Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nano Technology For Battery Recycling Remanufacturing and Reusing Micro and Nano Technologies 1St Edition Siamak Farhad Editor Download PDF Chapter
Nano Technology For Battery Recycling Remanufacturing and Reusing Micro and Nano Technologies 1St Edition Siamak Farhad Editor Download PDF Chapter
SIAMAK FARHAD
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Interim Director of Center for Precision Manufacturing
The University of Akron
Akron, OH, United States
RAM K. GUPTA
Associate Professor
Department of Chemistry
Kansas Polymer Research Center
Pittsburg State University
Pittsburg, KS, United States
GHULAM YASIN
Senior Research Fellow
Institute for Advanced Study
College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering
Shenzhen University
Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such
as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-323-91134-4
Contributors xi
Preface xv
1. Introduction 53
2. Battery nanostructures 54
3. Processes for recovering and synthesizing nanomaterials 55
4. Nanotechnology for metal recovery from batteries 64
5. Synthesis of metallic nanoparticles and other materials 69
6. Future prospects 72
v
vi Contents
Acknowledgments 72
References 72
5. Innovative strategies for recycling used batteries for brighter future 105
Jonghyun Choi, Felipe M. de Souza and Ram K. Gupta
1. Introduction 105
2. Need for recycling batteries 106
3. Strategies for recycling battery components 108
4. Conclusion 118
References 119
1. Introduction 123
2. Battery market 125
3. Battery recycling 127
4. Challenges and perspectives 135
5. Conclusion 137
References 137
1. Introduction 183
2. Leaching technology 192
3. Separation and extraction technologies 207
Further reading 215
1. Introduction 217
2. Approaches for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries 219
3. Types of biohydrometallurgical methods 219
4. Microbes in bioleaching 222
5. Bioleaching mechanism 224
viii Contents
1. Introduction 247
2. Pretreatment process 252
3. Separation of nanomaterials from the collector fluid 254
4. Separation of nanomaterials 258
References 261
1. Introduction 373
2. Carbonaceous nanomaterials recycling 376
3. Metal nanomaterials recycling 380
4. Conclusions 388
References 388
x Contents
20. Recycling lithium, cobalt, and nickel for return to the battery
production cycle 427
Yue Yang, Shuya Lei and Rui Xu
Index 487
Contributors
Arsalan Ahmed
Department of Textile and Clothing, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, National Textile
University Karachi Campus, Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan
Hammad Al-Shammari
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jouf University, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia
Muhammad Fahad Arain
Department of Textile and Clothing, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, National Textile
University Karachi Campus, Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan
Vahid Beigi
Biotechnology Group, Chemical Engineering Department, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran,
Iran
Daniel Assumpç~ao Bertuol
Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
Amilton Barbosa Botelho Junior
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of S~ao Paulo, S~ao Paulo, Brazil
Rebeca Mello Chaves
Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
Jonghyun Choi
Department of Chemistry, Kansas Polymer Research Center, Pittsburg State University,
Pittsburg, KS, United States
William Leonardo da Silva
Nanoscience Graduate Program, Franciscan University, Santa Maria, Brazil
Felipe M. de Souza
Department of Chemistry, Kansas Polymer Research Center, Pittsburg State University,
Pittsburg, KS, United States
Denise Crocce Romano Espinosa
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of S~ao Paulo, S~ao Paulo, Brazil
Siamak Farhad
Advanced Energy & Manufacturing Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering Department,
University of Akron, Akron, OH, United States
Haiqiang Gong
National Engineering Laboratory for High Efficiency Recovery of Refractory Nonferrous
Metals, School of Metallurgy and Environment, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,
China
xi
xii Contributors
Josep M. Guerrero
Center for Research on Microgrids - CROM, Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg,
Denmark
Ram K. Gupta
Department of Chemistry, Kansas Polymer Research Center, Pittsburg State University,
Pittsburg, KS, United States
Congrui Jin
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of NebraskaeLincoln, Lincoln,
NE, United States
Alexandra Kaas
Institute of Mechanical Process Engineering and Mineral Processing, TU Bergakademie Freiberg,
Freiberg, Germany
Arnavaz Keikavousi Behbahan
Department of Chemistry, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Muhammad Qamar Khan
Department of Textile and Clothing, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, National Textile
University Karachi Campus, Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan
Jae-chun Lee
Mineral Resources Research Division, Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources
(KIGAM), Daejeon, Republic of Korea
Chan-Gi Lee
Advanced Materials & Processing Center, Institute for Advanced Engineering (IAE), Yongin,
Republic of Korea
Shuya Lei
School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,
China
Jianlin Li
Electrification and Energy Infrastructures Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,
TN, United States
Ge Li
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Tony Lyon
Institute of Mechanical Process Engineering and Mineral Processing, TU Bergakademie Freiberg,
Freiberg, Germany
Thuany Maraschin
School of Technology, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
Thamiris Auxiliadora Gonçalves Martins
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of S~ao Paulo, S~ao Paulo, Brazil
Seyyed Mohammad Mousavi
Biotechnology Group, Chemical Engineering Department, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran,
Iran; Modares Environmental Research Institute, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
Contributors xiii
Thomas M€ utze
Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-
Rossendorf, Freiberg, Germany
Ashkan Namdar
Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Khajeh Nasir Toosi University of Technology,
Tehran, Iran
Tannaz Naseri
Biotechnology Group, Chemical Engineering Department, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran,
Iran
Xing Ou
National Engineering Laboratory for High Efficiency Recovery of Refractory Nonferrous
Metals, School of Metallurgy and Environment, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,
China
Leandro Rodrigues Oviedo
Nanoscience Graduate Program, Franciscan University, Santa Maria, Brazil
Ashwani Pandey
School of Minerals, Metallurgical and Materials Science, IIT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Soobhankar Pati
School of Minerals, Metallurgical and Materials Science, IIT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Sarthak Patnaik
School of Minerals, Metallurgical and Materials Science, IIT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Giovani Pavoski
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of S~ao Paulo, S~ao Paulo, Brazil
Urs A. Peuker
Institute of Mechanical Process Engineering and Mineral Processing, TU Bergakademie Freiberg,
Freiberg, Germany
Mauricio Dalla Costa Rodrigues da Silva
Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
Malena T.L. Staudacher
Institute of Mechanical Process Engineering and Mineral Processing, TU Bergakademie Freiberg,
Freiberg, Germany
Basudev Swain
Advanced Materials & Processing Center, Institute for Advanced Engineering (IAE), Yongin,
Republic of Korea
Tian Tang
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Gurleen Kaur Walia
School of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara,
Punjab, India
xiv Contributors
Shunli Wang
Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, Sichuan, China; Aalborg
University, Aalborg, Denmark
Wei Wang
National Engineering Laboratory for High Efficiency Recovery of Refractory Nonferrous
Metals, School of Metallurgy and Environment, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,
China
Denis Manuel Werner
LIBREC AG, Oensingen, Switzerland
Yanxin Xie
Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, Sichuan, China
Rui Xu
School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,
China
Yue Yang
School of Minerals Processing and Bioengineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,
China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Clean and Efficient Utilization of Strategic
Calcium-containing Mineral Resources, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
Long Ye
National Engineering Laboratory for High Efficiency Recovery of Refractory Nonferrous
Metals, School of Metallurgy and Environment, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,
China
Jiafeng Zhang
National Engineering Laboratory for High Efficiency Recovery of Refractory Nonferrous
Metals, School of Metallurgy and Environment, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan,
China
Ziwei Zhao
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Preface
The increased use of batteries in areas ranging from consumer electronics to automo-
biles, health care, and grid storage systems is expected to drive greater market demand.
With the increased demand for batteries, the need for metals such as lithium, cobalt,
and nickel is rising. About 50 thousand tons of lithium were used in 2018, and the
amount is expected to increase every year. Industry analysts predict that by 2030, the
worldwide volume of spent lithium-ion batteries will exceed two million metric tons
per year. With the limited resource availability of these metals, it is crucial to recycle,
remanufacture, and reuse batteries. In addition to the potential economic benefits, recy-
cling batteries would substantially reduce the volumes of these materials going into land-
fills and being extracted from mines. Chemicals found in batteries can easily leak from the
casing once the battery is in a landfill, contaminating the area and groundwater and
creating a serious threat to the environment, ecosystems, and human health. Many recy-
cling technologies have been developed in various research laboratories around the globe,
and this work continues. This book aims to shed light on battery recycling, remanufac-
turing, and reuse technologies and highlights the role that nanotechnology can play to
make these technologies economically and environmentally feasible. This book also ex-
plores how nanotechnology can enhance and improve battery recycling and remanufac-
turing technologies. This book has four sections. Section 1 provides a general and
technical view to readers in the fields of battery recycling, remanufacturing, and reuse
and discusses the role of nanotechnology in these areas. Section 2 focuses on the details
of some battery recycling and separation processes. Section 3 emphasizes the recycling of
various battery components and nanomaterials. Section 4 discusses battery remanufactur-
ing and reuse. Overall, this book presents the current knowledge generated from recent
research and work in battery recycling, remanufacturing, and reuse. Further, it underlines
the role of nanotechnology to help researchers and engineers better understand the cur-
rent border of knowledge in the field and provides a perspective on its prospects. This
book is essential for academics and industry professionals working in batteries, energy ma-
terials, recycling, and nanotechnology.
Dr. Siamak Farhad
January 2022
xv
This page intentionally left blank
SECTION 1
1
This page intentionally left blank
CHAPTER 1
1. Chemical battery
A chemical battery refers to a device that can convert chemical energy into electrical en-
ergy. The main part includes the electrolyte solution and the positive and negative elec-
trodes immersed in it. Chemical batteries can be divided into primary batteries, secondary
batteries, and fuel cells.
Nano Technology for Battery Recycling, Remanufacturing, and Reusing © 2022 Elsevier Inc.
ISBN 978-0-323-91134-4, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91134-4.00010-8 All rights reserved. 3
4 Nano Technology for Battery Recycling, Remanufacturing, and Reusing
Copper cap
Plastic cap
Sealing layer
Paper layer
Carbon rod
Battery
(charcoal package)
Cardboard layer
Zinc cylinder
Stencil
Iron shell
Electrolyte
Insulation pad
It can be seen from the reaction formula that the reduction reaction occurs during the
discharge of the positive manganese dioxide, which reduces the Hþ concentration in the
solution. Therefore, the pH value of the electrolyte and the alkalinity increases, causing
the manganese dioxide electrode potential to move in a negative direction. When the
negative electrode zinc discharges, an oxidation reaction occurs, and the concentration
polarization of the zinc electrode moves the zinc electrode potential in a positive direc-
tion [6]. Therefore, when discharging, the battery voltage drops.
solution with high conductivity. The zinc of the negative electrode is changed from flake
to granular, which increases the reaction area of the negative electrode. The electrical
performance can be greatly improved by coupling with high-performance electrolytic
manganese powder [9]. Generally, alkaline batteries of the same model have 3e7 times
the capacity and discharge time of ordinary batteries, and the difference in low-
temperature performance is even greater. Alkaline batteries are more suitable for high-
current continuous discharge and high working voltage requirements. Occasionally,
they are especially ideal for cameras, flashlights, razors, electric toys, CD players, high-
power remote controls, wireless mice, keyboards, etc. Alkaline batteries can be roughly
divided into the following three types.
The reaction between the positive electrode and the negative electrode is shown in
Eq. (1.4):
(
Ag2 O þ H2 O þ 2e /2Ag þ 2OH
(1.4)
Zn þ 2OH /ZnO þ H2 O þ 2e
Since the zinc in the negative electrode reacts with the components in the electrolyte,
it is corroded and consumed. This reduces the useable capacity of the battery and gen-
erates hydrogen gas, causing the battery’s internal pressure to increase and expand. A
small amount of mercury is usually coated on the surface of zinc to suppress this effect,
but it also causes mercury pollution to the environment from discarded batteries. The
battery clip of the silver oxide battery can also be recycled. Silver oxide batteries should
be recycled to avoid environmental pollution.
As shown in Eq. (1.5), the negative lithium electrode undergoes an oxidation reaction
when the battery is discharged. The formed lithium ions dissolve in the electrolyte
8 Nano Technology for Battery Recycling, Remanufacturing, and Reusing
solution, migrate to the manganese dioxide positive electrode, and are embedded in the
manganese dioxide lattice. They promote the reduction of manganese in manganese di-
oxide from a four to three valence.
Positive extreme
Plastic cap
Battery cover
Weld
Top insulation sheet
Glass to metal seal
Isolation layer
Cathdoe
positive electrode, and SOCl2 should be selected by the manufacturer according to the
expected battery performance [16e18]. The generally accepted overall reaction mecha-
nism is shown in Eq. (1.6):
4Li þ 2SOCl2 /4LiCl þ S þ SO2 (1.6)
Sulfur and sulfur dioxide are dissolved in the excess thionyl chloride electrolyte. Dur-
ing discharge, due to the production of sulfur dioxide, a certain degree of pressure is
generated. During storage, as soon as the negative lithium electrode comes into contact
with the electrolyte, it reacts with the thionyl chloride electrolyte to form LiCl. The
negative lithium electrode is protected by the LiCl film formed on it. This passivation
film is beneficial to extend the storage life of the battery. But it will cause voltage hys-
teresis at the beginning of discharge. The voltage hysteresis is particularly obvious for bat-
teries that have been stored for a long time at high temperatures and discharged at low
temperatures [19].
The application of Li/SOCl2 batteries is to take advantage of the series’ high specific
energy and long storage life. Cylindrical batteries discharged with low current can be used
as power sources for CMOS memory, water, electricity, and other metering instruments
and radio frequency identification (RFID) devices such as highway transit automatic
electronic toll systems, program logic controllers, and wireless security alarm systems
because the cost of these lithium batteries is higher [20]. At the same time, the safety
of these batteries is still receiving special attention, and there are special requirements
for their handling. Therefore, the application in the general consumer market is still
restricted.
oxide and become invalid [7,22]. Generally, the zinc plate or zinc particles and electrolyte
are directly replaced so that the zinc-air is completely renewed. The chemical equations
of the positive and negative electrodes and the overall reaction during discharge are
shown in Eq. (1.7):
8
>
< P: 0.5O2 þ H2 O þ 2e ¼ 2OH
>
N: Zn þ 2OH ¼ ZnO þ H2 O þ 2e (1.7)
>
>
: T: 2Zn þ O2 ¼ 2ZnO
electrolytes. Aluminum ingests oxygen in the air and produces a chemical reaction when
the battery is discharged. Aluminum and oxygen are converted into aluminum oxide
[27,28]. The progress of the aluminum-air battery is very rapid, and its application in
EVs has achieved good results. It is an air battery with great development prospects.
potential as anode materials (such as Li, Na, Ca, etc.), which have high specific power and
specific energy [32]. Therefore, the thermal battery is ideal as a military power source.
Theoretically, FeS2 has a medium potential that affects battery characteristics and
results in poor thermal stability. Therefore, improved cathode materials for thermal
batteries are needed. Among chromium compounds, Cr2O3 has a low potential, and
CrO3, Cr2O5, and CrO2 lack thermal stability, so they are not suitable for thermal battery
positive electrodes. CaCrO4 has a long history as a positive electrode for thermal batteries.
Other chromates such as Li2Cr2O7 and K2Cr2O7 are also commonly used as
positive electrodes. In particular, Li2Cr2O7 has a small molecular weight and the highest
electrochemical capacity, which attracts people’s attention. Because the melting point of
lithium chromate is low at about 516 C, it is often necessary to add a binder to make the
active material molten salt not flow when the electrode is working and keep the shape
unchanged. The Li2Cr2O72LiAl pair has an open circuit voltage of 3.0 V and a
100 mA/cm2 discharge cell voltage of 2.5e2.6 V, which is basically equivalent to lithium
vanadium oxide (LVO). Among the manganese compounds, b2MnO2 has become quite
common as a cathode material for other batteries, such as zinc manganese and lithium
manganese batteries.
*****
Klok-klok, klokoti-klok.
*****
Hän oli puolitiessä metsässä, kun hän tapasi tytön. Tämä kantoi
maniokkikimppua päänsä päällä ja käveli miellyttävästi.
Nyt oli kylässä monta miestä, jotka halusivat olla mieliksi tytölle,
joka kantoi juuria, sillä hän oli päällikön tytär ja sitä paitsi
neljäntoistavuotias, naimisiinmenoiässä. Kun hän siis tuli juosten
kylän kadulle puoleksi hermostuneena pelosta, itkien ja nyyhkyttäen,
ei häneltä puuttunut myötätuntoa eikä palvelijoita, jotka olivat
halukkaat tappamaan loukkaajan.
Sillä, hän päätteli, jos hän menisi heitä vastaan, niin he voisivat
tappaa hänet tai piestä häntä ruo'oilla, mitä hänen ylpeä luonteensa
ei sallinut.
*****