Ferrous metals and alloys

The engineering materials are mainly classified as

1. Metals and their alloys

2. Non- metals and their related materials like polymers and composites, ceramics and allied
materials.

Metals and their alloys play a major role in the industries because of their specific
characteristics or properties. The property of a given metal can be improved by alloying a
metal with some other metals and non metals.

The major purpose of alloying is

(i) to increase the tensile strength - addition of 1% carbon can increase the tensile
strength of iron about 10 times.
(ii) to enhance the hardness of the metal - silicon is added upto 0.8% in steel in order to
increase the hardability.
(iii) to improve castability- pure lead on alloying with 5% tin and 2% antimony forms an
alloy known as Type metal which is used for prinying types due to its exceptional
casting quality.
(iv) to increase or lower the melting points - melting point of metals can be either
increased or decreased due to alloying. Nickel is added to iron and its alloy to
increase the heat withstanding property.
(v) to enhance corrosion resistance - Copper is alloyed with tin to reduce the corrosion.

Alloys are classified into two categories

(i) Ferrous alloys - involves iron with other alloying elements

(ii) Non ferrous alloys - these alloys are formed without the involvement of iron as the
major component.

Ferrous metals and its alloys commonly used as engineering materials are Cast iron,
Wrought iron, Steels and Alloy steels
Iron ore
Iron is found in nature in the form of ores which are oxides, carbonates, silicates and
sulphides of iron and from which the metal can be extracted. Ore in the form of iron oxide
are most important sources of iron. The principle ores of iron are

(i) Hermatite (Fe2O3)

(ii) Magnetite (Fe3O4)
(iii) Limonite (2Fe2O3 .3H2O)
(iv) Siderite (FeCO3)

The iron ores are in crude form when extracted from earth and contain varying amount of
clay, limestone, quartz and other earthly matter called gangue. The grade of ore, ie, the
percentage of metallic iron that occurs in the ore is an important factor.

Hermatite - It is important of all the iron ores. It is ferric oxide of iron and in pure condition
contains about 70% of iron. Its color varies from dark red to grey or black. It is found mainly in
Bihar and Orissa. Its specific gravity is 4.9 to 5.3.

Magnetite - In pure state it contains about 72% iron. It is black in color and possesses metallic
luster. It displays magnetic properties. It is found in Barakar hills, Gaya and Tamil Nadu. Its
specific gravity is 5.1.

Limonite - It is of yellow color. It contains about 35 to 50% iron. It is found in West Bengal. Its
specific gravity varies from 3.5 to 4.

Siderite - It is of grey or brown color and contains about 48% iron. It is also known as spathic
iron.
Pig Iron
The pig iron is the raw material for all the ferrous metals. Iron and steel products are
obtained from pig iron (crude iron). By using blast furnace and by the reduction of iron ore, pig
iron is obtained. The reduction of iron ore to pig iron is referred as smelting.

In addition to iron, pig iron contains varying quantities of other elements amoung which
carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorous are the most important. These may amount
to as much as 10% of weight and 25% of volume of pig iron. Presence of large amount of carbon
makes the pig iron very hard and brittle and therefore it is not suitable for making casting and
other useful article without refining.

Classification

Pig iron is classified by chemical composition into

(i) Basic pig iron

(ii) Foundry pig iron
(iii) Ferro-alloys

Basic pig iron

 Basic pig iron must be low in sulphur (0.04%) since sulphur is an active impurity in steel
and is not eliminated in the refining furnaces.
 Carbon content varies from 3.5 to 4.4%. Phosphorus is normally held to less than 1% and
manganese to a range of 1 to 2%.
 It is used for steel making and is low in silicon (1.5% max.) to prevent attack of the
refractory linings of the refining furnaces and to control slag formation.

Foundry pig iron

 It includes all the types that are used for the production of iron castings.
 Foundry iron contains: C =3 to 4.5%, Si = 0.5 to 3.5%, Mn = 0.4 to 1.25%, S = upto
0.05%, P = 0.035 to 0.9% and Fe = remainder.

Ferro-alloys
  These are alloys of pig iron, each rich in one specific element.
 These are used as additives, in iron and steel industries, to control or alter the properties
of iron and steel.

Examples:
(i) Ferromanganese-pig iron that contains from 74 to 82% manganese.
(ii) Ferrosilicon-pig iron with 5 to 17% of silicon content.

Manufacturing of pig iron

Raw Materials
Raw materials for manufacturing of pig iron are iron ore, coke (fuel) and limestone
(flux).
Fuel
Fuel supplies the necessary heat required for melting the charge and serves as reducing agent
in the reduction of the ore to metallic iron. Coke is commonly used as fuel. The fuel used should
have the following requirements.
1. It should have high calorific value
2. It should have low ash and sulphur contents
3. It should be of uniform size
4. It should be sufficiently hard so that it will not get crushed under the weight of charge.
5. It should be porous enough in order to provide passage to oxygen for rapid combustion.

Flux
Flux is defined as a substance added to the furnace charge to combine with gangue matter
of ore and form a fusible slag. The chief fluxes used are limestone and dolomite.

Blast Furnace
It is so named as a very high temperature is developed inside by means of forcing a blast
of heated air. It is a vertical steel stack and is about 15 to 30 metres highly depending upon the
capacity. It is of circular cross section and the diameter at its widest part varies from 6 meters to
8 metres. The furnace walls are lined with fire clay bricks. Double bell and hopper arrangement
is provided at the top of the furnace. The furnace proper has four sections namely throat, stack,
bosh and hearth. The charge in blast furnace consists of ore, coke and flux. Flux used is
limestone. The throat receives the charge through double bell and hopper arrangement.

The charge then moves to the stack. The next section is bosh. This is the hottest part of
the furnace and in this section the ore is reduced into pig iron and the charge gradually becomes
molten. The height of bosh is nearly 15% of the total height of the furnace. The bottom portion
of the furnace is called hearth. A tapping hole is provided near the bottom of hearth. The molten
iron is taken out through the tapping hole. The blast of heated air is introduced through tuyeres.
There may be 10 tuyeres round the furnace. According to temperature the furnace is divided into
following three zones.
1. Preheating Zone
The temperature in this zone is 200°C to 350°C. In this section, the charges preheated
and moisture is removed.
2. Reduction of Zone
In this zone the iron ore is reduced to iron. It is further divided into two zones.
a. Upper reduction zone
In this, the temperature varies from 350°C to 700°C. The reaction taking place is
Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + CO2
Lime stone (flux) dissociates as follows
 CaO3 → CaO + CO2
b. Lower reduction zone
In this zone temperature varies from 350°C to 1200°C. The CO 2 reacts with carbon of
coke and is reduced to CO and also iron oxide if remaining is reduced to metallic iron.
CO2 + C →2CO
Fe2O3 + 3C → 2Fe + 3CO
c. Fusion zone
The temperature in this range varies from 1200°C to 1600°C. In this zone melting of
charge is finally completed.
The molten metal obtained from blast furnace is poured into moulds where it solidifies to
form what is known as pig iron.

Cast iron
By remelting pig iron along with iron scraps and limestone in cupola furnace, cast iron is
obtained. It is also called modified pig iron.

Cast iron is a ferrous materials, it is basically an alloy of iron and carbon. The carbon
content varies from 2.0% to 4.0% and silicon content from 1.1 to 2.2%. Cast iron also has very
small amount of sulphur, phosphorous and manganese as impurities.

Cast iron has the following properties

1. It is the least expensive casting material.

2. It has low melting point (140-1200oC) so it can be easily cast.
3. Cast iron has high damping capacity. It is the property which permits a material to absorb
vibrational load.
4. It can be machined easily (good machinability)
5. They provide high wear and abrasion resistance.
6. They have very high compressive strength (400- 1000 N/mm2)
7. Tensile strength = 100-200 N/mm2 and shear strength = 120 N/mm2
8. It possesses high casting property such as high fluidity, low shrinkage and ease of
production. It can be cast into any shape.
Composition and classification of cast iron

1. White cast iron

2. Grey cast iron
3. Chilled cast iron
4. Mottled cast iron
5. Malleable cast iron
6. Ductile cast iron or Nodular cast iron
7. Alloy cast iron

White cast iron

It is called white cast iron because it has a bright appearance as a result of cementite presence
when broken. It does not have graphite.

In white cast iron the carbon is present in the combined form of cemetite (cemetite is iron
carbide (Fe3C).

% composition

C = 1.75 to 2.3%

Si = 0.85 to 1.2%

S = 0.1 to 0.35%

P = 0.05 to 0.20%

Mn = 0.1 to 0.5%

White cast iron is obtained by making the molten metal to cool and solidify rapidly. On
solidification the iron carbide gives a white color to cast iron.

Properties

1. Hard and brittle

2. Hardness can be varied
3. High compressive strength
 4. Very difficult to machine
5. High compressive strength

Applications

It is used for making rolls for rolling mills, grinding balls, pump lines and wearing plates.

Grey cast iron

It contains carbon in free form. It is soft and dark grey in color. Grey cast iron is obtained by
allowing the molten metal to cool and solidify slowly. On solidification, the graphite flakes give
grey color to the cast iron and hence the name.

% composition

C = 2.5 to 3.5%

Si = 1 to 2.5%

S = 0.02 to 0.15%

P = 0.15 to 1%

Mn = 0.4 to 1%

Properties

1. It has high compressive strength

2. It has good machinability
3. It has self lubricating properties due to the presence of graphite flakes
4. Molten grey cast has high fluidity so thin plates and shapes that are difficult to obtain can
be easily cast. It has good casting properties.
5. It has low melting point
6. It is very cheap
7. It has good shock resistance
Applications

Grey cast iron is used for machine casting, fly wheels, electric motor bodies, car wheel, drums
etc.

Chilled cast iron

Chilled cast iron is a combination of both white and grey cast iron. In this the molten metal is
solidified in a chiller mould (hence the name chilled cast iron). The surface which gets rapidly
cooled becomes white cast iron and the inner which gets slowly cooled becomes grey cast iron.
White cast iron formed is hard and has abrasion resistance and the inner core is grey cast iron
which is relatively softer. Chilled cast iron is made by careful cooling and maintaining a proper
cooling rate.

Applications

Chilled cast iron is used for railway-car wheels, crushing rolls, rolls for crushing ores, cam shaft
grinding balls etc.

Mottled cast iron

It is a form of cast iron. Compositions and properties are in between grey and white cast iron.

% composition

Iron- 93.5%

Graphite- 1.75%

Combined carbon-1.75%

The remaining are impurities

Properties

1. Strength and hardness varies according to the ratio of free carbon to combined carbon.
2. Less tendency to rust than grey variety.
3. Fluidity is good.
 4. Hard and brittle.

Applications

It is used for the manhole covers and pipes, also employed for making fire plugs and lamp posts.

Malleable cast iron

Malleable cast iron has the ability to be deformed and is bendable. Malleable cast iron is
obtained by prolonged heat treating white cast iron at high temperature (950 – 970oC).This
results in the formation of round nodules of graphite.

% composition

C = 2.0 to 2.65%

Si = 0.90 to 1.40%

S = 0.10%

P = 0.15%

Mn = 0.25 to 0.55%

Properties

5. Malleable cast iron is less brittle and hence stronger and tougher than grey cast iron.
6. It readily absorbs shock load and vibrations
7. It has good machinability and high resistance to corrosion

Applications

It is used for the manufacture of thin walled and small castings, hinges, spanners, levers,
agriculture implements like plough, sewing machine components etc.

Ductile cast iron or Nodular cast iron

Ductile cast iron is obtained by adding cerium, magnesium, calcium, lithium, sodium and barium
to the molten metal during casting. This causes the graphite to take a spheroidal or nodular form.
% composition

C = 3.3 to 3.4%

Si = 2.2 to 2.8%

S = 0.005 to 0.02%

P = 0.005 to 0.04 %

Mn = 0.1 to 0.5%

Mg = 0.03 to 0.05%

Properties

1. It has high fluidity, so it can be cast into complicated shapes

2. It has high strength and ductility
3. It has good machinability and weldability
4. It has good resistance to fatigue
5. It has good wear resistance

Applications

Crank shaft, hydraulic cylinder, valves, pipe fittings, cylinder heads, rolls for rolling mills etc.

Alloy cast iron

An alloy is a combination of two or more metals. Alloy cast iron is one which contains specially
added elements like Chromium, Nickel, Copper, Molybdenum and Vanadium to improve the
physical and mechanical properties. The alloying elements may be added during the melting
process. Alloy irons fall into two categories, graphite free white irons and graphite containing
irons. The graphite free white irons are very abrasive resistant. In graphite containing irons, the
graphite is in the form of flakes or nodules. Such alloy cast irons have good heat resistant and
corrosion resistant properties.
Manufacturing of cast iron
Cupola furnace consists of cylindrical vertical shell made up of boiler plate 6 to 12 mm thick and
lined with refractory bricks. The diameter of cupola is about 1 to 2 metre and height caries from
4 to 12 metres. The charge consists of pig iron, coke and flux. The weight of coke added is 8 to
10% of metallic charge. The charge enters the
furnace through the charging door provided at the
top. Air for combustion of fuel is supplied through
tuyeres. The area of the tuyeres being about 1/6 of
total cross-sectional area of cupola.

As the charges moves downwards, it is heated and the temperature reached inside the furnace is
1600-1700°C. The produced molten iron is removed through the tapping hole and slag is tapped
off through slag hole.

Effect of impurities on cast iron

Cast iron is brittle material, has low tensile strength and is weak to withstand shocks. Its
properties can be improved by alloying it with other elements. Like carbon, silicon, sulphur,
manganese and phosphorus.

Carbon - The carbon present in cast iron exists in two forms namely free form and combined
form. If the carbon is present in free form, it makes the cast iron soft, brittle and hence easily
machineable. If carbon is present in combined form, it makes the cast iron hard. The amount of
carbon varies from 2 to 4% in cast iron.

Silicon - When silicon is present in small amount (below 2.5%), it promotes the formation of free
graphite by combining with iron and thus makes the cast iron soft. In higher proportions, it
makes cast iron hard.

Sulphur- Promotes the formation of combined carbon and thus makes the iron hard and brittle.
The amount of sulphur should not exceed more than 0.2%.

Manganese-Presence of manganese minimizes the effect of sulphur in iron. Its amount usually
varies from 0.5 to 1%.

Phorphorus-When present in small proportions, it promotes the formation of graphite and

imparts to molten cast iron.

Wrought iron
Preparation
It is prepared from pig iron by burning out C, Si, Mn, P and sulphur in a puddling furnace. So
wrought iron is a purer form of pig iron. Pig iron contains 6% or more of these impurities but
their percentage is reduced to about one per cent in wrought iron. Carbon content is reduced to
about 0.02%. In the process of purification of pig iron into wrought iron, a minute quantity of
slag is incorporated into wrought iron and is uniformly distributed in it. The presence of slag
gives fibrous structure to wrought iron.
% Composition

C = 0.02%

Si = 0.12%

S = 0.18%

P = 0.02 %

Slag = 0.07 %
Properties
Wrought iron is an iron alloy with very low carbon content with respect to cast iron. It is
soft, ductile, magnetic, and has high elasticity and tensile strength. It can be heated and reheated
and worked into various shapes.
Although wrought iron exhibits properties that are not found in other forms of ferrous
metal, it lacks the carbon content necessary for hardening through heat treatment. Wrought iron
may be welded in the same manner as mild steel, but the presence of oxides or inclusions will
provide defective results.
Application
1. It is used for pipe making due to its superior corrosion and fatigue resistance and better
welding and threading qualities.
2. It is used for making bars for stay bolts, engine bolts and rivets etc. because properties
demanded in these applications are corrosion and fatigue resistance.
3. for making plates.
4. For making special chains and crane hooks due to its good weldability and high impact
strength.
5. It is also used extensively for general forging applications.

Steel
Steel is an alloy mainly of iron and carbon. It also contains little amount of sulphur,
phosphorus, manganese and silicon. Steel basically differs from cast iron the amount of carbon
contents contained in it. In steel the carbon is present in the combined form. The amount of
carbon present in steel is upto 2%. Higher percentage of carbon makes the steel tough and hard.

Plain Carbon Steels

Plain carbon steels owe their properties to the presence of amount of carbon. These
steels, according to their carbon contents are classified as follows
i. Dead mild steel
ii. Mild steel
iii. Medium carbon steel
 iv. High carbon steel
In addition to carbon all plain carbon steels contain the following elements:
Mn = upto 1%
Si = upto 0.3%
S = upto 0.05%
P = upto 0.50%

Typical uses of plain carbon steels are indicated in the following table
Types of steel Carbon Typical applications
(%)
Dead mild steel 0.06 to 0.15 Thin sheets and wires, boiler plate, ship plate, welded and
solid drawn tubes
Mild steel 0.15 to 0.45 Crank axles, shafts, gears, connecting rods, shafts, spindles,
sheets and strip for fan blades.
Medium carbon 0.45 to 0.80 Jaws for vices, rotors and discs, locomotive tyres, helical
steel springs, clutch springs, clutch plates, bright drawn bars,
agricultural tools and implements.
High carbon 0.80 to 1.5 Springs circular saws, railways rails, dies and bunches,
steels chisels, machine tools, taps files, milling cutters, gages.

Alloys Steels
Alloy steels are those which contain in addition to iron and carbon, one or more of the
following alloying elements.
1) Silicon
2) Manganese
3) Nickel
4) Chromium
5) Vanadium
6) Tungsten
7) Cobalt
8) Molybdenum
Alloying elements are added in the molten steels to get the required properties. Alloy
steels are costly because of special properties required for melting and cost of alloying elements.
Advantages of Alloying Elements
The alloying elements are added in steel to achieve one or more of the following
properties.
1) To increase resistance to corrosion
2) To improve mechinability
3) To increase resistance to abrasion
4) To increase headenability and to improve cutting properties
5) To impart high temperature properties
6) To impart a fine grain structure to steel

Application of Alloy Steel

Low alloy steels are used in a wide range of industries due to their extreme strength,
machinability, cost-effectiveness and availability. They are found in military vehicles,
construction equipment, ships, pipelines, pressure vessels oil drilling platforms and in structural
components.
High-alloy steels can be expensive to manufacture and difficult to process. Nevertheless,
their superior hardness, toughness and corrosion resistance make them ideal for structural
components, automotive applications, chemical processing and power generating equipment.

Effect of Alloying Elements

1. Silicon
Silicon promotes the formation of free graphite and imparts fluidity to steel and therefore
it becomes soft and easily machinable. It increases tensile and yield strength.
2. Manganese
A deoxidizer and degasifier and reacts with sulfur to improve forgeability. It increases
tensile strength, hardness, hardenability and resistance to wear. It increases the rate of carbon-
penetration in carburizing.
3. Nickel
Increases strength and hardness without sacrificing ductility and toughness. It also
increases resistance to corrosion.
4. Chromium
Increases tensile strength, hardness, hardenability, toughness, resistance to wear and
abrasion, resistance to corrosion.
5. Vanadium
Increases strength, hardness, wear resistance and resistance to shock impact. It increases
tensile strength and elastic limit without loss in ductility.

6. Tungsten
Increases strength, wear resistance, hardness and toughness. Tungsten steels have
superior hot-working and greater cutting efficiency at elevated temperatures.
7. Cobalt
Increases strength and hardness and permits higher quenching temperatures and increases
the red hardness of high speed steel. It improves magnetic properties of steel.
8. Molybdenum
It increases heat resistance, wear resistance and tensile strength of steel. Nickel
molybdenum steels are good corrosion resistant.

Tool Steel and Die Steels

Tool and die steels are high carbon steels (either carbon or alloy) possessing high
hardness, strength and wear resistance. As a result, tool steels are suited for use in the shaping of
other materials. With carbon content between 0.5% and 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under
carefully controlled conditions to produce the required quality. The presence of carbides in their
matrix plays the dominant role in the qualities of tool steel. In order to increase hardness and
wear resistance of tool steels, alloying elements forming hard and stable carbides (chromium,
tungsten, vanadium, manganese, molybdenum) are added to the composition. Forging dies,
razors, boring tools etc. are some applications of tool steels.
Special steels
High speed steels
High speed steels can withstand high temperature without losing hardness. Therefore
they are used for making tools. The tools made up of high speed steels can be run at high speeds
as compared to tools made up of carbon steels. Drills, milling cutters, tools for lathe and
sharpner are madeup of high speed steel. The various high speed steels are as follows:
a. Tungsten High Speed Steels.
It is also known as 18-4-1 high speed steel as it contains tungsten 18%, chromium
4% and vanadium 1%. Such steels contain carbon 0.7%

b. Molybdenum High Speed Steels

It contains molybdenum 6%, tungsten 6%, chromium 4% and Vanadium 2%.
c. Cobalt High Speed Steels
In these steels the amount of cobalt is upto 15%. Typical cobalt high speed steel
has the following composition:
Carbon (C) = 0.8%
Tungsten (W) = 14%
Chromium (Cr) = 4%
Vanadium (V) = 2%
Cobalt (Co) = 8%
Molybdenum (Mo) = 0.5%

Stainless Steel
The stainless steels are classified in two groups
1. Plain chromium and high chromium low nickel steel.
2. Chromium nickel steel.
(i) Plain chromium and high chromium low nickel steel
 Out of this group the former has carbon = 0.8% and chromium =12 to
20%, while the later has carbon =0.1% to 0.2%, chromium = 12 to 20%
and nickel=2%
  These steels can be heated-treated.
 Used for dies, valves and cutlery.
(ii) Chromium nickel steel
 These steels are non-magnetic and cannot be hardened.
 They have varieties due to the varying contents of chromium and nickel
respectively, eg., 18:8, 12:2 and 18:9. Small quantity of copper, tungsten
and molybdenum is also added to these steels.
 They have high resistance to corrosion any may be cold or hot worked,
pressed welded, brazed or soldered.
 The percentage of carbon in these steels is kept upto 0.5.
 These steels are poor conductors of heat and electricity.

Heat Resisting Steels

Heat resisting special steels are those containing chromium, nickel and tungsten
as the main alloying element. These steels can withstand very high temperatures especially
used in furnace parts, annealing baths and other metallurgical equipments that has to
withstand high temperatures. The service temperature of these steels are between 800 O C –
1150O C.

Shock-resisting Steels
Shock-resisting steels are a group of alloy steels that can withstand shock and
severe fatigue. Few of these steels mainly contain 0.5 % carbon, 2% - 3% tungsten, 1% -
2% chromium and 0.25% vanadium. Some of the steels contain 2% silicon, 0.8%
manganese and 0.1 – 0.3% vanadium. These steels are mainly used for leaf springs and coil
springs in automobiles and other engineering applications.
Steel
Steel is an alloy mainly of iron and carbon. It also contains little amount of sulphur, phosphorus,
manganese and silicon. In steel the carbon is present in the combined form. The amount of
carbon present in steel is up to 2%. Higher percentage of carbon makes the steel tough and hard.

Classification of steels

Steels are classified as follows

i) Plain carbon steel

ii) Alloy steels

Plain carbon steel

Plain carbon steels are classified into several types depending upon the carbon content. They are:

i) Dead mild steel

ii) Mild steel
iii) Medium carbon steel
iv) High carbon steel
In addition to carbon all plain carbon steels contain the following elements:
Mn = upto 1%
Si = upto 0.3%
S = upto 0.05%
P = upto 0.50%

Types of steel Carbon % Applications

Dead mild steel 0.06 to 0.15 Thin sheets and wires,
boiler plate, ship plate.
 Mild steel 0.15 to 0.45 Shafts, gears, connecting
rods, sheet and strips for
fan blades.
Medium carbon steel 0.45 to 0.80 Locomotive tyres, clutch
plates, agricultural tools
and implements
High carbon steel 0.8 to 1.5 Railway rails, machine
tools, tap files, milling
cutters.

Alloy steel

Alloy steels are those which contain in addition to iron and carbon, one or more of the following
elements.

i) Silicon
ii) Manganese
iii) Nickel
iv) Chromium
v) Vanadium
vi) Tungsten
vii) Cobalt
viii) Molybdenum
The alloying elements are added in steel to achieve the following properties:
i) To increase resistance to corrosion
ii) To improve machinability
iii) To increase resistance to abrasion
iv) To impart high temperature properties
v) To increase hardability
Alloy steels are costly because of special properties required for melting and cost of
alloying elements.
Some common alloy steels are Nickel steels and Chromium steels
Nickel steels
Nickel is the principal alloying element in these steel.The amount of Nickel added is
upto 36% and it provides additional strength and hardness to the steel without
affecting ductility.