CT - 1

Chemistry
Handy Handout

Chapter 1 and Chapter 14

 1.1 - SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES

solids liquids gases

definite definite no definite

what is volume
volume volume volume
matter?
definite takes shape of no definite
anything that has mass shape
shape container shape
and occupies space
three states : solids,
can be
liquids, and gases
cannot be compressed can be
compressibility
compressed to a certain compressed
extent

compressible substances means that their volume can be reduced by

application of pressure
affect of temperature
expansion : solids increase in size when
heated
contraction : solids decrease in size when
cooled
liquid's volume is slightly affected by
changes in temp
volumes of gases are greatly affected by
changes in temp (topic 1.4)
 solids liquids gases

closely packed less closely packed

loosely packed
intermolecular intermolecular
intermolecular
distance is minimum distance is
arrangment distance is maximum
regular manner moderate
no fixed shape and
fixed shape and no fixed shape,
volume
volume fixed volume

kinetuc energy minimum moderate maximum

force of attraction maximum moderate minimum (none)

vibrate at fixed slide past each

movement random movement
point other

collide with each

collissions always touching collide very often other and walls of
container
1.3 - CHANGES OF STATE
 change of what to
conversion information example energy
what
state
for change of state, solid to converting solid to melting of ice
sufficient amount of melting endothermic
liquid a liquid cream
energy is required to
overcome forces of
boiling/ liquid to converting liquid to boiling water till
attraction endothermic
vaporization gas gas it's steam
different substances
have different forces of
attraction gas to gas to solid without formation of
deposition exothermic
thus, conversion points solid becoming a liquid frost
for each substance
differs freezing/ liquid to converting liquid to
formation of ice exothermic
conversion goes like this: solidification solid solid
heat energy is supplied
kinetic energy of converting solid to frozen food
particles increase solid to
sublimation gas without sublime and endothermic
particles get sufficient gas
becoming a liquid form crystals
energy to overcome
forces of attraction
condensing of
change of state takes gas to converting gas to
condensation vapour inside a exothermic
place liquid liquid
rice cooker
boiling point melting point
the temperature at the temperature at
which the particles which the regular
are trying to escape pattern of the solid
so quickly that structure breaks
bubbles of gas start down and particles
to form inside the clan flow past each
liquid other
aka, the point at aka, the point at
which the liquid which solid melts to
begins to boil liquid
short form is b.p. short form is m.t.
exothermic endothermic
a reaction that a reaction in which
the system absorbs
releases energy
energy from its
from the system
surroundings in the
in the form of form of heat.
heat.
for e.g: melting ice
for e.g: lighting cubes requires
a stove heat energy from
the surroundings.
 boiling evaporation
is the change of is the change from liquid
state from liquid to gas at any temperature
to gas at a fixed below its boiling point.
temperature.
it is a surface phenomenon
heating a liquid to
form steam heating a liquid to form
steam
 1.4 - EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
AND PRESSURE ON VOLUME OF GAS
increasing the volume, decreases the pressure of a gas
increasing the temperature in a set volume, increases the pressure of a
gas
increasing the number of molecules in a set volume, increases the
pressure of a gas

there are two laws regarding their relationships :

charles' law
boyle's law
 boyle's law
pressure and volume are inversely proportional
decreasing the volume of a gas increases the pressure
an example of this is when a gas is trapped in a cylinder
by a piston. if the piston is pushed in, the gas particles
will have less room to move as the volume the gas
occupies has been decreased. this means particles
collide more frequently and pressure exerted will
increase.
charles' law
temperature and volume are directly
proportional for a constant pressure
this is because as temperature increases,
kinetic energy increases and particles move
rapidly, causing them to spread out
vice versa for if temperature decreases. then,
shrinkage takes place.
 heating curve cooling curve

changes of state occur during plateaus because the temperature is constant. here the melting, boiling,
condensation and freezing point can be determined.

the change of state behaviour of all substances can be represented with a heating or cool curve of this type.
1.2 - THE KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY
OF MATTER
what is kinetic particle theory?
explains the way matter behaves, and states that :
all matter is made up of tiny moving particles - atoms, molecules or
ions.
particles in matter are constantly vibrating/moving.
movement of particles is affected by temperature. higher the
temperature, faster the particles move.
heavier particles move slower than lighter particles at a given
temperature.
can be used as a scientific model to explain how arrangement relates to
properties
 1.5 DIFFUSION
the intermixing of particles from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration.
the process by which particles move freely to fill any available space in a
random way
diffusion is maximum in gaseous state because in gaseous state, maximum
free space is available.
diffusion is minimum in solids cause distance between molecules is
minimal.
 factors affecting rate of diffusion
affect on rate
factor explanation example
of diffusion

if the temperature of substance

directly increases so does its rate of diffusion a sugar lump dissolves faster in
temperature
proportional as its particles gain kinetic energy to hot water than in cold water.
break forces of attraction.

on comparing hydrogen,
oxygen, and carbon dioxide,
if the molecular mass increases so
we get to know that rate of
does density, however the rate of
molecular inversely diffusion is maximum in
diffusion slows as denser particles
mass/density proportional hydrogen gas because its
difficult to penetrate through other
molecular mass is minimum
particles
followed by carbon dioxide
and oxygen gas.
alternative to practical
this experiment
indicates the rate of
diffusion of hcl and
ammonia gas
the reaction takes place
closer to hcl gas
this means that hcl
particles diffuse slower
while ammonia particles
diffuse faster
universal indicator
paper at the bottom
affirms this
hcl is acidic and
ammonia is basic
 diffusion in liquids
diffusion is much slower in liquids than in gases because particles move slower
intimate mixing : diffusion taking place between liquid and gas
sufficient space between the particles of one substance for the particles of the other
substance to move into
introduction > diffusion > equilibrium
solids and gases dissolve in liquid
examples include spreading of the purple colour of potassium permanganate or
dissolved oxygen.
 14.1 - APPARATUS FOR MEASUREMENT
measuring
quantity si unit strength note
equipment used

stop watch, stop use mins and hrs for slower

time seconds correct to one dp
clock reactions like rusting

traditional more
alcohol-in-glass, 0 degree celsius = 273
accurate and
temperature mercury-in-glass, and kelvin kelvin. celsius is commonly
digital more
digital thermometer used
precise.

for smaller mases use

mass digital balance kg correct to 2dp grams, milligrams and
micrograms
 volume of liquids
for rough or approximate values use measuring cylinder, conical flask, beaker, etc
for accurate measurements use burette and pipette
s.i. unit is meter cube
other units include centimetre cube, litres, millilitres, etc
1 m cube = 1000 litres
1 dm cube = 1 litre = 1000 ml
1 cm cube = 0.001 litre = 1 ml

measuring cylinder pipette burette

approximate used with suction most accurate way of
value bulb or pipette measuring variable
graduated - have filler volume of liquid
a scale most accurate way between 0-50 cm cube
available in of measuring fixed used for filtration
different lengths volume of liquid measurement
 volume of gases
first you have to collect gas
collection depends on solubility and density
if gas is insoluble, use displacement of water (carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen)
if gas is soluble, use upward delivery or downward
delivery
upward delivery for gases that are lighter than air
downward delivery for gases that are denser than air
to measure use gas syringe after collection
 volume of gases

downward delivery upward delivery

gas is denser than air gas is lighter than air
 volume of gases
insoluble gases
displacement of water
gas is insoluble and thus
bubbles through water
rises to top of measuring
cylinder and value of volume
can be read

gas syringe
used to measure volume of gas
 solubility and density of gases
gas solubility in water density compared to air

ammonia highly soluble less dense

carbon dioxide slightly soluble denser

chlorine soluble denser

hydrogen insoluble less dense

hydrogen chloride highly soluble denser

oxygen slightly soluble slightly denser

sulfur dioxide highly solube denser

 apparatus
name picture used for

stopper hold, mix or heat small

test tube quantities of liquid or solid
chemicals

for magnetic attraction

magnet experiments that involve
metals and non metals
 name picture used for

beaker volume of liquids only

conical flask volume of liquids only

round bottom flask volume of liquids only

 name picture used for

measuring cylinder volume

measuring solids, moving

spatula objects and scraping
material out of beakers

evaporating basin evaporating liquid

 name picture used for

stirring and checking for

glass rod
saturation

filtering a solute for a solvent

funnel with the help of filter paper
leaving solid residue behind

bunsen burner heating

 name picture used for

wire gauze flame shield

as a platform to hold and

tripod stand
support glassware

used to support a crucible

clay triangle while its getting heated
above the bunsen burner
 name picture used for

used to crush and blend

penstel + mortar
substances together

transfer small quantities of

dropper
liquids

allow compounds to be
heated to very high
crucible
temperatures : metals
especially
name picture used for

measuring fixed volume of

pipette
liquid

clamp
measuring variable volume of
burette
liquid between 0-50 cm cube

use to grip something

tongs
and lift it
 14.2 - SEPARATING MIXTURES
separation methods used depend on
what is in the mixture
properties of the substances present
whether it is a solid, liquid or gas

what is a mixture?
two or more substances mixed together in indefinite
proportions.
the substances are not chemically bonded
each substance maintains its individual property
can be separate by simple physical means.
filtration (solid/liquid)
used to separate an insoluble substance from a
solution
examples include calcium carbonate, barium
sulfate, sand and water, etc
a solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute
(liquid)
a solute is a substance dissolved in a solvent
(solid)
a solution is a liquid mixture composed of two or
more substances.
a residue is a substance that remains after
filtration in the filter paper.
filtrate is the liquid or solution that has passed
through the filter.
evaporation (solid/liquid)
soluble solute is separated from
solution
happens to dryness
liquid evaporates, solid is left
behind
examples include sodium chloride
from sodium chloride solution,
copper sulfate from copper sulfate
solution, etc
crystallisation (solid/liquid)
used to separate pure salt from the
soluble saturated salt solution
also used to separate thermally unstable
salt from its solution.
procedure-
salt solution is heated to make a
saturated solution.
a saturated solution is a solution
containing maximum concentration of
solute dissolved in the solvent at a
specified temperature.
then stop heating, and allow the solution
to cool without any disturbance.
pure crystals are formed in the solutions.
it can be separated by filtration.
it is dried by using filter paper.
 sublimation
done if one substance is
sublimable (goes from solid to
gas on heating)
sublimable substance from
non-sublimable substance
one such sublimable
substance is ammonium
chloride
simple distillation (solid/liquid)

used to separate a solvent

from a soluble salt solution
water inlet is at the bottom
of the condenser to provide
larger surface area for
vapour to cool.
e.g., we can separate water
from salt solution by simple
distillation.
immiscibility is the property where two substances
are not capable of combining to form a
homogeneous mixture. the components are said to be
"immiscible"
in contrast, fluids that do mix together are called
"miscible"
components of an immiscible mixture will separate
from each other
fractional distillation is used for miscible liquids
 fractional distillation
(liquid/liquid)
used to separate different miscible
liquid components in the mixture.
e.g : used to separate different
components of air, and fractions of
glass beads
crude oil and petroleum.

1. distillation of air-
air is cooled into a liquid
heated where it is fractionally boiled
and thus separated.
will result in oxygen, nitrogen gas.

2. distillation of crude oil

contains various components which
can be separated like petrol, diesal,
and natural gas.
 separating funnel
(liquid/liquid)
used to separate immiscible
liquids
examples include oil and
water
 diffusion (gas/gas)
used to separate different
components of a gaseous
mixture.
can be separated by a sieve
with suitable pore size.
is based on size of the
molecules
e.g., h2 molecules smaller in
blue particles- co2
red particles- o2 size compared to o2 so
move to second chamber
from first.
 other separation techniques

method description

using wind to allow lighter particles to fly away

winnowing
for sold/solid mixtures

use different sieves to seperate particles based on size

sieving
for solid/solid mixtures and solid/liquid mixture

solid particles can be separated from mixture ny pouring off liquid

decantation
for solid/liquid mixtures

suspended insoluble solid is separated from a liquid

centrifugation
used when particles are small enough to pass through filter paper
 pure substance
a substance which contains only one
type of particle
elements or compounds as general
example
measure of whether is substance is
pure is known as purity
important in food and beverage
industry and pharmaceutical industry
sharp melting point
fixed boiling point
produces one dot on chromatogram
impure substance
a substance which contains more
than one type of particle
mixtures as general example
air is an impure substance as it
consists of multiple gases such as
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
etc.
substance melts and boils over
range of temperatures
melting point lowers
boiling point rises
 chromatography
used to separate different components based on their differences
in solubility in solvent
component which has the most solubility in solvent will move the
farthest distance
separate dyes in ink, pigments in plants, and amino acids
shows how many different components there are
retention factor (rf value) helps you identify the component as
property of solubility is consistent
rf value is always less than 1
rf value = distance substance travel / distance solvent travel
use locating agent ninhydrin for colourless substances
thus, purity of the sample can be known
 CT-1 COMPLETE
references
chemistry textbook
toppers notes
chemistry notebook
bbc website
snehal and anwita brain