Affine Algebraic Geometry: Geometry

of Polynomial Rings 1st Edition

Masayoshi Miyanishi
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Affine Algebraic
Geometry
Geometry of Polynomial Rings
SERIES ON UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS
ISSN: 1793-1193

Editors:
Wu-Yi Hsiang University of California, Berkeley, USA/
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology,
Hong Kong
Tzuong-Tsieng Moh Purdue University, USA
Ming-Chang Kang National Taiwan University, Taiwan (ROC)
S S Ding Peking University, China
M Miyanishi University of Osaka, Japan

Published

Vol. 11 Affine Algebraic Geometry: Geometry of Polynomial Rings

by M Miyanishi

Vol. 10 Linear Algebra and Its Applications

by T-T Moh

Vol. 9 Lectures on Lie Groups (Second Edition)

by W-Y Hsiang

Vol. 8 Analytical Geometry

by Izu Vaisman

Vol. 7 Number Theory with Applications

by W C Winnie Li

Vol. 6 A Concise Introduction to Calculus

by W-Y Hsiang

Vol. 5 Algebra
by T-T Moh

Vol. 2 Lectures on Lie Groups

by W-Y Hsiang

Vol. 1 Lectures on Differential Geometry

by S S Chern, W H Chen and K S Lam
 Series on University Mathematics – Vol. 11

Affine Algebraic
Geometry
Geometry of Polynomial Rings

Masayoshi Miyanishi
Osaka University, Japan & Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan

World Scientific
NEW JERSEY • LONDON • SINGAPORE • BEIJING • SHANGHAI • HONG KONG • TAIPEI • CHENNAI • TOKYO
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Miyanishi, Masayoshi, 1940– author.
Title: Affine algebraic geometry : geometry of polynomial rings / Masayoshi Miyanishi,
Osaka University, Japan & Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan.
Description: New Jersey : World Scientific, [2024] | Series: Series on university mathematics,
1793-1193 ; vol. 11 | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023031983 | ISBN 9789811280085 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9789811280092 (ebook for institutions) | ISBN 9789811280108 (ebook for individuals)
Subjects: LCSH: Polynomial rings--Textbooks. | Geometry, Affine--Textbooks. |
Geometry, Algebraic--Textbooks.
Classification: LCC QA251.3 .M593 2024 | DDC 516/.4--dc23/eng/20231016
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023031983

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Printed in Singapore
To the late Professor Masayoshi Nagata
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

One of the innovations brought into algebraic geometry by A. Grothendieck

through his publications including Éléments de Géométrie Algébrique is
the establishment of a bijective correspondence between affine schemes and
commutative rings, by which one can introduce algebro-geometric meth-
ods to commutative algebra and create vice versa a new field in algebraic
geometry where one studies geometry of affine domains over a field.
An affine domain A over a field k is the quotient ring of a polynomial ring
k[x1 , . . . , xn ] by an ideal I. A geometric approach to study an affine variety
X = Spec A with coordinate ring A is considered to study geometrically a
big ring like A which is not a finite union of local rings.1
Study of polynomial rings has been an important subject in Mathemat-
ics, and there are various approaches depending on which area of Mathemat-
ics polynomials or polynomial rings are considered in. Frankly speaking,
what is decisively understood about polynomials in algebraic geometry is
limited to the case of one variable. Many partial results are obtained in the
case of many variables, but comprehensive understanding is not decisive.
During the same period, but away from influences of A. Grothendieck,
mathematicians including M. Nagata, Sh. Abhyankar, T.T. Moh, M. Suzuki
and others have started their own study of polynomials in two variables over
the complex number field C through precise analysis of how the affine plane
curve defined by a polynomial behaves at infinity, i.e., out of the affine plane.
Their contribution culminated in Abhyankar-Moh-Suzuki theorem, which
states that a polynomial f (x, y) whose zero locus {f = 0} is isomorphic to
an affine line can be taken as one of coordinates, i.e., C[x, y] = C[f, g] for
some polynomial g(x, y). This result revived interest in the automorphism
1 We would like to call them global rings if there are no fear of misunderstandings.

vii
viii Affine Algebraic Geometry

theorem of C[x, y] by Jung-Van der Kulk and geometric problems on affine

surfaces including the Cancellation Problem.2 This happened from the late
1960s to the early 1970s.
Around the same period there was also a worldwide revival of inter-
est toward the Enriques-Kodaira classification of algebraic surfaces. In
the mid-1970s, S. Iitaka introduced the logarithmic Kodaira dimension of
noncomplete algebraic varieties and proposed a project of classifying non-
complete surfaces with expectations that logarithmic Kodaira dimension
should work as Kodaira dimension did in the classification of smooth pro-
jective surfaces. Iitaka’s students including S. Tsunoda and Y. Kawamata,
and the people including T. Fujita and the author showed that Iitaka’s ex-
pectation did work to a certain degree and bring some results beyond the
expectation.3 Their approach is now developed into logarithmic geometry,
which is a study of pairs (V, D) of a complete variety V and an effective
divisor D. In most cases, by Hironaka’s resolution of singularities, V is
made to be smooth and D a divisor with simple normal crossings. The
study so far shows that geometry changes according to what kind of singu-
larities is admitted on V and D. For an affine variety X, we find easily such
a pair (V, D) by embedding X into a projective space via the embedding
X ,→ An ,→ Pn and taking the closure X as V and D = V \ X. By this
approach, one is able to observe the geometric behavior of X at infinity,
i.e., on D or near D.4
There is the famous Jacobian Conjecture which asserts that if polyno-
mials f1 , . . . , fn ∈ C[x1 , . . . , xn ] have a nonzero constant as the Jacobian
determinant
∂(f1 , . . . , fn )
∂(x1 , . . . , xn )
then C[x1 , . . . , xn ] = C[f1 , . . . , fn ]. Under this assumption, the mapping
φ : An → An , (x1 , . . . , xn ) 7→ (f1 , . . . , fn )
induces a local analytic isomorphism between every point of the origin An
and its image of the target An . So, the conjecture asks if these local analytic
isomorphisms are induced by a polynomial isomorphism. Unfortunately,
2 Itis also called the Zariski’s Problem.
3 See the author’s book on Open algebraic surfaces [59].
4 This approach was and hopefully still is successful as exemplified by a solution due to

M. Koras and K. Palka of the long-standing Coolidge-Nagata conjecture which asserts

that a complex irreducible curve on P2 homeomorphic to a line P1 is mapped to a line
by a birational automorphism of P2 (see [47]).
 Preface ix

the conjecture is not verified even in the case n = 2. A formal (or analytic)
inverse mapping of φ is rather easy to construct, but it is very difficult to
show that the inverse mapping is a polynomial mapping. This is partly due
to the fact that total (or whatever) degree of polynomials are not reliable
as a measure to control the behavior of polynomials because the degree
changes easily as the set of coordinates {x1 , . . . , xn } is replaced by another
one having changes of nonlinear terms. It is not clear if there exists a
geometric approach which enables to replace this method of formal inverse
mapping, though some success is obtained by such approaches. One honest
impression the author had through various geometric challenges is that the
affine space (even the affine plane) is so immaculate that one cannot find
clues to get a geometric study started with.
Affine algebraic geometry emerged from these backgrounds and prob-
lems. The subjects we treat therein are probably more biased on the affine
spaces and polynomial rings, but nothing more than noncomplete varieties
treated in standard algebraic geometry. As long as we want to use geometric
approach we cannot avoid a minimum background of algebraic geometry.
Hence this volume begins with an introduction to algebraic geometry.
The present author tried to start explanations from the beginning with-
out omission of proofs so that the readers with knowledge of algebra and
geometry taught at the third year level of the undergraduate study can
understand, though some important results are not given proofs which are
mostly involved and the author expects are provided by more advanced
textbooks with established reputation. Precise references are given with
few exceptions in such cases.
The first chapter of the present volume is based on the lectures on al-
gebraic geometry which the author gave at Kwansei Gakuin University for
graduate courses over several years. Some parts are taken from the au-
thor’s books on higher algebra and algebraic geometry which are written
in Japanese and have never been translated into foreign languages [60, 78].
One can consider the first chapter as a quick introduction to algebraic ge-
ometry and commutative algebra, and skip it if one has some background on
the subject. Enriques-Kodaira classification of projective algebraic surfaces
as well as the theory of logarithmic Kodaira dimension is explained in [59],
although the referred book is an advanced one for specialists and graduate
students (perhaps Ph.D students). We are reminded to make this volume
as accessible as possible for the beginning students in algebraic geometry.
So, we tried not to make heavy use of advanced results.
Topics specialized in affine algebraic geometry begin from Chapter 2
x Affine Algebraic Geometry

onward. The first topic is a proof of the AMS theorem which uses the
linear pencil of curves on the projective plane P2 and the elimination of
base points. In fact, these results symbolize the dawn of affine algebraic
geometry. We then explain generalizations of the Jacobian conjecture in di-
mension two. The readers will see how effectively affine algebraic geometry
is used to this conjecture. There is also a wish of the author to reveal con-
tributions of hidden ramification at the infinity to (not necessarily) finite
étale coverings of noncomplete varieties.

The presentation of section 1.4, subsections 1.8.4 and 1.8.5 is based on

the contents of [78]. The author would like to express his belated thanks
to late Professors Masayoshi Nagata and Masaki Maruyama for the joint
authorship of the book. The present book is dedicated to Professor Nagata,
who is one of the founders of the research area of studying geometry of
rational surfaces and polynomials. The contents of Chapters 2 and 3 are
partly based on the author’s lecture notes [58] and [62]. Last but not
the least, the author would like to express his indebtedness to the editor
Ms. Kwong Lai Fun of World Scientific Publ. Co. for the opportunity to
write a book on affine algebraic geometry and constant encouragement
during the writing of this book.

June, 2023

M. Miyanishi
 Contents

Preface vii

1. Introduction to Algebraic Geometry 1

1.1 Review on basic results in commutative algebra . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Ring of quotients and local ring . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Spectrum of a ring and Zariski topology . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Irreducible decomposition of a topological space . 5
1.1.4 Prime ideal decomposition of radical ideals . . . . 7
1.1.5 Generic point, closed point and Krull dimension . 9
1.1.6 Hilbert basis theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.7 Integral extension and Noether normalization lemma 12
1.1.8 Lying-over theorem and Going-up theorem . . . . 16
1.1.9 Krull dimension of affine domains . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2 Review on finitely generated field extensions . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.1 Transcendence basis and transcendence degree . . 20
1.2.2 Regular extension and separable extension . . . . 24
1.3 Schemes and varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.1 Affine schemes of finite type and affine varieties . 27
1.3.1.1 Irreducible decomposition of an affine
scheme of finite type . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.1.2 Density of the set of closed points . . . . 28
1.3.1.3 Affine varieties and function fields . . . . 30
1.3.1.4 Structure sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.2 Morphisms of affine schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.3.2.1 Intersection of affine open sets . . . . . . 34
1.3.2.2 Open immersion and closed immersion . 35

xi
xii Affine Algebraic Geometry

1.3.2.3 Behavior of structure sheaves under a

morphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.3.3 Schemes and varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.3.3.1 Definition and examples of schemes . . . 37
1.3.3.2 Morphism of schemes . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.3.3.3 Fiber products of schemes . . . . . . . . 40
1.3.3.4 Separated schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.3.3.5 Rational maps of algebraic varieties . . . 43
1.4 Graded rings and projective schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.1 Graded rings and projective spectrums . . . . . . 45
1.4.2 Projective schemes and projective varieties . . . . 50
1.4.2.1 General properties of projective schemes 50
1.4.2.2 Projective varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.4.2.3 Projective closure of an affine variety . . 56
1.5 Normal varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.5.1 Discrete valuation rings and normal rings . . . . . 59
1.5.2 Normalization of affine domains . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.5.3 Normal varieties and normalization of algebraic
varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.5.4 Unique factorization domains . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.5.5 Weil divisors and divisor class group . . . . . . . . 74
1.5.6 Zariski’s main theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.6 Smooth varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.6.1 System of parameters and regular local ring . . . . 84
1.6.2 Regular sequence and depth of a local ring . . . . 94
1.6.3 Jacobian criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
1.6.4 Sheaf of differential 1-forms and canonical sheaf . 100
1.7 Divisors and linear systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.7.1 Invertible sheaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.7.2 Cartier divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
1.7.3 Linear systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.7.4 D-dimension, Kodaira dimension and logarithmic
Kodaira dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
1.8 Algebraic curves and surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1.8.1 Serre duality and Euler-Poincaré characteristic . . 120
1.8.2 Riemann-Roch theorem for a curve . . . . . . . . 121
1.8.3 Algebraic curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
1.8.4 Intersection theory on algebraic surfaces . . . . . . 126
1.8.5 Riemann-Roch theorem for surfaces . . . . . . . . 135
 Contents xiii

1.8.6 Fibrations and relatively minimal models of

surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
1.9 Appendix to Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
1.9.1 Primary decomposition of ideals . . . . . . . . . . 144
1.9.2 Tensor products of algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.9.2.1 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.9.2.2 Flat modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
1.9.3 Inductive limits and projective limits . . . . . . . 155
1.9.3.1 Inductive limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
1.9.3.2 Projective limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1.9.3.3 Ideal-adic completion . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1.9.4 Fiber products of schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
1.9.5 Reviews on sheaf theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
1.9.6 Čech cohomology of sheaves of abelian groups . . 169
1.9.6.1 Čech cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
1.9.6.2 Coherent sheaf cohomologies over
projective varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
1.10 Problems to Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

2. Geometry on Affine Surfaces 191

2.1 Characterization of the affine plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
2.2 Admissible data for an affine curve with one place at
infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
2.2.1 Euclidean transformation associated with
admissible data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
2.2.2 (e, i)-transformation associated with admissible
data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
2.2.3 Irreducible affine curves with one-place at infinity 210
2.2.4 Abhyankar-Moh-Suzuki theorem . . . . . . . . . . 212
2.2.5 Theorem of Gutwirth and pathological
A1 -fibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
2.2.6 Abhyankar-Moh problem on embedded lines in
positive characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
2.3 Automorphism theorem of the affine plane . . . . . . . . . 220
2.3.1 Linear pencils of rational curves and field
generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2.3.2 Proof of automorphism theorem by Jung and van
der Kulk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
2.4 Algebraic group actions on the affine plane . . . . . . . . . 232
xiv Affine Algebraic Geometry

2.4.1 Algebraic groups, actions and quotient spaces . . 232

2.4.2 Finite subgroups of Aut k[x, y] . . . . . . . . . . . 236
2.4.3 Finite group actions and invariants . . . . . . . . 238
2.4.4 Quotient singularities on surfaces . . . . . . . . . 248
2.5 Birational automorphisms of rational surfaces . . . . . . . 256
2.5.1 Noether factorization theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 256
2.6 Boundary divisors of affine surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
2.6.1 Quantitative criterion of SNC divisors . . . . . . . 263
2.6.2 Shift transformation on the boundary divisor . . . 266
2.6.3 Theorem of Ramanujam-Morrow . . . . . . . . . . 269
2.7 Appendix to Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
2.7.1 Unramified morphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
2.7.2 Étale coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
2.7.3 Riemann-Hurwitz formula for curves . . . . . . . . 281
2.7.4 Inverse and direct images of divisors and the
projection formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
2.7.5 Amalgamated product of two groups . . . . . . . . 286
2.7.6 Quotient varieties by finite group actions and
ramification of the quotient morphism . . . . . . . 290
2.8 Problems to Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

3. Geometry and Topology of Polynomial Rings —

Motivated by the Jacobian Problem 319
3.1 Plane-like affine surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
3.1.1 Simply connected algebraic varieties . . . . . . . . 320
3.1.2 Unit group, unit rank and independence of
boundary divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
3.1.3 Gizatullin surfaces and affine pseudo-planes . . . . 324
3.1.4 Affine pseudo-planes — more properties . . . . . . 329
3.1.5 tom Dieck construction of affine pseudo-planes . . 332
3.1.6 Platonic A1∗ -fiber spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
3.1.7 Homology planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
3.2 Jacobian conjecture and related results . . . . . . . . . . . 345
3.2.1 Jacobian conjecture and its variants . . . . . . . . 345
3.2.2 Partial affirmative answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
3.3 Generalized Jacobian conjecture — affirmative cases . . . 354
3.3.1 Results in arbitrary dimension . . . . . . . . . . . 354
3.3.2 Results for surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
3.3.2.1 Surfaces having A1 -fibrations . . . . . . 356
 Contents xv

3.3.2.2 Surfaces having A1∗ -fibrations . . . . . . 357

3.3.2.3 Case of κ = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
3.4 Generalized Jacobian conjecture for various cases . . . . . 369
3.4.1 Case of Q-homology planes of κ = −∞ . . . . . . 369
3.4.2 Counterexamples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
3.5 Appendix to Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
3.5.1 Makar-Limanov invariant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
3.5.2 The fundamental group at infinity . . . . . . . . . 381
3.5.3 Algebraic surfaces and log Kodaira dimension . . 385
3.5.4 Logarithmic ramification formula . . . . . . . . . . 387
3.6 Problems to Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

4. Postscript 407
4.1 AMS theorem and thereafter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
4.2 Suzuki-Zaidenberg formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
4.3 Cancellation problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Bibliography 411
Index 417
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1

Introduction to Algebraic Geometry

1.1 Review on basic results in commutative algebra

All rings treated in this book are commutative and unitary unless otherwise
specified.

1.1.1 Ring of quotients and local ring

A ring R is noetherian if every ascending chain of ideals

I0 ⊆ I1 ⊆ · · · ⊆ In ⊆ In+1 ⊆ · · ·

ceases to increase. Namely, there exists an integer N such that In = In+1

for every n ≥ N . This condition is called the ascending chain condition for
ideals (ACC, for short). The ACC is equivalent to the condition that every
ideal is finitely generated.
An R-module M is said to be finitely generated over R, or simply a
finite R-module if M = Rm1 + · · · + Rmn for a finite set of generators
{m1 , . . . , mn }. The quotient module M/N of a finite R-module M by an
R-submodule N is a finite R-module, and a submodule N is also finite if
R is noetherian (see Lemma 1.1.11). Conversely, if an R-submodule N of
M and the quotient module M/N are finite, then so is the R-module M .
A subset S of a ring R is a multiplicative set (or a multiplicatively closed
set) if
(i) 0 ̸∈ S, 1 ∈ S, and
(ii) s, t ∈ S implies st ∈ S.

If p is a prime ideal of R, then the complement S := R \p is a multiplicative

set. In fact, the definition of prime ideal implies, by contrapositive, ab ̸∈ p
if a ̸∈ p and b ̸∈ p. If S is a multiplicative set of R, the ring of quotients

1
2 Affine Algebraic Geometry

(or ring of fractions) S −1 R is defined as the set

na o
S −1 R = | a ∈ R, s ∈ S ,
s
where a/s denotes the equivalence class in the product R × S under the
equivalence relation
(a, s) ∼ (b, t) if and only if u(at − bs) = 0 for some u ∈ S.
Hence a/s is considered as a usual fraction whose numerator is an arbitrary
element a ∈ R and whose denominator is an element s ∈ S. But a/s = b/t
if (a, s) ∼ (b, t). If R is an integral domain, the above equivalence relation
holds if and only if at = bs. The set S −1 R has a ring structure for which
addition and multiplication are defined respectively by
a1 a2 a1 s2 + a2 s1 a1 a2 a1 a2
+ = , · = .
s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2
There is a natural ring homomorphism i : R → S −1 R defined by i(a) = a/1.
The kernel of i is an ideal
I0 = {a ∈ R | as = 0 for some s ∈ S}.
With this ring homomorphism i, there is a bijective correspondence between
the ideals I of R such that I ⊇ I0 and I ∩ S = ∅ and the set of ideals of
S −1 R. Here we consider only proper ideals, where I is a proper ideal of R
if I ⫋ R. The bijective correspondence is given by
na o
I 7→ I(S −1 R) = | a ∈ I, s ∈ S , J 7→ i−1 (J).
s
This correspondence restricts to a bijection between
{p | a prime ideal of R such that p ∩ S = ∅}
and
{P | a prime ideal of S −1 R}.
We denote the ideal i−1 (J) by J ∩ R by abuse of notation. This observation
implies that S −1 R is noetherian if so is R.
For example, let S = R \ p for a prime ideal p of R. We denote (S −1 R)
by Rp and p(S −1 R) by pRp . Then pRp is the biggest prime ideal with
respect to inclusion. Hence pRp is a unique maximal ideal1 of Rp . A ring
R is called a local ring if it contains a unique maximal ideal m in the sense
that any proper ideal I of R is contained in m. By the notation (R, m) we
1 An
ideal m of R is a maximal ideal if I is a proper ideal of R such that I ⊇ m then
I = m.
 Introduction to Algebraic Geometry 3

mean that R is a local ring with maximal ideal m. A maximal ideal m is

a prime ideal. In fact, suppose that ab ∈ m. Let I = m + aR, which is an
ideal such that I ⊇ m. Hence either I = R or I = m. If I = m then a ∈ m.
Suppose that I = R. Then 1 = ax + z with z ∈ m. Then b = abx + bz ∈ m.
So, a ∈ m or b ∈ m.
Let R be an integral domain. Then S := R \ {0} is a multiplicative
set. The ring of quotients S −1 R is now a field, which we call the field of
quotients or the field of fractions and denote by Q(R).
Let I be an ideal of R. An ideal of the quotient ring (or the residue
ring) R = R/I is written in a form J/I, where J is an ideal of R such that
J ⊇ I. If R is noetherian, so is the ring R.

1.1.2 Spectrum of a ring and Zariski topology

Let R be a ring. The set of prime ideals of R is called the spectrum (spec,
for short) of R and denoted by
Spec R = {p | a prime ideal of R}.
Given a ring R, the spectrum Spec R is also called an affine scheme with
the coordinate ring R. We can define a topology, called the Zariski topology,
in Spec R by assigning closed sets satisfying axioms of topology. A closed
set is V (I) for an ideal I of R, where
V (I) = {p ∈ Spec R | p ⊇ I}.
Axioms of topology for closed sets require
(i) Spec R and ∅ are closed sets.
T
(ii) λ∈Λ V (Iλ ) is a closed set, where {Iλ | λ ∈ Λ} is possibly an infinite
set.
S
(iii) A finite union j∈J V (Ij ) is a closed set.
For (i), we have Spec R = V ((0)) and ∅ = V (R), where (0) is the zero
T P
ideal. For (ii), we have λ∈Λ V (Iλ ) = V ( λ∈Λ Iλ ). For (iii), it suffices to
show that
V (I1 ) ∪ V (I2 ) = V (I1 I2 ) = V (I1 ∩ I2 ),
where I1 I2 is the ideal of R generated by {a1 a2 | a1 ∈ I1 , a2 ∈ I2 }. Since
I1 ∩ I2 ⊇ I1 I2 and since p ⊇ I1 I2 implies either p ⊇ I1 or p ⊇ I2 , we have
V (I1 ) ∪ V (I2 ) ⊇ V (I1 I2 ) ⊇ V (I1 ∩ I2 ) ⊇ V (I1 ) ∪ V (I2 ),
which proves the assertion. The Zariski topology is T0 , but not necessarily
T1 . Namely, if two distinct prime ideals p, q are given, there is a closed set
4 Affine Algebraic Geometry

V (I) which contains either one of p or q but not the other. One cannot
choose p or q. In fact, p ⊂ q if and only if p ∈ V (I) always imply q ∈ V (I)
for a closed set V (I). √
For an ideal I, define the radical of I, denoted by I, by
√
I = {a ∈ R | an ∈ I for some n > 0}.
√
An ideal I is a radical ideal if I = I. Then we have the following theorem.

Theorem 1.1.1. For an ideal I of R we have

√ \
I= p.
p∈V (I)
√ T √
Proof. If p ∈ V (I) then p ⊃ I, whence p ⊇ I. We show the
p∈V (I)
T √
opposite inclusion. If there exists an element s ∈ ( p∈V (I) p) \ I, then
S = {sn | n ≥ 0} is a multiplicative set of R such that S ∩ I = ∅. Hence
I(S −1 R) is a proper ideal of S −1 R. By Zorn’s lemma (see Corollary 1.1.4
below) there exists a maximal ideal M of S −1 R such that I(S −1 R) ⊂ M.
Let m = R ∩ M(= i−1 (M)). Then m is a prime ideal of R such that m ⊃ I
T
and m ∩ S = ∅. Namely m ∈ V (I) and m ⊃ p∈V (I) p, whence s ∈ m. This
contradicts m ∩ S = ∅.
√
Corollary 1.1.2. For ideals I, J of R, V (I) = V (J) if and only if I =
√
J.
√ √
Proof. By Theorem 1.1.1, √ I = J follows if V √(I) = V (J). The converse
is clear because V (I) = V ( I) and V (J) = V ( J).

Let S be a partially ordered set. It is called an inductive set if every

totally ordered subset has an upper bound. The following result is called
Zorn’s lemma.

Lemma 1.1.3. Let S be an inductive set. Then S has a maximal element.

This result yields an important result.

Corollary 1.1.4. Let I be a proper ideal of a ring R. Then there exists

a maximal ideal m such that m ⊇ I. Further, a maximal ideal is a prime
ideal.

Proof. Let S be the set of proper ideals of R containing I and define a

partial order in S by setting
J1 ≥ J2 if and only if J1 ⊇ J2 .
 Introduction to Algebraic Geometry 5

Let J1 ≤ J2 ≤ · · · ≤ Jn ≤ Jn+1 ≤ · · · be a totally ordered subset of S. Set

S
J = n≥1 Jn . Then J is a proper ideal of R containing I, and J is clearly
an upper bound of the totally ordered subset. Hence S is an inductive set,
and S has a maximal element m, which is a maximal ideal of R such that
m ⊇ I.
Let m be a maximal ideal. Suppose that ab ∈ m with a, b ∈ R. Then
aR + m is an ideal containing m. Hence aR + m = m or aR + m = R. If
aR + m = m then a ∈ m. If aR + m = R then ax + m = 1 for x ∈ R and
m ∈ m. Then b = b(ax + m) = abx + bm ∈ m. So, either a ∈ m or b ∈ m.
This implies that m is a prime ideal.

1.1.3 Irreducible decomposition of a topological space

A topological space X is noetherian if a descending chain of closed sets
F1 ⊇ F2 ⊇ · · · ⊇ Fn ⊇ Fn+1 ⊇ · · ·
stops always to decrease, i.e., there exists N > 0 such that Fn = Fn+1 for
every n ≥ N . If R is a noetherian ring then X = Spec R is a noetherian
√ T
space. In fact, write Fi = V (Ii ) with Ii = Ii = p∈Fi p. Then the
descending chain of the Fi corresponds to an ascending chain of radical
ideals of R
I1 ⊆ I2 ⊆ · · · ⊆ In ⊆ In+1 ⊆ · · ·
and the termination of the ideal chain implies the termination of the chain
of closed sets.
A topological space X is quasi-compact if any open covering U =
{Uλ }λ∈Λ of X has a finite open sub-covering X = U1 ∪ U2 ∪ · · · ∪ Un ,
where Ui = Uλi with λi ∈ Λ.

Lemma 1.1.5. A noetherian topological space is quasi-compact.

Proof. Let U = {Uλ }λ∈Λ be an open covering of X. We may assume

S
that for any µ ∈ Λ, λ∈Λ\{µ} Uλ ̸= X. Consider a well-ordering on Λ and
suppose that
λ1 < λ2 < · · · < λn < λn+1 < · · ·
and identify λi with i ∈ Z. Let
Fn = X \ (U1 ∪ U2 ∪ · · · ∪ Un ),
which is a closed set of X satisfying
F1 ⊃ F2 ⊃ · · · ⊃ Fn ⊃ Fn+1 ⊃ · · · .
6 Affine Algebraic Geometry

Since X is noetherian, the descending chain of closed sets ceases, i.e., there
exists N > 0 such that Fn = Fn+1 for all n ≥ N . Then FN = ∅. Hence
X = U1 ∪ U2 ∪ · · · ∪ Un .

A topological space X is reducible if there is a decomposition X = F1 ∪F2

for two closed sets F1 , F2 with Fi ⫋ X. Otherwise, X is called irreducible.
If F is a closed subset of X, we can say that F is reducible (or irreducible)
with respect to the induced topology on F .

Lemma 1.1.6. Let F be a closed subset of a noetherian topological space

X. Then there exists a finite set of irreducible closed subsets F1 , . . . , Fn
such that
F = F1 ∪ F2 ∪ · · · ∪ Fn , Fi ̸⊂ Fj for all i ̸= j.
These closed subsets Fi are determined by the subset F uniquely up to per-
mutations.

The set Fi is called the irreducible component of F and the decomposition

F = F1 ∪ F2 ∪ · · · ∪ Fn is called the irreducible decomposition.

Proof. We prove first the existence of a decomposition. Let S be the set

of closed subsets F of X such that F is not a finite union of irreducible
closed subsets. Then S is an inductive set with respect to an order defined
by reverse inclusion of subsets. Namely, F ≤ F ′ for F, F ′ ∈ S if F ′ ⊆ F .
Given an (ascending) totally ordered subset of S, there exists an upper
bound by the noetherian condition of X which ceases descending chains
of closed subsets of X. Hence S has a maximal element, say F0 . Then
F0 is reducible. Write F0 = F1 ∪ F2 for proper closed subsets F1 , F2 of
F0 . Then F1 > F0 and F2 > F0 . Since F0 is a maximal element of S, F1
and F2 are written as finite unions of irreducible closed subsets. Write the
decompositions as
F1 = F11 ∪ F12 ∪ · · · ∪ F1r
F2 = F21 ∪ F22 ∪ · · · ∪ F2s ,
where Fij is irreducible for i = 1, 2. Then we have
F0 = F1 ∪ F2 = (F11 ∪ · · · ∪ F1r ) ∪ (F21 ∪ · · · ∪ F2s ),
which is a finite union of irreducible closed subsets. This contradicts the
assumption that F0 ∈ S.
We prove next that a decomposition is unique up to permutations. Let
F = G1 ∪ G2 ∪ · · · ∪ Gm
 Introduction to Algebraic Geometry 7

be another irreducible decomposition of the same kind as in the statement.

Then we have
G1 = G1 ∩ F = (G1 ∩ F1 ) ∪ (G1 ∩ F2 ) ∪ · · · ∪ (G1 ∩ Fn ).
Since G1 is irreducible, G1 = G1 ∩ Fi for some 1 ≤ i ≤ n. After a permu-
tation of indices, we may assume that i = 1. Then G1 ⊆ F1 . Similarly, we
have
F1 = (F1 ∩ G1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ (F1 ∩ Gm ).
Hence F1 = F1 ∩ Gj and hence F1 ⊆ Gj . This implies that G1 ⊆ Gj ,
whence j = 1. Namely F1 = G1 . We can argue as above by replacing F1
by Fj , and show that n = m and Fi = Gi after a suitable permutation of
indices.

1.1.4 Prime ideal decomposition of radical ideals

Lemma 1.1.7. Let R be a noetherian ring and let X = Spec R. Let I be

a radical ideal of R and let F = V (I). If F is irreducible then I is a prime
ideal. Conversely, if I is a prime ideal then V (I) is irreducible.

Proof. Suppose that ab ∈ I. Then, for any p ∈ F , ab ∈ I ⊆ p. Hence

a ∈ p or b ∈ p. This implies that F ⊂ V (a) ∪ V (b), where V (a) = V (aR)
and V (b) = V (bR), and
F = (F ∩ V (a)) ∪ (F ∩ V (b)),
where F ∩ V (a) = V (I + aR) and F ∩ V (b) = V (I + bR). Since F is
irreducible, F = F ∩ V (a) or F = F ∩ V (b), i.e., F ⊆ V (a) or F ⊆ V (b).
This implies that
\ √
aR ⊆ p = I = I, or bR ⊆ I.
p∈F

Hence a ∈ I or b ∈ I. So, I is a prime ideal.

We prove the converse. Suppose that V (I) is reducible, and write
V (I) = V (I1 ) ∪ V (I2 ) with V (I1 ) ⫋ V (I) and V (I2 ) ⫋ V (I). Since
V (I1 ) ∪ V (I2 ) = V (I1 I2 ), it follows that I1 I2 ⊆ I. Since I is a prime
ideal, either I1 ⊆ I or I2 ⊆ I. Then either V (I) ⊆ V (I1 ) of V (I) ⊆ V (I2 ).
This is a contradiction.

Corollary 1.1.8. Let R be a noetherian ring and let F = V (I) for a

radical ideal I. Then there exists a uniquely determined set of prime ideals
{p1 , . . . , pn } such that
8 Affine Algebraic Geometry

(i) I = p1 ∩ p2 ∩ · · · ∩ pn , and
(ii) pi ⊂
̸ pj for any pair (i, j) with i ̸= j.
The closed subsets V (p1 ), . . . , V (pn ) correspond bijectively with irreducible
components F1 , . . . , Fn of F = V (I).

Proof. There is an irreducible decomposition of F which is uniquely de-

termined up to permutations of components
F = F1 ∪ · · · ∪ Fn ,
where Fi = V (pi ) for a prime ideal pi . Then we have
V (I) = V (p1 ) ∪ · · · ∪ V (pn ) = V (p1 ∩ · · · ∩ pn ),
where p1 ∩ · · · ∩ pn is a radical ideal. Then it follows by Corollary 1.1.2 that
I = p1 ∩ · · · ∩ pn .

The decomposition
I = p1 ∩ p2 ∩ · · · ∩ pn
in Corollary 1.1.8 is called the prime decomposition2 of the radical ideal I.
For a fixed 1 ≤ i ≤ n, write
\ ∨
pj = p1 ∩ · · · ∩ pi−1 ∩ pi ∩pi+1 ∩ · · · ∩ pn
j̸=i

and
Y ∨
pj = p1 · p2 · · · pi−1 · pi ·pi+1 · · · pn ,
j̸=i
∨ Q T
where pi shows that the ideal pi is omitted. Then j̸=i pj ⊆ j̸=i pj , and
T
hence j̸=i pj ̸⊂ pi because pi ̸⊂ pj for any pair (i, j). Let ai be an element
T
of ( j̸=i pj ) \ pi . For an element a ∈ R, the subset
(I : a) = {x ∈ R | ax ∈ I}
is called an ideal quotient of the ideal I. It is an ideal of R containing I.
For the ideal quotient (I : ai ) it holds that (I : ai ) = pi . In fact, if x ∈ pi
T
then ai x ∈ ( j̸=i pj ) by the choice of ai and ai x ∈ pi because x ∈ pi . Hence
ai x ∈ I and pi ⊆ (I : ai ). Conversely, if x ∈ (I : ai ) then ai x ∈ I and
2 Later
we need a finer decomposition of ideals, called the primary decomposition of
ideals. We develop the theory in the appendix.
 Introduction to Algebraic Geometry 9

ai ̸∈ pi . Hence x ∈ pi . This shows that pi = (I : ai ). Furthermore, if an

ideal quotient (I : a) is a prime ideal p, then
n
Y
p⊇I⊇ pi .
i=1

Hence p contains some pi . We say that the ideal quotient (I : a) is a prime

divisor of I if (I : a) is a prime ideal. The set of all prime divisors of I is
denoted by Ass (R/I). Then each pi is a minimal among prime divisors of
I with respect to the inclusion order. A non-minimal prime divisor of I is
called embedded. √
The radical n = 0 of the zero ideal (0) of R is called the nilradical.
Let
√
n = 0 = p1 ∩ p2 ∩ · · · ∩ pn
be the prime decomposition. Since any prime ideal p of R contains n, the
above argument shows that p ⊇ pi for some 1 ≤ i ≤ n. This implies that
X = Spec R = V (p1 ) ∪ V (p2 ) ∪ · · · ∪ V (pn )
and each V (pi ) is an irreducible component of X.

1.1.5 Generic point, closed point and Krull dimension

Let R be an noetherian ring and let X = Spec R. We have a prime ideal
px identified with each point x ∈ X. For a subset S of X, we denote by S
the closure of S with respect to the Zariski topology. A point x of X is a
closed point if {x} = {x}. A point x is a generic point if X = {x}.

Lemma 1.1.9. The following assertions hold.

T
(1) S = V (I(S)), where I(S) = x∈S px .
(2) If S consists of a single point x then the closure {x} is irreducible. We
have {x} = {y} if and only if x = y.
(3) x is the generic point of an irreducible
√ component of V (I) if and only
if px is a minimal prime divisor of I. √
(4) X is irreducible if and only if the nilradical 0 of R is a prime ideal.
(5) x is a closed point if and only if px is a maximal ideal.

Proof. (1) If a closed set V (I) contains S then px ⊇ I for every

p x ∈ S. This
implies that I ⊆ I(S), where I(S) is a radical ideal, i.e., I(S) = I(S).
This implies that I(S) defines the smallest closed subset of X which contains
S, i.e., the closure of S.
10 Affine Algebraic Geometry

(2) By (1), {x} = V (px ) which is irreducible by Lemma 1.1.7. We have

{x} = {y} if and only if V (px ) = V (py ), which is equivalent to px = py ,
i.e., x = y.
(3) and (4) The assertion follows from Corollary 1.1.8.
(5) If {x} = {x} then px is a maximal ideal of R. For, otherwise,
there is a maximal ideal m ⫌ px and m ∈ {x}. The converse is clear by
definition.

A series of irreducible closed subsets of X = Spec R

X0 ⫌ X1 ⫌ . . . ⫌ Xn
corresponds to a sequence of prime ideals
p0 ⫋ p1 ⫋ . . . ⫋ pn .
The index n is called the length of the sequence. If a sequence of maximal
length (which could be ∞) exists, the length is called the Krull dimension
of X (or R) and denoted by K-dim X (or K-dim R). Later we will see
that if R is an affine domain over a field k then K-dim X is equal to the
transcendence degree tr.degk K, where K = Q(R) is the field of quotients
of R.
Let p be a prime ideal of R. We consider, in particular, a descending
chain of prime ideals with p as the beginning term
p = p0 ⫌ p1 ⫌ · · · ⫌ pr . (1.1)
If there is a finite chain such as (1.1) with maximal length r, the integer r
is called the height of p and denoted by ht p. If there are chains like (1.1)
of length arbitrarily big, we define ht p = ∞.
Let I be an ideal of R and let
√
I = p1 ∩ p2 ∩ · · · ∩ pm
√
be a prime decomposition of I. Then we define the height of I by
ht I = min ht pi .
1≤i≤m

Let Ω(R) denote the set of all maximal ideals of R. We define the dimension
of R (or X = Spec R) by
dim R = dim X = max ht (M).
M∈Ω(R)

Let I be an ideal defining a closed subset V (I) of X, we define the codi-

mension of V (I) by
codim V (I) = ht I.
 Introduction to Algebraic Geometry 11

1.1.6 Hilbert basis theorem

The following result is called Hilbert basis theorem.

Theorem 1.1.10. Let R be a noetherian ring and let A = R[x1 , . . . , xn ] be

a polynomial ring in n variables over R. Then A is also a noetherian ring.

Proof. It suffices to prove the assertion in the case n = 1. Let I be an

ideal of R[x] and let
a = {a ∈ R | there exists f (x) = axn + (terms of lower degree) in I}.
Pr
Then a is an ideal of R. Write a = i=1 ai R. Choose fi ∈ I so that
fi = ai xni + (terms of lower degree)
and let m = max{ni | 1 ≤ i ≤ r}. We may assume that n1 = · · · = nr = m.
Let M = R · 1 + R · x + · · · + R · xm−1 , which is an R-submodule of A,
and N = I ∩ M . Then N is an R-submodule of M . Since M is a finite
Ps
R-module, so is N by Lemma 1.1.11 below. Write N = j=1 Rgj . Then
we claim that
X r X s
I= R[x]fi + R[x]gj .
i=1 j=1

Since fi , gj ∈ I, one inclusion ⊇ is clear. We prove the reverse one.

Let f ∈ I. Write f = axn + (terms of lower degree) ∈ I. Then a ∈ a.
Pr
Hence a = i=1 ai bi . If n ≥ m, let
r
!
X
′
f =f− bi fi xn−m ∈ I.
i=1
′
Then deg f < n. By induction on deg f we can write
r
X
f= fi hi + g, g ∈ M.
i=1
Ps
Since g ∈ I, we have g ∈ N . Hence g = j=1 cj gj with cj ∈ R. So, we
have
Xr s
X r
X s
X
f= fi hi + cj gj ∈ fi R[x] + gj R[x].
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1

Lemma 1.1.11. Let R be a noetherian ring and let M be a finite R-module.

Then an R-submodule N of M is finite.
12 Affine Algebraic Geometry

Proof. Write M = Rm1 + · · · + Rmr with generators m1 , . . . , mr . We

prove the assertion by induction on the number r of generators. Suppose
r = 1. Then M = Rm1 . Let a1 = {a ∈ R | am1 ∈ N }. Then a1 is
Pr1
an ideal of R. Since R is noetherian, we can write a1 = i=1 Ra1i . Let
ni = a1i m1 ∈ N . Take z ∈ N and write it as z = am1 . Then a ∈ a1 and
Pr1 Pr1 Pr1
hence a = i=1 b1i a1i . Then z = i=1 b1i ni . Hence N = i=1 Rni .
Suppose that r > 1. Let M2 = Rm2 + · · · + Rmr and N2 = M2 ∩ N .
Let
a = {a ∈ R | there exists an element u = am1 + a2 m2 + · · · + ar mr ∈ N }.
Ps
Then a is an ideal of R. Hence a = i=1 Rci . Let ui be an element of N
such that
Xr
ui = ci m1 + cij mj .
j=2
Let z ∈ M and write
s
X
z = am1 + a2 m2 + · · · + ar mr , a= bi c i .
i=1
Then
s
X
z− bi u i ∈ M 2 ∩ N = N2 .
i=1
Pt
By induction hypothesis, we can write N2 = j=1 Rvj . Then N =
Ps Pt
i=1 Rui + j=1 Rvj .

Let k be a field. A finitely generated k-algebra is the quotient ring

A = k[x1 , . . . , xn ]/I of a polynomial ring k[x1 , . . . , xn ]. If A is further an
integral domain, i.e., I is a prime ideal, we call A an affine domain over k
or simply an affine k-domain.

Corollary 1.1.12. Let A be a finitely generated k-algebra over a field k.

Then A is noetherian.

1.1.7 Integral extension and Noether normalization lemma

Let R be a ring and S a subring of R. An element a ∈ R is integral over S
if a is a root of an equation f (x) = 0 for a monic polynomial
f (x) = xn + b1 xn−1 + · · · + bn ∈ S[x]. (1.2)

Lemma 1.1.13. The following conditions for an element a of R are equiv-

alent.
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 HEARTBREAK ROAD

As I went up by Heartbreak Road

Before the dawn of day,
The cold mist was all about,
And the wet world was gray;
It seemed that never another soul
Had walked that weary way.

But when I came to Heartbreak Hill,

Silver touched the sea;
I knew that many and many a soul
Was climbing close to me;
I knew I walked that weary way
In a great company.
 ROMANCE

“Good cheap! Good cheap! Buy my golden ware!

Sunny-afternoon-color, happy-harvest-moon-color,
Burnished bright as Beauty’s golden hair!
O come buy!
Buy my rare golden ware!”
(But they never came anigh him, they went trooping by him,
To trade at the shop of Despair—
At the dark little shop of Despair!)

“Good cheap! Good cheap! Buy my magic ware!

All your meat shall savor of it, all your drink take flavor of it,
Yea, ’twill warm ye when the hearth is bare! O come buy!
Buy my fair golden ware!”
(But they hurried past the turning, with their fixed eyes burning,
Making haste to be cheated by Despair—
Buying dear at the counter of Despair!)
 FAITH

Before the rose and violet had begun

On sky and sea, while all the world was still,
Colorless, lifeless, unconsoled, and chill,
One little bird sang out about the Sun.
 INTIMATIONS

“Who has seen the Wind?”—Christina Rossetti.

I have seen the Wind,

I have seen him plain—
The silver feet of the Wind
Racing on the rain.

I have seen Time pass:

Viewless as he sped,
The red sand in the glass
Was shaken by his tread.

Far, far the goal,

And hearts must part awhile—
But I have seen the Soul
Shining through a smile.

Dim, dim the plan,

And dumb is the clod:
But in the eyes of Man
I have seen—God.
ON THE SINGING OF “GAUDEAMUS IGITUR”

Hark, how Youth, a scholar gowned,

With the cap of Wisdom crowned,
Carols like the reckless lark,
Forgetful of the dark!

What is toil, oh, what are tears?

Time turns pale when thus he hears
Angelic insolence of sound
Scorning the beaten ground.

In the face of Fate is flung

This gage-gauntlet of the young—
Innocent brave challenge, hurled
In the teeth of the world!

Graybeard Years file solemn past;

Yet this rebel glee shall last
Long as souls at morning rise,
New larks, to the old skies.
 THE COUNTERSIGN

On guard my heavy Heart did stand,

And sleep had conquered her,
Had not one cold and rigid hand
Gripped honor like a spur.

It was the starkest watch of all,

The hour before the end.
Out rang the startled challenge-call:
“Halt! Who goes there?” “A Friend.”

“The countersign?” my spent Heart cried,

And forward-peering stood.
A Voice as strange as sweet replied:
“The word is BROTHERHOOD.”
 FAILURE TRIUMPHANT

How many a captain wave, since sea began,

Has lordly led the charge against the shore,
Whose crest a jewelled plume of rainbow bore,
As iris Hope arches the march of Man:
How many a wave, brave-glittering in the van,
Has melted as a cloud in spray and roar—
A flashing column prone, and next, no more!
So runs the tale, since Time’s first sand outran.
So ends the antique tale. Stay! ends it so?
Though every billow faint into a ghost,
The all-embracing ocean—that gives birth,
Receives, and recreates—in ebb and flow,
A vast sky-coupled Mystery round the coast,
Works out its will upon the face of earth.
 THE SPARK

Readers of riddles dark,

Solve me the mystery of the Spark!

My good dog died yesternight.

His heart of love through his eyes of light
Had looked out kind his whole life long.
In all his days he had done no wrong.
Like a knight’s was his noble face.
What shall I name the inward grace
That leashed and barred him from all things base?
Selfless trust and courage high—
Dust to dust, but are these to die?
(Hate and lust and greed and lies—
Dust to dust, and are these to rise?)

When ’tis kindled, whither it goes,

Whether it fades, or glows and grows—
Readers of riddles dark,
Solve me the mystery of the Spark!
 FOXGLOVES

Pink-purple foxgloves
Leaning to the breeze—
And all the sweet of Devon
Sweeps back across the seas:

The deep coombs of Devon

Where the tiny hamlets nest,
The golden sea of Devon
That glimmers toward the west:

The thatched roofs of Devon

To which the soft skies bend—
Now the dear God keep Devon
The same to His world’s end!
 THE CHRISTMAS BAGPIPES

I heard on Christmas Eve the bonny bagpipes play;

The thin silver skirling, it sounded far away;
The yellow mellow light shone through my neighbor’s panes,
And on the starry night came the shrill dear strains.

Despite the welter of the wide cold sea,

They brought bonny Scotland across the world to me;
And my heart knew the heather that my sense had never smelt,
And my spirit drank the hill wind my brows had never felt.

From the old kind books came the old friends trooping,
And the old songs called, like the curlew swooping;
And like a sudden sup that was hot and strong and sweet,
The love of bonny Scotland, it ran from head to feet.

O blessings on the heather hills, in white mist or sun!

O blessings on the kind books that make the clans as one!
And blessings on the bagpipes whose magic spanned the sea,
And brought bonny Scotland across the world to me!
WHEN THE ROSES GO DOWN TO THE SEA

On Gloucester moors the roses

Bloom haunted of the bee;
But there comes an hour of the summer
With the ebb-tide running free,
In a blue day of the summer,
When the roses go down to the sea.

The hands of the little children

Carry them to the shore;
The folk of the City of Fishers
Come out from every door;
They remember the lost captains
That shall come to the port no more.

They remember the lost seamen

Whose names the chaplain reads;
Old English names of Gloucester
Are told like slipping beads,
And the names of the fearless Irish lads,
And Portuguese and Swedes.

They remember the lost fishers

Who shall come no more to the land,
Nor look on the broad blue harbor,
Nor see the Virgin stand,
Our Lady of Good Voyage,
With the sailing-ship in her hand.
They pray to the Friend of fishers
On the Sea of Galilee
For the souls and bodies of seamen
Wherever their voyages be;
And singing they send the roses
On the ebb-tide down to the sea.

And the lost seamen and captains,

Wherever their bodies be,
If ever the sight of a mortal rite
Can move a soul set free,
Are glad of the kindness of Gloucester,
Their old sea-city of Gloucester,
Are moved with the memory of Gloucester,
When the roses go down to the sea.
 RITUAL FOR SUMMER DEAD

August turns autumnal now:

Scarlet the sudden maple-bough
At the turn of the wood-road gleams;
On the hearth the gray log sings
Sleepy songs of vanished things—
Babbling, bubbling John-a-Dreams.
August is autumn now.

Find the field where, dead and dry,

Under the broad still noontide sky,
Bleached in the flow of the bright-blue weather,
Stalks of the milkweed stand together.
Take the pale-brown pod in hand,
Packed with seeds of silvery feather;
Wander dreaming through the land.
Let each silken plumelet sift
Through the fingers, drift and drift,
Touched with the sun to rainbow light—
Float—and float—and out of sight!

So might incense drift away.

Golden Summer is dead to-day.
As a pious thurifer
Swing the censer meet for her.
 RED OCTOBER

Red October, and the slow leaf sailing;

All the maples flaring scarlet splendor,
All the dogwoods glowing crimson glory,
All the oak-leaves bronze, the beech-leaves golden:

Blue, ah blue! the reaches of the river,

Blue the sky above the russet mountain,
Blue the creek among the tawny marshes,
Blue the tart wild-grape beside the hill-road:

At our feet the burnished chestnut shining;

Scent of autumn, and the brown leaves’ rustle;
Cloudy clematis among the brambles,
Orange bittersweet along the wayside.

Days too-perfect, priceless for their passing,

Colored with the light of evanescence,
Fragrant with the breath of frailest beauty—
Days ineffable of red October!
 THE SINGER CHOOSES THE SONGS OF THE
WIND

Henceforth I will sing no songs

But the songs that are fluent, irregular, swift, unguided:
I will turn no tunes but the tunes of the winds and the waters.
I know that the song of the bird is remembered, it changes not;
And I know that the song of the wind is unremembered;
But it stirs the ground of the heart while the song is a-singing,
And it flows from a vaster source than the song of the bird.
So I will sing the song of the wind in the long grass, by the river,
And the song of the wind in the dry and copper-brown oak-leaves,
In the autumnal season, so beautiful and sad,
And the song of the wind in the green cool ranks of the corn
As it stirs very lightly in the summer,
And the song of the wind in the pines, when the shadows are blue on
the snow,
And the song, song, song, of the wind in the flapping flag,
And the winter-night song of the wind in the chimney,
And the swelling, lulling song of the swirling wind of the sea
That is blent with the plunge of the sea.
 THE GLEAM TRAVELS

It is morning, and April.

(They sleep, but I am alive and awake— the soft warm lucent blue of
the spring heaven bathes my soul.)
There, and again there, the willow-veils hanging, golden-green,
tremulous,
Near by, the bright red-bronze of the lifted cherry-boughs, flashing in
the sun,
Far off, gray-purple of the woods warming to life;
The clouds floating—O so full of light and blessing, that I think they
live and love,
Or truly that they are beautiful veils, not all hiding that which lives
and loves!

Morning, and April,

And on the far-away road, hither leading, the road but now gray with
the cloud-shadow,
The gleam travels.
Hitherward the gleam travels;
Behind it lies the gray shadow on the hill.

O life immense! O love unspeakable! O large To-day!

O moment of utterance given to me (the shadow too travels),
O moment of joy, of trust, of song for my soul, and for those who
sleep, and for those who shall by and by wake!
Life,
Morning, and April—
Hitherward the gleam travels!
 THE GRAY VICTORY

On the top of a great rock,

A rounded boulder with rust-colored stains,
Set high over the blue-green of the bay,
Braced strong with iron against the strong salt wind,
The old, gray figurehead is left.

Does any one know who set it there, so high?

Some sailor-fisherman
Who lived in a little hut beside the rock.
The hut is gone, there are the bricks of its foundation,
The old, gray figurehead is left.

A carving crude yet noble,

Of silvery, weathered wood:
A hero-woman,
Large, simple, bold and calm.
One hand is on her breast, her throat curves proudly,
Her head is thrown back proudly, she seems exulting;
There is also in her look something strangely devout,
Patient, and nobly meek.

What far-away workman made her, and what was his meaning?
Was she a Victory? or Hope, or Faith?

She looks upon the sea:

The bitter sea that cast upon these rocks
Her ship of long ago.

Who knows what agony, who knows what loss

Is in her memory? What struggle of sailors
In wild cold waves, at night?
With head thrown back
She looks upon the sea.
In every large curve of her broken body
Is trust, is triumph.
Against the sky she rises,
The light-filled, pure, ineffable azure sky;
Serene, unshaken,
Rises the Victory.
 FLAGS AND THE SKY

I looked from my window:

I heard a whisper without from the rippling poplar,
I heard the wash of the river, its waves are never still;
I looked, and over the water the flag,
Alive as the river, alive as the rippling poplar,
Rippled too in the wind.
The sun was upon it.
It had the beauty of flowers.

O flag, though you were not my own, I know I should love you:
I love all flowers, all flags:
Their colors in the wind flowing, in the sun brightening:
Deep blue of the night sky, or the splendor of flame,
Or green of spring, or the daring imperious scarlet,
The color of men’s blood:
Their curious blazonry I love, heraldic, historic,
Leopard or eagle, stripe or star or raying sun,
Or the Cross of St. George and the Cross of St. Andrew,
Or whatsoever sign men have loved and followed.

For surely a flag has a soul.

It is a thing sacred as sunrise,
It is sacred as the stars.
The spirit of Man lifts it up into the sky
That holds all stars, all flags.

I believe that a flag cannot be dishonored forever

By any deed of men.
Let it but fly awhile, and the wind will winnow it,
And the fierce pure sun will purge it, will wash it clean;
For the souls of races and nations live in the sky,
And are forever better than the deeds men do.
There was a man who burned with fire
The flag that he loved best,
Because he thought that out of its dead ashes
Might rise the Flag of Man.

He would have to wait a long time for that rising,

He would have to wait forever;
For live things do not rise out of ashes,
They rise out of live loves.

That man never knew that his flag had a soul,

He never knew that the world needed the soul in his flag,
And the souls in all flags.

The Flag of Man!

What should be its colors, in the wind flowing, in the sun
brightening?
And what should be its curious blazonry?

The upper field should be blue as the sky of God:

The lower field, should be red as the blood of Man:
And there should fly forever beside it—
Always beside it, and neither above nor below it—
The one flag that a man is born to,
Born of his mother to love and not to leave,
As he loves his mother and will not leave her.

The Flag of Man!

It is long a-weaving.
God speed the weaving, and Man speed the weaving!
Let every one of us go on weaving that flag in his heart;
Perhaps, when the grass is rippling over the grave of him,
It may ripple in the sky that holds all stars, all flags,
The Flag of All Souls.