Swell potential is defined as the percentage swell following water absorption at the seating

pressure of 2.913 kPa. On the basis of the classification proposed by Seed et al. (1962), the
soils in the current work were classified to have low, medium and high degrees of swell
potential , Collapse potential (CP) is the percentage- relative amount of soil collapse
calculated at any pressure stage. Both CP and Ie can be measured as in Eq. Collapsible
soils are found throughout the world in soil deposits that are eolian, loessial, subaerial,
mudflows, alluvial, residual, or are manmade fills. These soils are typically found in arid or
semiarid regions and have a loose structure; that, is a large void ratio, and a water content
much lower than saturation.

the static pile load test gives the most accurate indication of the
capacity of the in-place pile. It is performed using a reaction
method. The test procedure involves applying an axial load to the
top of the test pile with one or more hydraulic jacks.
the cyclic load test helps to estimate how much load is taken up
by the end bearing of the pile and how much by skin friction. The
main objective of the cyclic load test is to separately determine the
point bearing and friction bearing capacities of a pile
Scour depth is the amount of erosion or excavation that occurs at
the base of a structure due to the action of water flow. To calculate
scour depth, the following factors need to be considered: Flow
characteristics: The velocity, direction, and turbulence of the water
flow can affect the amount of erosion that occurs.
GRIP LENGTH A well needs to be embedded or sunk below the
maximum scour level to a required depth so that the resistance
from the sides of well is able to withstand the lateral forces acting
on the well. The depth of the bottom portion of well from the scour
level is called the grip length.
Coefficient of elastic unifom compression It is the ratio of external
uniform pressure to the elastic part of the settlement.
Coefficient of elastic uniform shear It is the ratio of average
shear stress at the foundation contact area to the elastic part of the
displacement in sliding.
Functional requirements of foundation structures
• Settlement. Settlement is defined as the vertical movement of the ground
which is caused by stress alterations. ...
• Vibration. ...
• Lateral displacement. ...
• Ground heave. ...
• Tilt. ...
• Durability.

Raft foundations, also known as mat foundations, are preferred in certain

circumstances where the soil bearing capacity is low or uneven, and traditional
shallow foundations may not be sufficient to support the loads from a structure. Raft
foundations are typically used in the following situations: Low Bearing Capacity:
When the soil at the construction site has a low bearing capacity, meaning it cannot
support the loads imposed by the structure adequately. Raft foundations distribute
the load over a larger area, reducing the pressure on the soil.
Uneven Settlement: If the site has non-uniform soil conditions, leading to
differential settlement across the structure. Raft foundations help to equalize the
settlement and prevent structural damage.
Large and Concentrated Loads: In cases where there are heavy and concentrated
loads from columns or walls, a raft foundation helps to distribute these loads over a
larger area

Now, let's discuss different types of raft foundations with the help of neat sketches:

1. Solid Raft Foundation:

• This is the most basic type of raft foundation.

. 2. Slab-on-Grade Raft Foundation:

• Similar to a solid raft but with a thickened edge (slab-on-grade).

• The thickened edge provides additional support for the outer walls.
• Suitable for areas with slightly better soil conditions.

3. Slab with Beams Raft Foundation:

• Includes reinforced beams within the slab to support concentrated loads.

• Ideal for structures with heavy column loads.
The pneumatic caisson method comprises the on-ground
construction of a reinforced concrete caisson having a working
chamber inside at the lower part, pressurized air supply to the
working chamber to prevent underground water from coming in
there, excavation work of soils in the working chamber and finally
sinking the ... The pneumatic caisson method builds caissons made of reinforced
concrete having a workroom where excavation is conducted, eliminates groundwater by
sending compressed air matching the groundwater pressure to the workroom in order to
perform excavation/sinking constantly in a dry environment, and installs the structure .
Here are the steps involved in caisson construction:

• Once the forms and concrete are in place, the box is floated to the
breakwater by a towboat. The caisson guide is then attached to it. Placing
concrete in steel forms along the box’s perimeter sinks further into the
water as it follows the caisson guide.
• Air dome forms are built inside the box, and concrete is placed between
them. The resulting open tubes above the air domes are called dredge
wells.
• A dredge well is dug after excavating caissons at the riverbed and taking
off air domes. Once the caisson hits the river bottom, excavation can
begin. The depth of the hole will be determined by how deep the caisson
sinks.
• In the last step, cement is unfilled into the bottom 30 feet of sedimentary
wells and then closed off at the top.
• MACHINE FOUNDATIONS: he foundation should be stiff and rigid
to avoid possibilities of tilt in it. In its static state, the resultant
forces acting on a machine foundation should pass through
the center of gravity of the contact area of the base. The
weight of the foundation block should be adequate.
• The foundation should be able to carry the superimposed loads without causing
shear or crushing failure. The settlements should be within permissible limits. The
combined center of gravity of the machine and foundation should, as far as possible,
be in the same vertical line as the center of gravity of the base plane
• Soil Dynamics is the engineering field that deals with the response of
soils subjected to time-dependent (dynamic) loads. The behavior of soil
under a dynamic load is critical for any building constructed on top of the
ground.
• The dynamic loads mainly derive from earthquakes, operation of heavy
machinery, blasts, and wave or wind forces, etc. Common soil dynamics
topics include the determination of dynamic earth pressures, the analysis
and design of foundations under dynamic loads and dynamic soil-
 structure interaction problems. In civil engineering, earthquakes are the
most common phenomena from which dynamic loads affect structures.
Understanding the dynamic behavior of soils is critical to prevent any structural
or ground failure under earthquake loads. The properties that are needed to be
determined to evaluate the dynamic behavior of soil are the following:

• Dynamic Young’s modulus (E) and dynamic shear modulus (G) and their
variation with shear strain (typically referred to as Shear Modulus
Reduction curves)
• Damping ratio (ξ) and its variation with shear strain (typically referred to
as material damping curves)
• Poisson’s ratio (ν)
• Other parameters related to liquefaction (e.g. cyclic shearing stress ratio
and cyclic deformation)

Soil properties are commonly divided into: i) small strain (or linear) properties
and ii) large strain properties, that need to be understood depending on the
project needs.
Machine foundations are special types of foundations required for machines, machine
tools and heavy equipments which have wide range of speeds, loads and operating
conditions. These foundations are designed considering the shocks and vibrations (dynamic
forces) resulting from operation of machines. Following are the types of machine
foundations generally used: 1. Block Type Machine Foundation: Following figure shows
block type machine foundation. This type of foundation consists of a pedestal resting on a
footing have has large mass and a small natural frequency. 2. Box or Caisson Type
Machine Foundation Box type foundation consists of a hollow concrete block as shown
in figure below. The mass of this foundation is less than block type machine foundation as it
is hollow. The natural frequency of the box type machine foundation is increased.: 3. Wall
Type Machine Foundation This type of machine foundation consists of a pair of walls
with a slab resting on top. This type of foundation is constructed of homogeneous materials.
It is used for small machines and the machine is rested on the top slab.: 4. Framed Type
Machine Foundation This type of machine foundation consists of vertical columns with
horizontal frame at their tops. It is used for larger machines. The machines are rested on the
top of frames. The vertical and horizontal members of this foundation can be constructed by
different materials: 5. Non-Rigid or Flexible type of Machine Foundation Following
figure shows the non-rigid or flexible foundation.