator o Front-end assembly
- Power-driven digging machine
- Major types:
▪ Hydraulic excavators
▪ the members of cable-
operated crane-shovel family
(e.g shovels, draglines, hoes,
and clamshells)

EXCAVATORS AND CRANE-SHOVELS

• Crane-Shovels
- Cable-operated construction
machines that duplicates the motion
of a worker digging with a hand shovel
- Shovel, backhoe, dragline, clamshell,
mobile crane, and pile driver
• Hydraulic excavators
- Largely replaced the cable operated
crane shovel family, functions similar
to hydraulic machines.
- Advantage:
▪ Faster cycle time
▪ Higher bucket penetrating
force
▪ More precise digging and
easier operational control.
• Three major assemblies of excavators and EXCAVATOR PRODUCTION
crane-shovels
o Carrier or mounting The methods by which excavator bucket and dozer
▪ Crawler mounting: provides blade capacity are rated
excellent on-site mobility, and
its low ground pressure
enables it to operate in areas
of low trafficability ; used for
drainage and trenching work
and rock excavation
▪ Truck and wheel mountings:
provide greater mobility bet. • Plate line capacity
Job sites but less stable than o The bucket volume contained within
crawler mounting ; require the bucket when following the outline
better surfaces of the bucket sides.
▪ Wheel mountings: use a single • Struck capacity
operator’s station to control o Bucket capacity when the load is struck
off flush with the bucket sides. Water
both carrier and excavating
line capacity assumes a level of
mechanism material flush with the lowest edge of
the bucket
 • Heaped volume
o The maximum volume that can be
placed in the bucket without spillage
based on a specified angle of repose
for the material in the bucket

A better estimate of the volume of material in one

bucket load will be obtained if the nominal bucket
volume is multiplied by a bucket fill factor or bucket
efficiency factor

Sample Problem (Bucket Load)

Sample Problem (Hydraulic Excavator Production)

3–2 HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS

Operation and Employment
The original and most common form of hydraulically
powered excavator is the hydraulic excavator equipped
with a hoe front end. This machine is also called a
hydraulic hoe or hydraulic excavator-backhoe.

Job Management
- In selecting the proper excavator or a project,
consideration must be given to the maximum
depth, working radius, dumping height.
- Although the excavator will excavate fairly hard
material, do not use the bucket as sledge
hammer attempting to fracture rock.
Production Estimating - When lifting pipe into place, do not exceed
Production may be estimated by using the following load given in the manufacturer's safe capacity
formula: chart.
3-3 SHOVELS Job Management
- Two major factors controlling shovel
Operation and Employment production:
The hydraulic shovel is also called a front shovel or o 1. Swing Angle
hydraulic excavator-front shovel. o 2. Lost Time during the Production
- It digs with combination of crowding force or cycle
breakout force. - Angle of swing between digging and dumping
- It has limited ability to dig below track level. It position should be minimized.
is most efficient when digging above track level - Haul units must be positioned to minimize the
- Unfavorable Features: time lost as units enter and leave the loading
o Complete dependence on hauling position.
equipment - The floor of cut should be kept smooth to
o Will not dig shallow – must work provide an even footing for the shovel and to
against a face facilitate movement in the cut area
o Slow in travel - Keep dipper teeth sharp to increase
o Heavy to ship production.
o All dirt delivery stops if shut down for
any reason
- Favorable Features: Job Conditions considered in Selecting the Right
o Will dig any kind of soil or rocks if Shovel:
blasted 1. High lifts to deposit earth from basement into
o Can “mix” material by digging up trucks at natural ground level requires long
through face reach of a large shovel.
2. If blasted rock is to be excavated, large size
dipper will handle bigger rocks.
3. If material to be excavated is hard and tough,
dipper of the large shovel will handle the
material more easily.
4. Time allotted for the project requires high
hourly output, large shovel is used.
5. Size of hauling unit: small units - small shovel,
large hauling units - bigger shovels.
6. Weight limitations imposed on highways,
bridges, and other structures where the shovel
passes if transported.

Output of Shovels Affected by:

1. Class of material to be excavated
2. Depth of Cut
3. Angle of Swing
4. Job Conditions
5. Management Conditions
6. Size of hauling units
7. Skill of operator
8. Physical condition of the shovel

Production Estimating
Production for hydraulic shovels may be estimated
using the following equations which has been prepared
from manufacturers’ data
Sample Problem (Shovel Production) Production Estimating

3-4 DRAGLINES
Operation and Employment
The dragline is a very versatile machine that has the
longest reach for digging and dumping of any member
of the crane-shovel family
- Unfavorable features:
o Same as shovel
o Will not dig all materials
o Deliver less volume
o Heavy and Hard to ship
o Cannot “mix” materials
- Favorable:
o Can excavate wet material from below
ground keeping the hauling units on
top
o Does not go into a pit to excavate
Sample Problem (Dragline Production)

Job Management

- Trial operations may be necessary to select the

boom length, boom angle, bucket size and
weight and the attachment position of the drag
chain that yield maximum production.
- Maximum production is obtained with
minimum swing angle.
- In general, the lightest bucket capable of
satisfactory digging should be used, since this
increases the allowable bucket size and
reduces the cycle time.
- The most efficient digging area is located
within 15 degrees forward and back of a
vertical line through the boom point.
- Heavy buckets are suitable for digging medium
soils.
- Medium buckets are used for general purpose
work including the excavation of loose soils.
- Light buckets are used for handling bulk
materials such as sand and gravel.
- An orange peel bucket is principally utilized for
unter water excavation and for rock
replacement. Because of its circular shapre, it
is also well suited to excavating piers and
shafts.

3-5 CLAMSHELLS Production Estimating

Operation and Employment Sample Problem (Clamshells Production)

When the crane-shovel is equipped with crane boom
and clamshell, it becomes an excavator known as
clamshell.
- The clamshell is capable of excavating to great
depths but lacks the positive digging action and
precise lateral control of the shovel and
backhoe
- It is commonly used for excavating vertical
shafts and footings, unloading bulk materials
from rail cars and ships, and moving bulk
materials from stockpiles to bins, hoppers or Job Management
haul units.
- Bucket penetration depends on the bucket - The maximum allowable load (bucket weight
weight assisted by the bucket teeth. plus soil weight) on a clamshell should be
obtained from the manufacturer’s clamshell
loading chart for continous operation.
 o If a clamshell loading is not available, Estimate Cost of Clearing Land
limit load to 80% of the safe lifting
Rate of Clearing Land dependent on:
capacity given by the crane capacity
chart for rubber tire equipment or 90% 1. Density of vegetation
for crawler mounted equipment. 2. Major type of vegetation
- Keep the machine level to avoid swinging uphill 3. Sizes of trees
or downhill. Non-level swinging is hard on the 4. Kind of soil
machine and usually increases cycle time. 5. Topography of area to be cleared
6. Rainfall
7. Type of equipment used
3-6 TRENCHING AND TRENCHLESS 8. Skill of operator
TECHNOLOGY 9. Requirement of the specification of the
project.
Trenching Machines and Plows
• chain trenchers
o capable of digging 14- to 36-in.-(356–
Use of Crawler Type Tractors
914-mm-) wide vertical-sided trenches
to a depth of 10 ft (3.1 m) 1. When greater traction is needed – soft footing
• ladder trenchers and muddy surfaces
o similar to chain trenchers but are 2. In rocky areas where wheels (rubber) may be
larger damaged
• bucket wheel trenchers
3. In rough surfaces
o use a revolving bucket wheel to cut a
4. Greater Floatation because of lower pressures
trench up to 5 ft (1.5 m) wide and 9 ft
under the tracks
(2.7 m) deep
5. Greater use versatility on jobs
Trenchless Technology
• pipe jacking
o forcing pipe horizontally through the
soil
• horizontal earth boring Wheel Mounted Tractors
o a horizontal hole is created 1. Higher travel speeds
mechanically or hydraulically with the 2. No need of hauling equipment to transport
pipe to be installed serving as the
from one job to another.
casing for the hole
3. Greater output when considerable travelling is
• Microtunneling or utility tunneling
necessary.
4. Less operator fatigue
5. Ability to travel on paved highway without
Equipment for Clearing Land damaging the surface.
1. Tractor mounted bulldozer
2. Tractor mounted special blade
a. Single angle blade
b. V blade
3. Tractor mounted rakes
4. Tractor mounted clamp rakes
5. Tractor pulled chains
6. Tractor pulled root plows
7. Tree crushers
8. Tractor mounted shears
3-7 CRANES
- Cranes are primarily used for lifting, lowering,
and transporting loads. They move loads
horizontally by swinging or traveling.
- Most mobile cranes consists of a carrier and
superstructure equipped with a boom and
hook.
- Major factor controlling the load that may be
safely lifted by a crane:
o Operating Radius (horizontal distance
from the center of rotation to the
hook).
o Position of the boom in relation to the
carrier whether or not outriggers are
used, the amount of counterweight,
and the condition of the supporting
surface.
- Safety regulations limit maximum crane load to
a percentage of the tipping load (load that will
cause the crane to actually begin to tip)
- Hooks, blocks, slings, spreader bars, and other
load handling devices are considered part of
the load and their weight must be included in
the maximum safe load capacity calculation.
Heavy Lift Cranes
- Cranes intended for lifting very heavy loads are
usually crawler mounted lattice-boom models.
- To lift heavier loads several cranes can be use
together or the crane can be modified to allow
the use of extra counterweight.
Tower Cranes
- Widely used in building construction projects
because of its wide operating radius and
almost unlimited height capability.
- Major Types of tower cranes:
o Horizontal jibs
o Luffing boom
o Articulated Jib Cranes
▪ Are able to reposition their
hinged jibs to convert excess
hook reach into added hook
height.
- Types of tower crane by method of mounting:
o Static (fixed mount)
o Rail-mounted
o Mobile
o Climbing
▪ Climbing cranes are supported
by completed building floors
and are capable of raising
themselves from floor to floor
as the building is erected.
Job Management
- A number of attachment besides hooks are
available to assist the crane in performing
construction tasks. Among these attachments
are most often used in construction
application:
o Concrete buckets
o Slings
o Special hooks
o Load dropping tools (weights)
- Crane accidents occur frequently in
construction work particularly when lifting
near capacity loads and when operating with
long booms.
Some suggestions for Safe Crane Operation
1. Carefully set outriggers on firm supports
2. The crane base must be level. Safe crane
capacity reduced as much as 50% when the
crane is out of level by onle 3% and operating
with a long boom at minimum radius.
3. Use communication system or hand signlas
when crane operator cannot see the load at all
times. Make sure that all workers involved in
the operation know the hand signal used.
4. Provide tag line (restraining) when there is any
danger caused by swinging loads.
5. Ensure that crane operators are well trained
and know the capacity of their machines.
6. Check safe lifting capacity charts for the entire
range of planned swing before starting a lift.
Use a load indicator if possible.
Other Lifting Equipment

1. WINCH
o A mechanism for winding essentially a
cylinder on which a rope or chain is
wound,
o Windlass – the cylinder is turned
manually by means of a short crank
shaft.

2. Chainblocks
o Operated manually or mechanically
are small winches. Instread of ropes or
tackle, chains are used.

3. Derrick
o A gin pole is a timber or steel mast
pitched nearly vertical and held by
three or four guy ropes each of which
is anchored; at the top of the mast is a
sheave block through which the hoist
rope runs from hook to the winch
CHAPTER 4: LOADING AND HAULING
4–1 ESTIMATING EQUIPMENT TRAVEL TIME
In calculating the time required for a haul unit to make
one complete cycle, it is customary to break the cycle
down into fixed and variable components
Rolling Resistance
- primarily due to tire flexing and penetration of the
travel surface
- rolling resistance factor for a rubber-tired vehicle
equipped with conventional tires moving over a
hard, smooth, level surface

• Fixed time
o represents those components of cycle time
other than travel time
o includes
▪ spot time
- moving the unit into position to
begin loading
▪ load time
▪ Maneuver time
▪ Dump time
o this can usually be closely estimated for a
particular type of operation
Grade Resistance
• Variable time
- represents that component of vehicle weight which
o represents the travel time required for a unit
acts parallel to an inclined surface
to haul material to the unloading site and
- When the vehicle is traveling up a grade
return
o grade resistance is positive
o travel time depends on
▪ vehicle’s weight and power, the - When traveling downhill
condition of the haul road, the grades o grade resistance is negative
encountered, and the altitude above - The exact value of grade resistance may be found
sea level by multiplying the vehicle’s weight by the sine of
▪ the angle that the road surface makes with the
Total Resistance horizontal
o To determine the maximum speed of a vehicle - For the grades usually encountered in construction,
in a specific situation, it is necessary to Equation 4–4 is utilized
determine the total resistance to the o a 1% grade (representing a rise of 1 unit in
movement of the vehicle. The resistance that a 100 units of horizontal distance) is
vehicle encounters in traveling over a surface is considered to have a grade resistance
made up by rolling resistance and grade equal to 1% of the vehicle’s weight
resistance. o This corresponds to a grade resistance
factor of 20 lb/ton (10 kg/t) for each 1% of
grade

Resistance
- expressed in
▪ lb per ton of vehicle weight
▪ kg per metric ton
▪ pounds (kilograms)
- resistance factor will be used in this chapter
to denote resistance in lb/ton (kg/t)
Effective Grade Material Handlers

Estimating Loader Production

Job Management

4-4 SCRAPERS
Sample Problem (Total Resistance & Effective Grade)
Operation and Emplotment

Estimating Scaper Production

Push-Loading

Optimum Load Time

Calculating the Number of Pushers Required

Push-pull Loading

Job Management

4-5 TRUCKS AND WAGONS

Determining the Number of Haul Units Needed

Job Management

Effect of Altitude
Effect of Traction
Use of Performance and Retarder Curves
Estimating Travel Time

4-2 DOZERS
Tractors and Dozers

Dozer Blades

Estimating Dozer Production

Job Management

4-3 LOADERS

Tool Carriers

Skid-Steer Loaders

CHAPTER 5: COMPACTING AND
FINISHING
The Compaction Process
• Compaction
o the process of increasing the density of
a soil by mechanically forcing the soil
particles closer together, thereby
expelling air from the void spaces in
the soil
o months or years to complete
• Consolidation
o An increase in soil density of a cohesive
soil resulting from the expulsion of
water from the soil’s void spaces
o accomplished in a matter of hours
Four Basic Compaction Forces
A. Static weight
- to achieve compaction, most
compactors combine this with one or
more of the other compaction forces
B. Manipulation
- of soil under pressure to produce
compaction is most effective in plastic
soils
C. Impact or tamping
- involves blows delivered at low
frequencies, usually about 10 cycles
per second (Hz), and is most effective
in plastic soils
D. Vibration
- involves higher frequencies, which
may extend to 80 cycles per second
(Hz) or more
- effective in compaction of cohesion
less soils such as sand and gravel
Optimum Moisture Content
• The moisture content at which maximum dry
density is achieved under a specified
compaction effort
o A soil’s OMC decreases as the compactive
effort increases
• Proctor test
o evaluate a soil’s moisture-density
relationship under a specified
compaction effort
o American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM)
o American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
o Standard Proctor Test
- ASTM D 698
- AASHTO T-99
o Modified Proctor Test
- ASTM D 1557
- AASHTO T-180
Compaction Specifications
• Intended to ensure that compacted material
provides required engineering properties and a
satisfactory level of uniformity
o Proctor test: widely used for
expressing minimum density
requirement
Measuring Field Density
• Liquid Tests
o Measure the volume of material
removed by measuring the volume of
liquid required to fill the hole
• Sand Tests
o Involve filling both the hole and an
inverted funnel placed over the hole
with a uniform fine sand
• Nuclear Density Devices
o measure the amount of radioactivity
from a calibrated source that is
reflected back from the compacted
material to determine both material
density and moisture content
o produce accurate results in a fraction
of the time require to perform
traditional density tests
• Nonnuclear density gauges
o Measure asphalt density, temperature,
and moisture content
o Safer, lighter, and easier to transport
than nuclear devices
• Equipment-mounted compaction
measurement and control systems
o For rapid measurement of compaction
results
5–2 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT AND
PROCEDURES
Types of Compaction Equipment
• Tamping foot rollers
o utilize a compaction drum equipped with
a number of protruding feet
o utilize static weight and manipulation to
achieve compaction
o most effective on cohesive soils
o High-speed tamping foot rollers may
operate at speeds of 10 mi/h (16 km/h

@ Initial compaction,
Roller feet penetrate the loose material and sink to the
lower portion of the lifts
@ As compaction proceeds,
The roller rises to the surface or “walks out” of the soil
• Grid or mesh rollers
o utilize a compactor drum made up of a
heavy steel mesh
o can operate at high speed without
scattering the material being compacted
o Compaction is due to static weight and
impact plus limited manipulation
o most effective in compacting clean
gravels and sands
o used to break up lumps of cohesive soil
o capable of both crushing and compacting
soft rock (rock losing 20% or more in the
Los Angeles Abrasion Test)
• Vibratory compactors
o range from small hand-operated
compactors through towed rollers to
large self-propelled rollers
o include plate compactors, smooth drum
rollers, and tamping foot rollers
o Small walk-behind vibratory plate
compactors and vibratory rollers
- used primarily for compacting
around structures and in other
confined areas
o Vibratory plate compactors
- attachments for hydraulic
excavators
o Towed and self-propelled units
- are utilized in general earthwork
o Large self-propelled smooth drum
vibratory rollers
- used for compacting bituminous
bases and pavements
o Vibratory compactors
- most effective in compacting non-
cohesive soils
- may be effective in compacting
cohesive soils when operated at
low frequency and high amplitude
▪ self-propelled rollers
o Compactive force involved is primarily
static weight
• Rubber-tired or pneumatic rollers
o available as light- to medium-weight
multitired rollers and heavy pneumatic
rollers
o Wobble-wheel rollers
▪ Multitired rollers with wheels
mounted at an angle so that they
appear to wobble as they travel
▪ Imparts a kneading action to the
soil
o Heavy pneumatic rollers
▪ 200 tons
▪ dam construction, compaction of
thick lifts, and proof rolling
o Pneumatic rollers
▪ effective on almost all types of soils
but are least effective on clean
sands and gravels
• Segmented pad rollers
o utilize pads shaped as segments of a
circle
o produce less surface disturbance than do
tamping foot rollers
o effective on a wide range of soil types
• Rammers or tampers
o small impact-type compactors which are
primarily used for compaction in confined
areas

• Steel wheel or smooth drum rollers

o used for compacting granular bases,
asphaltic bases, and asphalt pavements
o Types
▪ towed rollers

Compaction in Confined Areas
• Confined areas such as trenches and around
foundations can utilize
o small vibratory plate compactors
o tampers or rammers
o walk-behind static and vibratory rollers
o attachments for backhoes and
hydraulic excavators
Selection of Compaction Equipment
Compaction Operations
After selecting appropriate compaction equipment, a
compaction plan must be developed
• Major variables
o soil moisture content, lift thickness,
number of passes used, ground
contact pressure, compactor weight,
and compactor speed
o necessary to consider the frequency
and amplitude of vibration to be
employed
• For plastic soils
o the field optimum moisture content is
close to the laboratory Standard
Proctor optimum for pneumatic rollers
o field optimum is appreciably lower
than laboratory optimum for tamping
foot roller
• For nonplastic soils
o field optimum for all nonvibratory
equipment appears to run about 80%
of the laboratory Standard Proctor
optimum
o vibratory compactor
▪ most effective in all types of
soil when the field moisture is
appreciably lower than
laboratory optimum
• Lifts should be kept thin for most effective
compaction
o For all rollers, except vibratory rollers
and heavy pneumatic rollers
▪ a maximum lift thickness of 5
to 8 in. (15 to 20 cm)
o Heavy pneumatic rollers
▪ Lift thicknesses of 12 in. (30
cm) or more may be
satisfactory
▪ precompaction with a light
roller may be required to
prevent rutting (for thick lifts)
o The maximum lift thickness for
effective vibratory compaction
depends on the static weight of the
compactor
• The compaction achieved by repeated passes
of a compactor depends on the soil/compactor
combination utilized
• Ground contact pressure may vary
o Pneumatic roller
▪ 30 lb/sq in. (207 kPa)
o Tamping foot roller
▪ 300 lb/sq in. (2070 kPa) or
more
o total roller weight has a much more
pronounced effect on the compaction
achieved than does contact pressure
o increasing the foot size on a tamping
foot roller while maintaining a
constant contact pressure will increase
both the soil density and the surface
area covered in one pass
o increasing the weight of a pneumatic
roller at constant tire pressure will
increase the effective depth of
compaction
5–3 GROUND MODIFICATION
The process of giving natural soils enough abrasive
resistance and shear strength to accommodate traffic
or design loads is called ground modification or soil
stabilization
Mechanical Methods
• Dynamic compaction or deep
o compaction involves dropping a heavy
weight from a crane onto the ground
surface to achieve soil densification
o drop weights
▪ 10 to 40 tons (9–36 t)
▪ are used with a drop height of
▪ 50 to 100 ft (15–30 m)
o to produce soil densification to a depth of
about 30 ft (9 m)
o horizontal spacing of drop points
▪ 7 to 25 ft (2–8 m)
• Vibratory compaction
o also called as vibroflotation and
vibrocompaction
o process of densifying cohesionless soils
by inserting a vibratory probe into the soil
o Process
i. The probe is jetted and/or
vibrated to the required depth
ii. Vibrator is turned on
iii. The device is slowly withdrawn
while the soil is kept saturated
iv. Clean, granular material is added
from the surface as the soil
around the probe densifies and
subsides
v. The process is repeated in a
pattern such that a column of
densified soil is created under
each footing or other load
o Effective on granular soils having less
than 15% fines and often allows bearing
capacities up to 5 tons/sq ft (479 kPa) or
more
• Vibratory replacement
o Also called vibroreplacement or stone
column construction
o Process is similar to vibratory compaction
except that the fill added as the probe is
withdrawn consists of crushed stone or
gravel rather than sand
o Resulting stone is vibrated to increases its
density and interaction with surrounding
soil
Hydraulic Methods
• Surcharging
o placing additional weight on the soil
surface to densify cohesive soils
o a very-long-term process (months to
years) unless natural soil drainage can
be increased
• Sand columns
o consists of vertical drilled holes filled
with sand to densify soft and loose fine
graded soils
o A newer technique that provides faster
drainage at lower cost involves forcing
wicks, or plastic drain tubes, into the
soil at intervals of a few feet
• Electroosmosis
o employs electrical current to speed up
the drainage of cohesive soils
Reinforcement Methods
These include confinement, inclusions, minipiles, soil
nailing, and stone columns
Physiochemical Methods
Soil stabilization refers to the improvement of the
engineering properties of a soil by use of physical or
chemical admixtures.
Note:
o addition of fly ash will generally increase the
strength of stabilized soil
o addition of 0.5-1.5% by weight of calcium
chloride will increase the early strength of
Portland cement or lime stabilization
• Granular Admixtures
- used to produce a well-graded mixture,
without excessive fines, which is suitable
for compaction
• Portland Cement
- The effectiveness diminishes rapidly as
the soil’s plasticity index exceeds 15
- The soil-cement mixture may need to be
placed in multiple lifts to obtain depths
greater than about 8 in. (20 cm)
• Lime
- Quicklime results in much faster strength
gain than does hydrated lime
- However, quicklime is hazardous to
handle

• Asphalt
- generally not effective in soils having
more than about 30% fines by weight or
a plasticity index greater than about 10
- techniques for employing physiochemical
admixtures:
▪ Surface mixing
• most widely used
• usual depth of mixing is 6-10
in. (15–25 cm);
• the mixing depth can go as
high as 40 in. (1 m) with
special mixing equipment
▪ Embankment layers
• One such field application
successfully used 2-in. (5-
cm) layers of quicklime
confined by filter fabric
separated by 28 to 48 in.
(71–119 cm) of compacted
cohesive soil.
▪ Deep mixing methods
• provide in place (in situ) soil
treatment
 ▪ 180 to about 400 lb/cu ft (2884 to
6408 kg/ m3)
CHAPTER 6: ROCK EXCAVATION • No-slump concrete
o Concrete having a slump of 1in (2.5 cm) or
CHAPTER 7: PRODUCTION OF less
▪ Slump: measure of concrete
AGGREGATE, CONCRETE, AND ASPHALT consistency obtained by following
MIXES ASTM C143
• Refractory concrete
7–2 PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE o Suitable for high-temperature applications
such as boilers and furnaces
• Concrete • Precast concrete
o produced by mixing Portland cement, o Concrete that has been cast into the
aggregate, and water desired shape prior to placement in a
o could add additives structure
▪ improve the workability or other • Architectural concrete
properties o Concrete that will be expose to view and
therefor utilizes special shapes, designs, or
• Construction operations in the production of surface finishes to achieve desired
concrete architectural effect
o batching, mixing, transporting, placing,
consolidating, finishing, and curing
Concrete Components
Types of Concrete • Cement
Classified into several categories according to its o Five principal types of Portland cement
application and density: classified by ASTM
▪ Type I (Normal PC)
• Normal-weight concrete - general-purpose cement suitable
o weighs for all normal applications
▪ 140 to 160 lb/cu ft ▪ Type II (modified PC)
▪ 2243 to 2563 kg/m3
- provides better resistance to alkali
o unit weight
attack and produces less heat of
▪ 150 lb/cu ft
hydration
▪ 2403 kg/m3
o Typical 28-d compressive strength - suitable for large piers and
▪ 2000 to 4000 psi drainage systems, where
▪ 13,790 to 27,580 kPa groundwater contains a moderate
level of sulfate
• Structural lightweight concrete
o Unit weight
▪ Less than 120 lb/cu ft
▪ Type III (high early strength)
▪ 1922 kg/m3
o 28-d compressive strength - provides 190% of Type I strength
▪ 100 to 1000 lb/sq in (690 to 6895 after 1 day of curing
kPa) - produces about 150% of the heat
o Primarily utilized for its thermal insulating of hydration of normal cement
properties during the first 7 days
• Mass Concrete - used to permit early removal of
o Used in a structure which the weight of the forms and in cold-weather
concrete provides most of the strength of concreting
the structure (i.e dam) ▪ Type IV (low heat)
o Little or no reinforcing steel is used - Produces only 40- 60% of the heat
• Heavyweight produced by Type I cement during
o Concrete made with heavy aggregate (e.g the first 7 day
barite, magnetite, and steel punchings) - its strength is only 55% of that of
o Primarily for nuvlear radiation shielding normal cement after 7 days
o Unit weight - massive structures such as dams
• Aggregates ▪ are finely divided materials, such as
o Used in concrete to reduce the cost of the fly ash, diatomaceous earth, volcanic
mix and to reduce shrinkage ash, and calcined shale, which are
• Water used to replace some of the cement
o To provide the moisture required for in a concrete mix
hydration of the cement to take place ▪ used to reduce the heat of
▪ Hydration: chemical reaction hydration
between cement and water which ▪ Increase workability
produces hardened cement ▪ reduce the segregation of a mix
o The lower the water/cement ratio, the o Workability agents or plasticizers
higher concrete strength and durability, ▪ increase the workability of a mix
provided that mix has adequate Batching and Mixing
workability • Batching
o Process of proportioning cement, water,
• Additives or admixtures aggregates, and additives prior to mixing
o Air-entrained concrete concrete
▪ significantly increased resistance to • Truck mixers or transit mix trucks
- freezing and thawing o Truck-mounted concrete mixers
- scaling caused by the use of deicing capable of mixing and transporting
chemicals concrete
▪ increases the workability of plastic o Delivers ready-mixed concrete
concrete and the water tightness of
hardened concrete
▪ widely used for pavements and
other structures exposed to freezing
and thawing
o Water-reducing agents
▪ increase the slump or workability of
a concrete mix
▪ the amount of water in the mix may
be reduced without changing the
concrete’s consistency
▪ note that some water-reducing
agents also act as retarders
o Retarders
▪ slow the rate of hardening of
concrete
▪ often used to offset the effect of high
temperatures on setting time
▪ used to delay the setting of concrete
when pumping concrete over long
distances
o Accelerators
▪ act in the opposite manner to
retarders
▪ decrease setting time and increase
the early strength of concrete
▪ Calcium chloride
- most common accelerator
- corrosive to metal
- should not be used in concrete
with embedded prestressing steel,
aluminum, or galvanized steel
o Pozzolans
CHAPTER 8: PAVING AND SURFACE
TREATMENTS
CHAPTER 9: COMPRESSED AIR AND
WATER SYSTEMS
9 COMPRESSED AIR AND WATER SYSTEMS
Source: https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/machinery-tools-
supplies/understanding-compressors

Compressors
• mechanical devices used to increase pressure in a
variety of compressible fluids, or gases, the most
common of these being air
• used throughout industry to
o provide shop or instrument air
o to power air tools, paint sprayers, and
abrasive blast equipment
o to phase shift refrigerants for air
conditioning and refrigeration
o to propel gas through pipelines;
• As with pumps,
o Compressors are divided into
- Centrifugal (dynamic or kinetic)
- Positive-displacement types
o But where pumps are predominately
represented by centrifugal varieties,
compressors are more often of the positive-
displacement type. They can range in size
from the fits-in-a-glovebox unit that inflates
tires to the giant reciprocating or
turbocompressor machines found in
pipeline service.
o Positive-displacement compressors
- Further broken out into
reciprocating types, where the
piston style predominates, and
rotary types such as the helical
screw and rotary vane

Types of Air Compressor

• Piston
• Diaphragm
• Helical Screw
• Sliding vane
• Scroll
• Rotary Lobe
• Centrifugal
• Axial

Piston Compressions
• Reciprocating compressors
• rely on the reciprocating action of one or more
pistons to compress gas within a cylinder (or
 cylinders) and discharge it through valving into high
pressure receiving tanks
• The tank and compressor are mounted in a
common frame or skid as a so-called packaged unit
• Major application
o providing compressed air as an energy
source
o also used by pipeline operators for natural
gas transmission
• Generally selected on the pressure required (psi)
and the flow rate (scfm)
• A typical plant-air system provides compressed air
in the 90-110 psi range, with volumes anywhere
from 30 to 2500 cfm; these ranges are generally
attainable through commercial, off-the-shelf units.
• Plant-air systems can be sized around a single unit
or can be based on multiple smaller units which are
spaced throughout the plant
Diaphragm Compressors
• specialized reciprocating design
• uses a motor-mounted concentric that oscillates a
flexible disc which alternately expands and
contracts the volume of the compression chamber
• the drive is sealed from the process fluid by the
flexible disc, thus there is no possibility of
lubricant coming into contact with any gas
• relatively low capacity machines that have
applications where very clean air is required, as in
many laboratory and medical settings
Helical Screw Compressors
• are rotary compressor machines known for their
capacity to operate on 100% duty cycle
o good choices for trailerable applications
such as construction or road building
• Using geared, meshing male and female rotors,
these units pull gas in at the drive end, compress
it as the rotors form a cell and the gas travels their
length axially, and discharge the compressed gas
through a discharge port on the non-drive end of
the compressor casing
• The rotary screw compressor action makes it
quieter than a reciprocating compressor owing to
reduced vibration.
• Another advantage of the screw compressor over
piston types is the discharge air is free of
pulsations
o These units can be oil- or water- lubricated,
or they can be designed to make oil-free air
o its designs can meet the demands of critical
oil-free service
9-1 INTRODUCTION
Construction Applications
• Compressed air
- is widely used as a power source for
construction tools and equipment
• While hydraulic power is gradually replacing
compressed air as the power source for rock drills,
compressed air is still required for cleaning out
the drill hole produced by a hydraulic drill
• Compressed air is used in
o paint spraying
o shotcrete
o conveying cement
o pumping water
o operating pneumatic tools
• Common pneumatic construction tools
o spaders (or trench diggers)
o concrete vibrators
o drills (steel and wood)
o grinders, hammers, paving breakers,
sandblasting guns, saws (circular, chain, and
reciprocating), staple guns, nailers, tampers,
and wrenches
• Pumps and water supply systems
o are utilized in construction to dewater
excavations and to supply water for cleaning
equipment and aggregates, for mixing and
curing concrete, for aiding soil compaction,
and for jetting piles into place
Types of Compressors
• Positive displacement compressors
- achieve compression by reducing the air
volume within a confined space
- Its types include reciprocating compressors,
rotary vane compressors, and rotary screw
compressors
• Dynamic compressors
- achieve compression by using fans or
impellers to increase air velocity and
pressure
- Its principal type used in construction is the
centrifugal compressor.
• Rotary compressors, both positive displacement
and dynamic, are smaller, lighter, and quieter than
are reciprocating compressors of similar capacity
 Determining Required Head
• Head
o Pressure as the equivalent height of a
column of water (feet or meters)
• Static head
o Difference in elevation between two points
o The inlet and the point of free discharge
• Friction Head
o Loss of pressure due to friction
❖ Compressors are available as portable units
(skid- or wheel-mounted) or stationary units

❖ Stationary compressors may be employed in

quarries and similar permanent installations

❖ A rotary screw or helical screw air compressor

utilizes two mating rotating helical rotors to
achieve compression. The advantages of
rotary screw compressors include high
efficiency, few moving parts, low
maintenance, and long life.

9-3 WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Principal Type of Pumps
• Displacement pumps
o Include reciprocating pumps and
diaphragm pumps
o Diaphragm pumps
▪ Utilize flexible circular disks or
diaphragms
▪ Self-priming, capable of pumping
water containing a high
percentage of sand or trash, and
can handle large volumes of air
along with water
▪ For dewatering excavating that
contain large quantities of mud
or trash or have an unsteady
influx of water
• Centrifugal pumps
o Submersible pumps
▪ Operate within the body of the
fluid which they are pumping

CHAPTER 10: FOUNDATIONS
10-1 FOUNDATION SYSTEMS
• Foundation
o Supports the weight of the
structure and its applied loads
o Includes the soil or rock upon
which a structure rests, and
structural system design to
transmit building loads to the
supporting soil or rock
• Foundation Failure
o Refers to collapse or excessive
settlement of a building’s
supporting structure resulting from
soil movement or consolidation
rather than from a failure of the
foundation structure itself
10-2 SPREAD FOOTINGS
• Spread footing
o The simplest and most common
type of building foundation
o Square or rectangular reinforced
concrete pad that serves to
distribute building loads over an
area large enough so that the
resulting pressure on the
supporting soil does not exceed
soil’s allowable bearing strength
Principal types
o Individual footings
▪ Include isolated (or single)
footing: Support a single column
▪ Wall footings: support a wall
o Combined footing
▪ Support a wall and one or more
columns, or several columns
o Mat or raft foundation
▪ Consist of heavily reinforced
concrete slab extending under
entire structure
▪ Floating foundation: weight of
soil excavated approx.. equals
the weight of the structure being
erected
10-3 PILES
• Pile
o A column driven into the soil to
support a structure by transferring
building loads to a deeper and
stronger layer of soil or rock
o Classified as:
▪ Skin-Friction piles
▪ End-Bearing piles
o Types:
▪ Timber piles
▪ Precast concrete piles
▪ Cast-in-place concrete piles
▪ Steel piles
▪ Composite piles
▪ Bulb piles
▪ Minipiles
10-4 PIERS AND CAISSONS
10-5 STABILITY OF EXCAVATIONS
Preventing Embankment Failure
• Side slopes may be stabilized by cutting
them back to an angle equal to or less
than the angle of repose of the soils, or by
providing lateral support for the
excavation
• Both side and bottom stability may be
increased by dewatering the soil
surrounding the excavation
• To protect more permanent slopes, such
as highway cuts, retaining walls are often
used
o Slopes of cohesive soil may be
strengthened by increasing the
shearing resistance along the
potential slip plane
▪ May be done by driving
piles or inserting stone
columns into the soils
 across the potential slip
plane
o Soil reinforcement, another
technique for reinforcing slopes
▪ Embedding high-tensile-
strength nonbiodegradable
element in a compacted
soil mass.
▪ To prevent erosion or
raveling of soil at the cut
surface
▪ Less expensive method for
stabilizing slopes
10-6 PROTECTING EXCAVATION AND
WORKERS
These regulations require, among other things,
that workers in an excavation be protected from
cave-ins by one of the following methods:
• Sloping or benching of the sides of the
excavation
• Supporting (lateral) the sides of the
excavation by shoring
o Timber shoring
▪ Employs vertical timber
uprights place against the
sides of the excavation
o Aluminum hydraulic shoring
▪ Employs prefabricated
vertical rails as upright with
attached hydraulic cylinder
crossbraces
o Lagging
▪ Nothing more than
sheeting placed
horizontally
o Sheet piling
▪ Sheeting of concrete, steel,
or timber that is designed
to be driven by a pile driver
▪ Used for constructing
retaining walls, shoring,
and cofferdams
• Placing a shield between workers and the
sides of the excavation
o Trench shields
▪ Trench boxes used in place
of shoring to protect
workers during trenching
operations
Slurry Trenches
• A slurry is used to fill the excavation as soil
is removed. The slurry serves to keep the
sides of the trench from collapsing during
excavation
10-7 DEWATERING EXCAVATIONS
• Dewatering
o Process of removing water from an
excavation
o Lowering the groundwater table
before excavation is begun
▪ May cause foundation
settlement or foundation
failure in building near the
excavation area
• Wellpoint Systems
• Vacuum Wells
o are wellpoints that are sealed at the
surface by placing a ring of bentonite
or clay around the well casing.
• Electroosmosis
o process of accelerating the flow of
water through a soil by the application
of a direct current
10-8 PRESSURE GROUTING
• Grouting or pressure grouting
o Process of injecting a grouting
agent into soil or rock to increase
its strength or stability, protect
 foundations, or reduce
groundwater flow
Grouting Methods
• Slurry Grouting
o Injection of slurry consisting of
water and a grouting agent into
soil or rock
o Lime slurry grout:
▪ can be used to control
swelling of expansive clays
▪ stabilize low strength soils
such as silts, dredge spoil,
and saturated soils
• Chemical grouting
o Injection of a chemical into soil
o Used primarily in sands and fine
gravel to cement the soil particles
together for structural support or
to control water flow
• Compaction grouting
o Injecting a very stiff mortar grout
into a soil to compact and
strengthen the soil
o Able to create grout bulbs or grout
piles in the soil which serve to
densify oil and provide foundation
support.
o To rase (jack) foundations that
have settled back to their original
elevation
• Jet grouting
o Employs rotating jet pipe to
remove soil around the grout pipe
and replace soil with grout
o Effective over a wide range of soil
type to include silts and some clays