ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT YEAR 10 TERM 2 NOTES

Section 5: Oceans and fisheries

Two thirds of our planet is covered with water. This could be either in oceans, lakes, seas, rivers, ponds, streams
etc.

Oceans play a vital role in:

 Distribution of heat from the equator towards the colder higher latitudes by way of warm and cold ocean
currents
 As carbon sinks: oceans absorb carbon dioxide and therefore are important in carbon cycle and natural
greenhouse effect.

Oceans also contain vast resource potential. These resources can be broadly classified into the following
categories:

a). Food: Oceans are rich in Seafood which is comprised of aquatic plants and animals which are consumed by
humans. This seafood include: fish, molluscs (oysters), crustaceans, marine reptiles, marine mammals e.g. whales
and seaweed.

b). Building materials and chemicals: Many materials in the oceans have been eroded from the land, where rain
and wind break down rocks which are then carried into the oceans through rivers. Many of these materials are
either being extracted today or have potential to be extracted in future. For example: some substances can be
extracted directly e.g. salts, magnesium, tin, gold, titanium and diamonds (Found in greater numbers in ocean
floor than on land). Sand, gravel and crushed rock are mined for the construction industry.
c). Oil: can be extracted by offshore drilling rigs.
d). Power generation: Offshore winds, waves and tides have vast untapped potential to meet our energy needs.
This energy can be tapped in different ways
 Offshore wind farms
 Offshore wave generators
 Nearshore /onshore wave generators
 Tidal steam generators and
 Tidal barrages
 Wave energy: There is an enormous amount of energy in waves which is estimated to produce
twice the present world energy production if harnessed.
 Tidal energy: result due to varying gravitational pull of the sun and the moon. Water in the sea
moves up and down twice on daily basis. This causes it to come onto the land and later recede,
which can be harnessed to generate electricity.

e). Tourism: Due to the attraction of the coast and Nearshore marine environment for leisure and recreation, a
large proportion head to coastal environments and have significant impact on coastal ecosystems . People form
MEDCs are attracted to marine sites of great natural beauty, diving snorkeling, windsurfing, jet skiing, deep-sea
fishing or even sunbathing.

f). Transportation: The oceans play a vital role in the world economy. Ships are important in transport of people
and goods. Majority of this trade are container ships, bulk carriers, tankers, naval vessels, cruise ship and ferries.
This volume of shipping has a lot of environmental concern due to pollution, accidents and impact on marine
species.

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g) Potential for safe drinking water: The oceans and seas contain 97% of all the earth water. However, the salinity
level means that the water is unsafe to meet human needs. Fresh water can be extracted from sea water through
reverse osmosis or distillation in desalination plants. This process is expensive and energy intensive when
compared to land based fresh water resources. With increasing human population and increasing scarcity of
freshwater around the world, it is likely there will be significant investment in desalination in the future.

WORLD FISHERIES

Ocean currents

Ocean current: Refers to the continuous movement of seawater that is driven by a range of factors which include:

 the gravitational pull of the moon and sun which creates tides
 Surface currents driven by thermohaline circulation (difference in temperature and salinity).

Surface currents: refers to the movement of the surface water of the sea in a constant direction.

Prevailing winds: refers to the direction from which the wind nearly always blows in a particular area.

Cold currents: come from the north and south poles.

Warm currents: come from the tropics or either side of the equator.

The movement of major ocean currents has a profound impact on the climate of earth as well as distribution of
marine species and therefore location of profitable fisheries.

Local currents:

They are driven by winds and tides. They interact with the land. They play a key role in the erosion,
transportation and deposition of sediments along the coast.

Major ocean currents:

They are complex and are shown in the diagram below

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3
  There is a clear pattern of warm surface water moving away from the equator in a giant spiral motion
(gyres).
 Gyres refers to the circular system of ocean currents rotating clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
counter clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
 The spiral motion is caused by the coriolis effect (rotation of the earth).

Note: The oceans do not have uniform temperature and salinity, so when the warm water reaches the polar
regions it cools, becomes saltier and more dense and then sinks. These cold deep water currents move along
the seabed back towards the equator.

The warm and the cold ocean currents combine to create a massive global conveyor belt of water that is in
constant motion, driven by thermohaline circulation.

As the currents moves, it causes nutrient-

rich water to rise to the surface in various locations in a process called upwelling.

Upwelling is important in stimulating the entire food chains and can explain the distribution of most dense
concentration of marine species.

The distribution of major marine fish populations

Over 70% of all fish caught come from the Pacific Ocean, with 20% coming from Atlantic Ocean.

Major fish populations will be found:

 In the shallow waters around the continental shelf ( refers to the area of the seabed around a large land
mass where the sea is relatively shallow compared to the open sea) where sunlight can penetrate to the
sea floor
 In coastal waters (The interface between land and ocean)
 Around the coral reefs
 Where ocean currents cause upwelling
 Around oceanic islands( are islands that rise to the surface from the floors of the ocean basins)

The major factor in the distribution is the relationship between marine topography, ocean currents and
photosynthesis.

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Main fisheries are located on continental shelves where water is shallow, allowing light to penetrate with plentiful
oxygen than further below.

Herbivorous fish rely on primary producers which are mainly algae called phytoplankton. Photosynthesis by
phytoplankton is therefore the basis for massive food webs.

The most productive areas with the most fish are in coastal areas, where upwelling occurs to bring nutrients to the
surface e.g. Pacific Coast of South America where a combination of the continental shelf, year round upwelling of
water and high biomass production leads to high concentrations of marine species.

EL Niño Southern Oscillation phenomenon and its effects on fisheries along the pacific coast of South America

The pacific coast of South of America is highly productive fishing grounds that attract boats from across the world.

Coastal communities along this region are reliant on the productivity for their livelihoods

(Their economies are driven by catching fish along this coast). Fishing is the only industry to provide significant
employment. Unfortunately, these communities experience a climate cycle called EL Niño Southern Oscillation
(ENSO).

ENSO is a complex oceanic-atmospheric interaction that weakens the easterly trade winds and the warm waters
they drive begin to move back toward the east, warming the ocean in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

Countries on either side of the Pacific Ocean see significant changes to the weather, with drier conditions in Asia
and wetter conditions on the Pacific Coast of South America.

The warming of the eastern Pacific Ocean reduces the upwelling of cold water, which reduces the productivity of
the ecosystems due to lack of nutrient rich water that supports fish. No nutrient means no growth of
phytoplankton so there is less food for fish.

The loss of fish has a devastating effect on the economies of countries along the coast.

It occurs on an irregular cycle that averages between two and seven years and has global effects on weather.

Impact of
exploitation of the oceans

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1. Overfishing
As human population rises, the demand for fish has increased and the profits made from fishing have also
risen. Larger companies can afford to build ship with increased capacity.
Causes of overfishing of marine fish species:
 Demand for fish as food due to increasing world population;
 Much bigger boats, which can work a long way from a port for many weeks;
 Finding fish easily by using radar, spotter helicopters to identify shoals of fish and detailed
weather data;
 Creation of huge nets that scoop up everything in an area, often half of which is discarded as by-
catch (animals caught by fishermen that are not the intended target of their fishing effort).

Impact of overfishing of marine fish species:

 Lack of growth in fish caught globally since 1990s, leading to loss of job and reduction in food
supply;
 Size of fish gets progressively smaller, increasing demand for food;
 Harvest of untargeted/protected/endangered marine species that are discarded at the sea or
shore commonly referred to as bycatch. More often, the bycatch is normally dead;
 Reduction in marine biodiversity, causing a disruption in food chain.
Note: Overfishing occurs when more fish are caught than the population can replace through natural
reproduction.
The role of aquaculture in managing global fisheries
Due to the increasing human population, the increase in demand for fish as food is above the production
capacity of oceans and seas.
Overexploitation of the fisheries leads to a decline in wild fish populations. One solution to this problem
is to increase fish farming in controlled environments. This includes:
a) Aquaculture: Farming of fresh water fish.
B) Mariculture: aquaculture practiced in marine environments e.g. closed section of an ocean, tanks,
ponds and raceways filled with seawater.
Advantages of fish farming (Aquaculture)
1. It reduces the pressure on wild population, allowing their population to increase.
2. Production is constant.
3. No bycatch, as non-interest species are unlikely to be present in the farm.
4. No erosion of seabed that is usually caused by tr awl nets.

Disadvantages of aquaculture
1. Antibiotics are expensive
2. Unused fish food causes eutrophication
3. Wild fish species are used a source of food to fish in aquaculture

However, fish farming requires a substantial amount of fish to be caught in the wild to provide food for
the farmed fish. This means that it does not immediately reduce the impact on certain caught species, or
reduce bycatch and discards.

Management of the harvesting of the marine species

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Although aquaculture plays an important role in global fish supply, it does not on its own provide the
solution to overfishing and the impact it has on biodiversity of the oceans. There are different strategies
attempting to manage harvesting of marine species. These include:

a. Net types and mesh size: If mesh size is too small, juvenile fish will be caught. This reduces the
number of fish that grow to maturity and reproduce. A diamond-shaped mesh catches fish more
easily, thus a square mesh panel is often included in an otherwise diamond net. Solution to this could
be :
 Pole and line
This is a more selective and more sustainable method to catch naturally schooling fish such as tuna
which could be attracted by throwing live bait overboard. Poles and lines with barbless hooks are
then used to hook the fish and bring them on board. It avoids bycatch as nets are not used.
b. Quotas: Legislators e.g. government set limits on how many and what type of fish can be caught. The
limits are set according to the information gathered from networks across the world about fish
populations. These limits ensure enough fish are left to reproduce and replenish the fishery for the
following season.
c. Closed seasons: Governments and other legislation bodies can pass laws that can close fisheries
down for part of the year, most commonly in the breeding season.
d. Protected areas and reserves: This is normally done in areas that have been extensively overfished
and stocks are at near collapse or in place that are of high biodiversity value. Fishing is banned in
these areas. There are various types of protected areas commonly known as Marine Protected Areas
(MPAs). They require innovative monitoring.
e. Conservation laws: they can be highly effective way of reducing overfishing. They allow scientists to
make annual stock assessments and to set annual catch limits that are strictly enforced. UN
agreements have been made and the work of the UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) in
documenting the state of the world fisheries is now vital in identifying and prioritizing species and
regions under threat.
f. International agreements (implementation and monitoring)
In 1982, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) allowed coastal countries
to have control rights over the zone extending 322 km offshore. This zone is referred to as Exclusive

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 Economic Zone (EEZ). It lets country ban fishing by foreign vessels or sells permits to foreign fishing
vessels. This paved way for the development of the modern day MPAS.

Assignments:
Case studies:
a. Study the resource potential, exploitation, impact and management of a marine fishery
b. Study an example of farming of marine species, including the source of food, pollution from waste
and impact of the natural habitat.

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Section 7: The atmosphere and human activities

The structure of the atmosphere

1. Troposp
here

 Troposphere is the closest to the Earth’s surface and contains water vapor (clouds), moisture, dust, etc.
 Most of the weather phenomena take place in Troposphere.

2. Stratosphere

 Stratosphere is the second-lowest layer of the Earth’s Atmosphere that goes up to 50 km.

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 Stratosphere contains Ozone (O3) Layer that absorbs the ultraviolet rays (coming through the Sun rays)
and protects life on the Earth.
 As the ultraviolet radiation absorbs in Stratosphere, therefore the temperature rises with increasing
altitude.
 The Stratopause is the transitional zone that separates Stratosphere and Mesosphere.

3. Mesosphere

 Mesosphere, present above the Stratosphere, extends up to (from 50 km to) 80 km.

 Temperature in the Mesosphere decreases with increasing altitude.
 Mesopause is the transitional zone that separates Mesosphere and Thermosphere.

4. Thermosphere

 Above the Mesosphere, Thermosphere is the second-highest layer that starts at the altitude of 80 km and
extends up to (roughly) 700 km (however, it varies between 500 and 1000 km).
 The lower part of the Thermosphere (roughly between 80 km and 550 km) contains ions and known
as Ionosphere.
 The temperature of the Thermosphere rises with increasing altitude.
 Thermopause is the transitional zone that separates Thermosphere and Exosphere.

5. Exosphere

 Exosphere is the highest or outermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere that extends (starting from 700 km
altitude) up to 10,000 km where it ultimately merges into the solar wind.
 Major constituents of the Exosphere are helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
 The phenomena of Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis can be seen in the lower part of the Exosphere
(merged with upper part of the Thermosphere).

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The satellite (orbiting the Earth) is normally placed in the Exosphere (as shown in the image given above).

The composition of the atmosphere

The earth’s atmosphere is composed of the following molecules: Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%) and
then trace amounts of carbon dioxide, neon, helium, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone.

The main

components- nitrogen, oxygen and argon- remain relatively constant, whereas the trace gases vary over time and
location.

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Ozone layer filters out part of the incoming ultraviolet radiation from sunlight that protects plants, animals and
humans from the damaging effect of the sun. Any UV that reaches the earth causes sunburn.

Human activities are attributed to modifying the proportions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide which
play a vital role in regulating the earth’s climate. These gases are called greenhouse gases.

Water vapor and ozone are also greenhouse gases that together interact with incoming and outgoing solar
radiation causing warming of the atmosphere.

The natural greenhouse effect

The greenhouse gases absorb

energy from the sun, creating a natural
greenhouse effect that warms the earth surface.

Without these gases, the earth’s surface would be -18°C. Human activities have led to production of excess
greenhouse gases that have led to enhanced greenhouse effect.

Atmospheric pollution

Pollution: This refers to the introduction of potentially harmful or toxic substances that can cause damage to the
environment, people and other organisms, often as a result of adding chemicals to the air, water or land.

Since industrial revolution, human activities such as burning of fossil fuels, vehicle emissions and industrial
processes are changing the composition of the atmosphere.

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Atmospheric pollutants and their impacts

a. smog
Smog is a type of intense air pollution that results from smoke (with sulfur dioxide) produced as a result
burning of coal mixing with fog.
Smog is a problem in a number of cities and continues to harm human health. Major cities experience smog
today which is caused by various causes which may include the following:
 Forest fires. Uncontrolled burning of forests produces smoke which reduces the quality of air. In
cities, this smoke reacts with other pollutants to create a cloud that reduces visibility and also affects
breathing system.
 Vehicle emissions.
 Industrial emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
These are organic chemicals that easily enter the surrounding air e.g. from petrol, paints and
cleaning products. They react in presence of sunlight creating ground level ozone which is very
harmful to humans.
 Coal emissions
 Photochemical reactions between sunlight, nitrogen oxides (from industries) and VOCs.
This can be harmful to human health when it accumulates due to temperature inversion.
 Temperature inversions is a weather condition when the air temperature increases with altitude,
rather than decreasing This occurs when the air next to the surface is colder than the air above which
traps the colder, dense air in place and prevents it from blowing away and dispersing.

Impact of smog

Has a significant impact in human health. The most common effects are:

 Increased risk of heart attack

 Burning of eyes and throat
 Shortness of breath, wheezing and coughing
 Chest pain when inhaling
 Asthma attack
 Risk of respiratory diseases ( COPDs)
 Pulmonary inflammation

The effects of smog will vary depending on:

 The length of time the smog lasts

 The level of pollution
 Groups of people e.g. children and adults who are active outdoors, people with breathing diseases like
asthma and the elderly.

Major cities monitor air quality levels. They issue masks and in extreme cases close schools.

b. acid rain

When atmospheric water mixes with sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, they are converted into sulfuric and nitric
acid respectively which then falls as rain.

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With prevailing winds, the acid rain falls in faraway place from the source of the pollution.

 Dry
sulfur and nitrogen oxides cause damage to buildings when they corrode metal and paint.
 Acid rain corrodes stone.

When dry sulfur and nitrogen oxide combine with water vapor, wet deposits of the acid cause a significant damage
to environment such as:

a. Acidification of water bodies. Acidic rain carries aluminum which damages ecosystems by harming most
sensitive species and harming food chains. Aquatic plants and fish populations are significantly affected.
b. Effect on fish population: Fish eggs will not hatch and increased acidity kills adult fish or their source of
food.
c. Damage to crop and vegetation: Forests can be destroyed when the acid water destroys soil nutrients
and damages leaves. This leads to loss of leaves and needles. This lowers agricultural productivity by
reducing the types of crop that can grow.

c. Ozone layer depletion (found in the Stratosphere)

This layer shields the earth from harmful UVB rays.
Ozone layer is highly reactive and is constantly being formed and broken. It reacts and is broken by
chemicals such as chlorine. I atom of chlorine can break down more than 1000 000 ozone molecules.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) chemicals are the major cause of ozone depletion. They are commonly found
in aerosol cans and refrigerators.
High in the atmosphere, the CFCs react with sunlight and form chlorine which destroys the ozone layer.
Impacts of ozone layer depletion
1. Increase in the number of skin cancer cases in regions where ozone layer has been depleted.
2. Increase in the reported cases of cataracts in the eye( clouding of the lens)
3. Damage to plant tissues and reduction in plant growth

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 4. Damage to ecosystems and food webs due to change in insect behavior

Enhanced greenhouse effect (Climate change)

This is created by addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere through human activities
such as burning of fossil fuels and intensive agricultural activities. More heat retained in the
atmosphere. This increases the temperature of the Earth’s surface, leading to global warming
and climate change.

Greenhouse gas Human activities that increase their abundance

Carbon dioxide Burning of fossil fuels
Deforestation
Methane Cattle and rise production
Coal mine ventilation
Deforestation
Decomposition of wastes (landfill sites)
CFCs Aerosols sprays
Fire extinguishers
Refrigeration
Air conditioning
Nitrogen oxides Vehicle exhausts
Chemical fertilizers

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Tropospheric ozone Chemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides and unburnt fuel vapors.
Water vapor Large scale irrigation of fields

Impact of enhanced greenhouse effect (Climate change)

The effects that can be predicted include;

• Melting of ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost cause a rise in sea-levels;

• Damage to low-lying countries from flooding;

• Forced migration as people lose their homes and farmland from rising sea levels;

• Loss of biodiversity, habitat or extinction if animals and plants can’t adapt;

• Increased droughts could lead to desertification and famine; Sea-level rise leads to the loss of
coastal land and increased erosion.

Managing atmospheric pollution

It is vital that individuals, government and the international community act to reduce the
impact of pollution.

There are a vast range of strategies that can be used to reduce the effects of atmospheric
pollution. These include:

1. Reduction of carbon footprint.

Carbon footprint refers to a measure of the impact of our activities on the environment.
This can be reduced through:
a. Using public transport
b. Flying less
c. Using less energy and switching sources
d. Driving less, walking more
e. Repairing not replacing, reducing waste, reusing materials and recycling
2. Reduced use of fossil fuels: Low sulfur coal can be used; Increased use of renewable energy.
3. Energy efficiency: Using of more energy efficient appliances.
4. Carbon capture and storage: Waste carbon dioxide from power stations can be
transported via pipelines to storage sites.
5. Transport policies: Creation of cycle lanes, bus lanes, metro systems and trams; Electric or
hybrid cars can be encouraged; Biofuels can be used; Vehicles can be banned from certain

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 parts of city to be used by pedestrians; Public transport (Mass rapid transit) and residential
parking can be made free.
6. International agreement and policies: Most countries that face the brunt of climate
change as a result of pollution are the LEDc which are not responsible for the main source of
pollution. There is need for international agreements such as one passed in Paris (Paris
Agreement) where 177 countries had committed to the following:
a. Limit the global temperature increase to below 2°C above pre-industrial era.
b. Increase global adaptation to a changing climate and to lower greenhouse gas emission.
c. Finance low greenhouse gas development
d. Cap greenhouse gas emission as soon as possible
7. CFC replacement: in 1989, international agreement was reached in Montreal called
Montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
can be used instead of CFCs. There is need for safe disposal of items containing CFCs.
8. Taxation: Higher road tax to decrease car ownership.
9. Catalytic converters: Catalytic converters in vehicles reduce carbon monoxide and nitrogen
oxide emissions. They also convert nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide
and nitrogen.
10. Flue-gas desulfurisation: Scrubbers can be used to remove 95% of sulfur dioxide
emissions; Lining chimneys with lime also reduce the emissions. Low-sulfur vehicle fuels can
also be used.
11. Reforestation: This refers to replanting an area with trees and afforestation refers ton
planting of trees in a barren land.

Section 3: Agriculture and environment

Soil composition
Soil is the outer, loose layer that is found just below the surface of the Earth. It is a medium in
which plants grow. It is a mixture of the following:
a. Mineral particles: They are formed due to physical, chemical and biological weathering of
the parent rock and erosion of rocks which are slowly broken down into smaller particles of
different sizes.
b. Organic content: this is a mixture of living plants, animals, microorganisms and their
decaying remains (humus)
c. Air: held within the pore spaces (between the mineral particles and organic content). Air
enters the soil by diffusion. This is rich in CO2 and poor in O2.
d. Water: held within the pore spaces (water that is available for plant growth). Water enters
the soil when there’s precipitation or when the soil is irrigated.
Proportion of various components of the soil is shown in the pie chart below.

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The proportion of these components depends on:
a. Type of soil;
b. Way it has been managed;
c. Local climatic conditions;
d. Size of the mineral particles. Soil can be classified into three groups based on
type, size and texture:
i. SAND has particle size between 0.05-2 mm. It’s called light soil because water
drains easily and warms up more quickly than clay clay-based soils. They tend to
dry out quickly and become acidic and infertile as plant nutrients are washed
out by rain water
ii. SILT has particle size between 0.002-0.05mm. They are fairly well drained
compared to clay soils. They tend to hold more moisture compared to sandy
soil.
iii. CLAY has particle size of less than 0.002 mm: Sticky when wet; Hard and cracky
when dried. Also know as heavy soil since it holds high proportion of water due
to the capillary attraction of the tiny spaces between its small particles. It takes
longer to warm up in spring than silt or sandy soil.
iv. Soil without a dominant particle size and contains a mixture of clay, silt and
sand is known as LOAM. They are often considered the ideal medium for
growing plants because they avoid the extremes of clay and sand. They are well
drained, fertile and easily cultivated.

Soil for plant growth

Soil is the cheapest and most abundant medium in which water; mineral nutrients,
anchorage and oxygen can be supplied to plant.
Plants require a number of minerals from the soil for healthy growth. These minerals
are: Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium.
Mineral ion Mineral element Use to plants
Nitrate NO3¯ Nitrogen (N) Combines with glucose to form amino
acids which make proteins needed for
plant growth

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 Phosphate Phosphorus (P) Component of DNA, cell membranes.
PO4³¯ Required for growth and respiration
Potassium Potassium (K) Needed by enzymes in photosynthesis
K+ and respiration
Magnesium Magnesium (Mg) Used for manufacture of chlorophyll.
(Mg²⁺)

Organic matter in soil is also important natural source of plant nutrients.

Different organisms break down organic matter. These include: bacteria, fungi and worms.
Importance of soil organic matter
1. Acts as a reservoir of nutrients, constantly being released into the soil and absorbed by
plants.
2. It improves the water-holding capacity of soil. This is released to the plant evenly
throughout the year.
3. It clumps soil into aggregates that improve soil structure. This allows soil to take up and
hold water better. This improves water permeability.
4. Prevents soil erosion. This is due to its ability to improve water holding capacity which
prevents the soil from drying up and becoming vulnerable to wind erosion.
Soil pH
This is the measure of how acid or alkaline the soil is. It affects the rate at which plants can
absorb nutrients from mineral ions and organic matter dissolved in the soil.
 Soils with pH value of below 7 are considered acidic
 pH values above 7 are alkaline and
 readings of around 7 are considered neutral
If the soil is too acidic or too alkaline some nutrients will not dissolve easily and therefore will
not be available for plant uptake hence suffering from nutrient deficiency.
pH of between 6 and 7.5 is optimal for plant growth since nutrients will easily dissolve in it.
In too acidic soil nutrients such as phosphorus, magnesium, calcium will not dissolve hence
increasing their concentration to toxic levels
In too alkaline soils, nutrients such as iron, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, copper and boron will
not dissolve and therefore unavailable for plant use.
Forests with thick litter layers of decaying organic matter naturally tend to have more acidic soil
than in deserts with little rainfall and decaying organic matter.
How to change the pH of acidic soils
By liming which refers to adding ground limestone or calcium carbonate with magnesium? This
will raise the soil pH levels of acidic soil to more neutral levels.
How to change the pH of alkaline soils
By adding large quantities of organic matter such as natural manure from compost and sulfur.
This lowers the soil pH to more neutral levels.

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Differences between sandy and clay soils
Soil Properties Advantages Disadvantages
type
Sandy  Large and fine  Roots are able to move  Drain water rapidly
particles ( Granular through the soil easily hence drying up quickly
texture)  Soil rarely become water  Easily become acidic and
 High air content logged in heavy rains infertile due to leaching
 Easy to plough of calcium
 Warm up quickly in spring
Clay  Smallest particle  Takes much longer to  Compact and difficult for
size compared to drain water plant roots to spread
any soil (smooth  Very fertile since high through.
texture) concentration of nutrients  Thicker and heavier soil
get trapped between that is difficult to
their fine particles cultivate
 Takes longer to warm up
in spring
 Poor water drainage
(easily become water
logged and heavily
compact)
 Dry up , contract , harden
and cracked in dry spell

How to improve sandy and clay soils for cultivation

Sandy soils
Adding organic matter e.g. compost, manure, leaf or some clay. This increases:
 Nutrient holding capacity
 pH levels
 water holding capacity and soil structure
Clay soils
This soil can be improved by:
 Adding bulk organic matter which combine the fine particles into large separate clumps
 Clumps creation also reduces compaction, improves drainage and make soil warmer
and easier to plough
Agricultural types

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 Agriculture or farming refers to the cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and the
rearing of animals.
There are two types of Agriculture:
(a) Subsistence agriculture: this is a self-sufficiency farming in which farmers concentrate
on growing and rearing enough food to feed themselves and their families with a little
surplus generated occasionally. Subsistence farms are found in Asian and Africa where
majority of the people are undernourished and living in absolute poverty.
In subsistence farming, most farmers practice slash and burn where they clear cut
forests and scrub to create fields for crops and graze small number of animals. Ash
provides initial fertility but is easily leached by rain water leading to the clearing being
abandoned and new areas of forest being burned and cleared.
This is unsustainable form of Agriculture. It is very damaging to forest ecosystems.
(b) Commercial farming: this is growing crops or rearing animals for sell at market in order
to earn a profit. Almost all farming in MEDCS is commercial.
Commercial farms may be:
 Arable: the production of food, fodder and industrial crops
 Pastoral: rearing animals for meat and/ or animal products such as wool
 Mixed: both arable and pastoral
In commercial farming, operations are often intensive and farmer invests large capital
and technology to achieve high yields or outputs.
Most modern machines and technologies e.g.
i. GIS systems when planting and feeding crops
ii. Computer-operated milking parlours that prepare feeds for cows while milk
output is collected and registered.
Increasing Agricultural Yields
Agricultural yield has risen steadily during the course of human history. This is due to:
a. Bringing new land under cultivation
b. Applying greater levels of science and technology to existing farms so that more can
be produced from the same area of land.
The techniques used to improve yield include:
a. Rotation: This refers to regular changing the crop that grows in a particular place on
a farm according to an agreed sequence e.g. if rice has been grown one year, this
might be substituted with maize the next year, peas and beans the next year and
potatoes the fourth year. In the fifth year, the field may be used again for rice.

Advantages of crop rotation

i. A crop that draws upon one kind of nutrient is followed in the growing
season by a crop that draws mostly on another range of nutrients or one
that returns the depleted nutrients to the soil through nitrogen fixation e.g.
legumes.
ii. Leguminous crops in the rotation often used as fodder cop on which
livestock can graze. This adds animal manure into the soil.

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 iii. It helps to control buildup of bacteria, fungus and parasites that might cause
plant disease or insect pest that might feed upon them
iv. Saves the farmer money because they will need to use fewer chemical
pesticides
v. Alternating deep-rooted with shallow-rooted crops will help to improve soil
structure.
b. Use of fertilizers
A fertilizer is any natural or synthetic substance that is added to the soil to supply
one or more nutrients removed by growing crops. Harvesting or removal of a plant
from the soil breaks the nutrient cycle since decomposition is not allowed to take
place. This exhausts the soil mineral ion content, particularly nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium (Primary nutrients).
Disadvantages of overuse of synthetic and natural fertilizers
1. Eutrophication: when excess fertilizers are washed into the rivers and lakes by
rain water. High concentration of nitrates and phosphates causes algal blooms
which cover the surface of water entirely preventing sunlight from reaching
water plants. Plants die, are broken down through aerobic respiration by
bacteria leading to lack of oxygen (water becomes anoxic). Aquatic animals such
as fish and other creatures die leaving water bodies devoid of life.
Overuse of fertilizers particularly nitrogen causes soil acidification.
c. Irrigation: This refers to artificial supply of water to agricultural land. It is used by
both subsistence and commercial farmers.
Irrigation is practiced by farmers because they need more water for their crops and
livestock than is available from rainfall.
Advantage of irrigation: enables a farmer to control the amount of water taken by
plants and when. This increases the crop yield.
Types of irrigation
i. Surface irrigation (Flood irrigation):
Is the most common but least effective method
Involves covering the entire cultivated area with water
Used in Rice fields (rice paddies) and water movement is controlled by mud dikes
and narrow channels.
ii. Localized irrigation:
It is highly efficient because small drops of water are delivered to the roots of each
plant through a network of narrow pipes located above of just below the soil
surface. This minimizes water loss through evaporation.
iii. Sprinkler irrigation: it seeks to imitate natural rainfall. Water is piped
through a hose to the central location where it is then distributed over the
field in a fine spray from overhead high pressure sprinklers mounted on
wheels for easy movement around the field. Sprinklers then rotate slowly,
which avoids an area from becoming waterlogged.
iv. Seepage or sub irrigation: This system provides the plant with water from
beneath the soil. Only suitable in areas where the water table is close to the

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 surface e.g. in Florida (USA). There is need for pumping stations, canals and
weirs to raise water table enough to dampen plant roots from below.
Advantage: less wasteful of water than surface and sprinkler irrigation
system due to very less evaporation
Disadvantage: careful management to avoid water logging of soil. If soil is
waterlogged, there will be less or no air in soil which will kill the crops and
also causes salinization of water (build up dissolved salts of sodium,
magnesium and calcium in soil).
v. In-ground irrigation: Involves burying the entire irrigation system of pipes,
sprinklers, drippers and valves underground.
Disadvantages: costly to set up and maintain and therefore confined to
servicing individual properties and streets in residential areas.
d. Insect control (Controlling pests and diseases)
If crops are attacked by pests and diseases agricultural yield will fall. Invasive weeds
also offer uneven competition for resource with main crop plant reducing the yield.
Farmers in commercial farms spray their crops with synthetic chemicals (pesticides)
to control specific weeds, insects or pathogens.
There are three types of pesticides:
 Fungicides: Chemicals used to kill fungi that attack plants.
 Herbicides: chemical sprays used against weeds which absorb the toxin
through their roots or leaves. Most of them are selective (act on specific
species of weeds leaving the farmer’s crops unharmed e.g. glyphosate
sprayed on cereal crops.
 Insecticides: kill insects that attack crop plants. The most widely used
insecticides are neonicotinoids which kill sap-feeding insects such as aphids.
They are systemic which means that they are taken up by the plant either
from its roots or through its leaves.
Use of pesticides has increased agricultural yields to meet the increasing
population demand.
Ecological impacts of using pesticides
Non selective / broad spectrum pesticides can cause considerable
environmental damage since they not only target weeds or insects. They
also target harmless and potentially useful non-pest species.
1. Breaks the food chains by killing important insects
2. Systemic pesticides causes bioaccumulation which refers to gradual build-up of
pesticide-spray toxins in organisms in increasing amounts up the food chain. It
particularly affects top predator animals and birds. For example a pesticide called
DDT was sprayed on potato plants in 1950.
3. Overuse of pesticides can lead to insects and weeds becoming resistant or
immune to toxin they carry.
The effects of pesticides can be reduced by the following ways done in organic
farms:
i. Use of natural predators to attack and hence controlling pests e.g. tiny
wasps to kill mealy bugs that eat cassava plant.

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 ii. Crop rotation followed by regular fallow period to avoid buildup of pest
population.
iii. Growing crops in mixed cultures rather than in monocultures.
iv. Labour intensive methods of weed and pest control can be used to avoid
use of chemicals.
v. Use of pesticides of naturally occurring substances such as pyrethrum.

e. Mechanization
Refers to the use of machines and computer based technologies as a substitute for
human labour. This makes work easier and faster. Precision agriculture which
involves use of satellite imagery and GPS guidance in combination with robotically
controlled machinery as a means of increasing agricultural yields.
f. Selective breeding of plants and animals :
A farmer only breeds certain individual animals and plants based on the desirable
features shown.
g. Genetically Modified (GM) or genetic engineering:
This involves changing the genetic structure of the cells of farm crops or animals by
swapping genes within and across species to improve yields. This is done in the
laboratory. Genes can be introduced form one plant to another, or to an animal and
from microorganisms to plant. For example, if a wild grass is discovered to have a
gene which makes it resistant to a chemical herbicide, that gene could be
introduced into the plant e.g. wheat and in future the herbicide could be sprayed on
the wheat farm without killing the wheat.
h. Controlled environments:
This involves cultivation or tending of animals in artificial environments where the
farmer has a complete control over all growing conditions e.g. water, light, heat,
availability of food and fertilizer. Examples of controlled environment:

a) Greenhouses
Hydroponics: this involves immersing plant roots only in a water solution of
minerals and nutrients within a greenhouse. This enables a farmer to isolate
growing plants from outside pests, diseases and weeds.

Impacts of Agriculture
1. Overproduction and waste: more food is often produced than consumers require. The
UN estimates that as much as one third of all the food produced in the world each year
is never consumed by people.
2. Describe the effect of overuse of pesticides as discussed above
3. Describe the effect of overuse of fertilizers as discussed above

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 4. Cash crops replacing food crops: cash crop farming has had many attractions especially
in LEDCs. A cash crop farmer will have cash to buy food locally, employ relatives and pay
for family expenses. This makes subsistence farmers change to cash crop farming.
Effects of changing form subsistence farming to cash crop
farming to the farmer, local community and the environment.
a. Farmers have little power to set the price for their cash crops
b. Farmers are vulnerable to changes in demand for cash crops in MEDCs.
c. If cash income drops, farmers may not be able to buy enough food from other sources
and their families may suffer from malnutrition
d. Because small plots of land are not reliable for cash crop production, many farmers will
allow their land to be absorbed into large estates or plantations hence will not have
power to control what they produce and where they live.
5. This will lead to converting the land to monoculture which can have serious ecosystem
impacts.
6. Mismanagement of irrigation causing salination and water logging
7. Soil erosion due to over cultivation and overgrazing of the land.

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