Coral Reefs

A Coral reef is a large strip of wave resistant coral rocks built up by carbonate organisms. They
may be found close to the surface and even rising above it. They are confined to tropical and sub-tropical
regions of the world between 30˚North and South of the equator. Coral reefs need warm, clear, clean
water (20˚C-27˚C).
There are three main types of coral reefs:
1. Fringing
2. Barrier
3. Atoll
A fringing reef is a low lying platform close to the shore, separated by a narrow lagoon. There are
fringing reefs off the coast of many Caribbean islands including Jamaica, Barbados, Tobago and Antigua.
A Barrier reef may be many kilometers from the shore. Barrier reefs are formed like this:
1. A fringing reef develops in the sea next to a low-lying coastline.
2. Sea level rises. The coastal plain is flooded, but the coral reef is able to grow upwards fast enough
to keep pace with the increasing depth of the sea.
3. A barrier reef is formed at a considerable distance from the new shoreline.
4. On the shoreward side of the barrier reef is a wide lagoon, or in some cases a shallow sea.
5. Wave action on a barrier reef may pile up dead coral to form a series of low-lying lands.
The world’s largest barrier reef is the Great Barrier Reef, off the north-east coast of Australia. It is 1800
km long and from 50km to 250km offshore. The second largest barrier reef is off the coast of Belize.
There are also large barrier reefs off the coast of Andros in the Bahamas, and Anegada in the British
Virgin Islands.
Atoll is a circular, ring-like reef, usually made up of several islands which enclose a lagoon. For example
in the lagoon. They were formed by the growth of corals on top of sinking volcanoes. For example in
Belize.
Benefits of Coral Reefs
1. Protects coastline from the destructive waves and storm surges as they act as a barrier and
therefore prevent beach erosion. Coral reefs reduce shoreline erosion by absorbing energy from
the waves, they can protect coastal housing, agricultural land and beaches.
2. Provide harbours and beaches.
3. Tourist attraction since there is a great biodiversity which includes many types of corals and
thousands of species of flora and fauna which generates much needed foreign exchange for the
region. It is a great part of ecotourism and the sandy beaches makes it tempting for tourist. It is
now part of the “Caribbean Package”
4. Breeding ground for fish and other marine life, thus impacting on the lives of people along the
coast and especially in the Caribbean where island culture exist (fisherfolk) and destruction would
result in the change in their livelihood. Fishermen have been depending on the reefs to sustain
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 the livelihoods of many coastal villages. Jobs also in hotels, fishing trips, diving tours and
restaurants are facilitated by coral reefs. The Caribbean fishing industry provides a livelihood for
about 182,000 people, many of them carrying out traditional fishing in rural areas. The total
number of fishing boats in use is estimated at more than 13,000. Fish is also an important source
of daily nutrition, and in the Caribbean consumption is high.
5. Habitats, shelter and food for marine fauna and flora so destruction of coral reefs could result in
migration and extinction of marine fauna.
6. Provides aesthetic value to region.
7. The reefs are home to species that contain pharmaceutical compounds that have potential for
treatment for some of the world’s most prevalent and dangerous illnesses and diseases.
Compounds from coral reefs have been used in the treatment of cancer, cardiovascular diseases,
ulcers and other ailments. Possibility exist in research for medicine-AZT for AIDS, sunscreen
development and synthetic bone-building substance.
8. Corals actually control the amount of carbon dioxide in the ocean water. Corals used the dissolved
carbon dioxide in the ocean water to form new reefs. This gas conversion to limestone shells
controls the carbon dioxide in the ocean. Without corals’ activity, that gas could saturate the
ocean and air mass above it. All wildlife, including humans, would be negatively affected with a
higher carbon dioxide level.
Threats to Coral Reefs
1. Coastal develop and construction of hotels and marinas provide turgid waters that choke coral
growth.
2. Activities such as blasting hillsides and deforestation have led to an increase in the sediment load
brought down by rivers and cause the destruction of coral organisms.
3. Fertilizers run-off from farmland as well as oil spills destroy marine life.
4. Damages caused by recreation and tourism for example anchors, boat grounding and tourist
trampling.
5. Exploitation by fishermen (overfishing).Certain fish are targeted hence they are endangered.
Also, specialty fish for the pet trade.
6. Destructive fishing methods such as dragging fish nets and dynamiting.
7. Global warming would result in the rise in sea levels hence waters will become too deep for corals
to survive.
8. Improper sewage treatment for coastal settlements particularly from hotels allows raw sewage to
enter the sea. This allows algae growth which eventually chokes the coral.

Drought
A drought is a climatic condition where insufficient rainfall occurs over an extended period. This
causes the drying up of water supplies and affects people, towns, agriculture, livestock and industry. A
drought is a temporary feature of the climate. It is an unusually long period when rainfall is below the
‘normal’ levels for that region, causing the severe depletion of the water available to plants, animals and

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human beings. Drought is often referred to as a “creeping phenomenon and its impact vary from region
to region. It is equally difficult to define because what may be considered a drought in one country may
not be considered a drought in another. For example a month of low rainfall in an equatorial latitude will
be considered a drought because of the high temperatures allowing evaporation and transpiration, thus
reducing the supply of water. In a semi-arid climate with a ‘dry season’ as in the Caribbean a month of
low rainfall is considered normal.
The global shift in the pattern of sea surface temperatures and atmospheric pressure which occurs
over the breath of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. This increase in the sea surface temperatures and
fluctuations in atmospheric pressure over the oceans occur every two to seven years. This combined air
and sea anomaly is called the Southern Oscillation (ENSO). El Nino and ENSO are responsible for the
prolonged droughts in the Caribbean.
Drought and human activity
The reduction in supply of fresh water in rivers that can lead to drought-like conditions is caused
by many human activities. Deforestation can lead to silting of rivers and drying up of water courses.
When rivers are polluted with sewage it encourages the growth of algae which chokes the streams and
eventually it becomes stagnant. Channeling and paving stretches of rivers interferes with the infiltration
of rainwater to replenish the underground water supply. Deforestation allows soil erosion leaving the
ground hard and impermeable and preventing the infiltration of rain for underground water storage. In
the dry season water held in lakes, dams, wells and reservoirs tend to be depleted in the dry season due
to irrigating crops, urban demands such as drinking water, watering plants, washing cars, watering
gardens and industrial uses. Caribbean populations are growing and so the demand for water.
Social effects of drought
1. Health has a direct link to the water supply of any settlement. Clean water for drinking and water
for cleaning and sanitation help society prevent and manage diseases.
2. Hunger, malnutrition, and mortality are all impacts of drought that are indirect. Drought cause
low food production, and particularly poorer regions people have less to eat. Food nutrition also
is a problem and this leads to vulnerability, diseases/illness and deaths
3. People migrate to other places in search of better living conditions. This makes a region in drought
vulnerable, as many of its young and working populations are forced to leave.
4. Anxiety and stress becomes prominent as the feeling of not knowing when things will improve
can have a negative effect on people especially farmers and those who livelihoods are directly
connected to land and water. In addition, increased dust levels could be detrimental to people
with respiratory problems.
5. When there are restrictions on a water supply, it is almost inevitable that there will be a conflict
of some kind.
6. Drought might also impact the quality of life. For instance, the aesthetics of a community may
change. Drought can also affect recreation and there may be less recreation opportunities since
large amount of water is used for maintaining golf courses, swimming pools and other uses.

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 7. The incidence of forest and bush fires increases substantially which places both human and
wildlife populations at higher levels of risk.

Economic effects of drought

1. In the agricultural industry, dry conditions and lack of precipitation can damage or kills crops and
livestock, negatively impacting farmers’ income. Reduced income for farmers has a ripple effect.
Retailers and others who provide goods and services to farmers face reduced business.
2. Crop loss also impacts consumers through increased food prices.
3. Local shortages of certain goods result in importing these goods (high import bill).
4. Drought can also hurt the recreation and tourism industry. Businesses such as water sport rental
shops maybe financially impacted during a drought.
Floods
Flooding is a direct result of heavy and continuous rainfall. In the Caribbean due to the weather
systems such as hurricanes and frontal systems all of which produce abundant rainfall. Generally, heavy
rainfall associated with hurricanes and seasonal rainfall can cause large landslides, river breaches and
flash floods. Flooding is the most common hazard experienced throughout the Caribbean affecting their
socio-economic development. Countries such as Guyana and Trinidad are in areas of high rainfall
because of the seasonal influence of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
Social effects of flooding
1. Torrential rain from a tropical disturbance in 2004 caused devastating floods in Haiti and
Dominican Republic. In Haiti 2000 were found dead and 5000 families displaced and in Dominica
Republic 401 were found dead and 3000 families displaced.
2. Dislocation of people-property as a result of flooding in Haiti and Dominica Republic forced
hundreds of people to start rebuilding.
3. Destruction of property- property destruction can run into the millions. Jamaica needed more
US$100M to deal with infrastructural damage caused by Tropical storm Nicole that left 13 dead
in 2010. In 2015 Tropical Storm Erika hit Dominica. Thirteen inches of rainfall caused rivers to
overflow, and then flooding. The saturated hillside soils, plus rocks and vegetation, all moved
downhill, causing mudslides and landslides. 34 residents lost their lives, and 271 homes were
destroyed.
4. Destruction of crops and livelihoods.
Economic effects of flooding
1. Floods debilitate infrastructural systems for example transportation is the main conduit for
economic development, thus impacting on the economy.
2. Tourism industry suffers due to damage done on roads, hotels and historical sites.
3. Job loss due to damage done to businesses and even some are totally destroyed, many businesses
will now cut back on their expenses hence reducing their labour force.

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4. Cash crops are destroyed.
5. Government has to use limited funds for repair since money now has to be diverted.
6. Flooding also carries health issues. Drinking water can become contaminated, which is especially
a threat to vulnerable people because it carries illnesses such as dysentery and diseases such as
those transmitted by mosquitoes can easily spread in areas of dirty or stagnant water.