Wind Loads:

NSCP 2015 Section 207

TOWERS & OTHER VERTICAL

STRUCTURES
CIVST 0424-1
Engr. RAMON C. RAMON, MESE
Important Terms
MAIN WIND FORCE RESISTING SYSTEM (MWFRS):
An assemblage of structural elements assigned to
provide support and stability for the overall building or
other structure. The system generally receives wind
loading from more than one surface.
 Important Terms
COMPONENTS AND CLADDING (C&C): Elements of the
building envelope or elements of building appurtenances
and rooftop structures and equipment that do not qualify as
part of the MWFRS.
 Important Terms
MEAN ROOF HEIGHT, h: The
average of the roof eave height
and the height to the highest point
on the roof surface, except that,
for roof angles less than or equal
to 10°, the mean roof height is
permitted to be taken as the roof
eave height
Important Terms
Important Terms
 Permitted Procedures

 Directional Procedure for Buildings of All Heights

 (Section 207B)
 Envelope Procedure for Low Rise Buildings
 (Section 207C)
 Directional Procedure for Building Appurtenances and Other
Structures
 (Section 207D)
 Analytical Procedure for Buildings and Building Appurtenances
 (Section 207E)
 Wind Tunnel Procedure for All Buildings and Other Structures
 (Section 207F)
Limitations
 Site and locations with channeling or wake
effects (high pressures, turbulence)
 Buildings with irregular or unusual geometric
shapes
 Buildings with response characteristics that
result in substantial dynamic effects:
a) H > 120 meters
b) H > 5Bmin
c) The lowest natural frequency n1=0.25 Hz
Limitations
 Buildings with response characteristics that
result in substantial dynamic effects:
d) The reduced velocity, Vz/n1Bmin > 5
 Bridges, Cranes, Electrical Transmission
Lines, Guyed Masts, Highway Signs, Lighting
Structures, Telecommunication Towers and
Flagpoles.
*Provisions under the code may be inadequate
and may require other approved standards.
Velocity Pressure, q

qz = 0.613 KzKzt KdV2 (N/m2)

 V = Basic wind speed in mph
 Kz = Exposure Coefficient
 Kzt = Topographical Factor
 Kd = Wind Directionality Factor
 qz = Velocity Pressure
Basic Wind Speed (V)
*Using Wind Hazard Maps (dlubal.com)
 For Occupancy Category III, IV and V
Buildings and other Structure
 (Use Figure 207A.5-1A)
 For Occupancy Category II Buildings and
other Structure
 (Use Figure 207A.5-1B)
 For Occupancy Category I Buildings and
other Structure
 (Use Figure 207A.5-1C)
Exposure Requirements
 Wind Direction & Sectors (Section 207A.7.4)
 the exposure of the building or structure shall be determined
for the two upwind sectors extending 45o either side of the
selected wind direction.
 the exposure resulting in the highest wind loads shall be
used to represent the winds from that direction.
Surface Roughness Categories

 Surface Roughness B
 Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, areas
with many closely spaced obstructions such as
family dwellings or larger.
 Surface Roughness C
 Open terrain with scatter obstructions having
heights generally less than 9m. Areas that are
generally flat open country.
 Surface Roughness D
 Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces
outside. This category includes smooth mud flats,
salt flats, and unbroken ice.
Surface Roughness Categories
Exposure Categories
Exposure Categories
Exposure Categories
Kz & Kh Computation

2/a
K z = 2.01(z/zg)
When z > 4.57< zg use z
When z < 4.57 use z =
4.57 m
Velocity Pressure Exposure
Coefficients, Kz and Kh
 Directionality Factor, Kd
 This factor shall only
be applied when
used in conjunction
with load
combinations
specified in Sections
203.3 and 203.4.
 The wind load factors
changed when the
directionality factor
was extracted.
 Topographical Factor, Kzt
 Kzt = 1.0 when:
 The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and
unobstructed upwind by other similar topographic
features of comparable height for 100 times the
height of the topographic feature (100H) or 2 mi
(3.22 km), whichever is less. This distance shall be
measured horizontally from the point at which the
height H of the hill, ridge, or escarpment is
determined.
 The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the
height of upwind terrain features within a 2-mi
(3.22-km) radius in any quadrant by a factor of two
or more.
 The structure is located as shown in Fig. 26.8-1 in
the upper one-half of a hill or ridge or near the
crest of an escarpment.

 H/Lh < 0.2, or

 H < 4.5m for Exposures C & D, or
H < 18m for Exposure B.
 Kzt = (1+K1K2K3)2
 Kzt
Constants
Kzt Multipliers by Equation
Sample Problem
Assume x = 10m from the top on the windup side
Top = 409 m
Bottom = 47 m
H = 409 – 47 =362 m
H/2 = 352/2 = 181 m
LH = dist of top – dist of mid height = 1200 – 623 m = 577 m
H/ LH = 362/577 = 0.63 > 0.2 ok!
K1 = 0.75(0.63) = 0.473
K2 = [1-(10/1.5(577)] = 0.988
K3 = e-1.5 (409) / 577 = 0.345

Kzt = [1 + (0.473*0.988*0.345)] 2 = 1.35

Design Wind Forces

 The basic form of the horizontal wind force equation is given by:

F = qz G Cf Af (N)
 Where
 F = a wind force on a surface
 qz = velocity pressure at level z. This is the pressure due to
a moving fluid on a flat plate
 G = gust factor. The gust factor accounts for dynamic
interaction between the flowing air and the structure
 Cf = pressure coefficient. The pressure coefficient accounts
for varying pressure across a surface.
 Af = projected area normal to the wind
Force Coefficient (Cf)
 The formula of Force coefficients is for trussed
towers having structural angles or similar flat sided
members including round members:
The Gust Factor, G
 Factor accounting for:
 Gustiness and turbulence
 Gust frequency
 Gust size
 Integral scale longitudinal and lateral
 Frequency of structure
 Structural damping
 Aerodynamic admittance
 Gust correlation

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Gust Factor, G
See ASCE 7-05 6.5.8

 For stiff buildings and stiff structures

 G = 0.85
 For flexible buildings and other structures
 Calculate “by a rational analysis that
incorporates the dynamic properties of the
main wind-force resisting system.”

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Enclosure Classifications
See ASCE 7-05 6.2 & 6.5.9

 A building is to be classified as one of the following:

 Open
 Ao > 0.8Ag for each wall

 Partially Enclosed
 Ao > 1.10 Aoi, and

 Ao > min[4 sqft , 0.01Ag], and

 Aoi/Agi < 0.20

 Enclosed
 A building that is neither open nor partially enclosed.

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

Location of Pressure
 ASCE 7 provides means for computing forces on
various surfaces.
 The building envelope surfaces experience pressure
on both sides (i.e. external and internal).

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Internal Pressure Coefficients, GCpi
See ASCE 7-05 6.5.11.1 & Figure 6-5

 Internal pressure is fairly easy because the air is

relatively stagnant and the shape of the structure
does not affect it’s magnitude.
 As gusting is not a concern internally, the gust factor
and the pressure coefficient are combined.
 GCpi
 The magnitude of the internal pressure coefficient is
strictly dependent on the enclosure classification.
 The pressure can be both positive or negative (i.e.
suction) depending on the direction of the wind
relative to opening for partially enclosed or enclosed
buildings.
 Both internal pressures must be considered.
A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05
Internal Pressure

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 External Pressure Coefficients, Cp
See ASCE 7-05 6.5.11.2 & Figures 6-6, 6-7, and 6-8

 As external surfaces are subject to “flowing” air, the

pressure varies considerably on the building surface
depending on structural configuration and direction of
the wind.
 Coefficients also depend on whether the resulting
forces are to be used to design/analyze:
 Main Wind-Force Resisting Systems
 Structural elements that support large areas exposed
to the wind
 Components & Cladding
 Structural elements that support small areas exposed
to the wind
A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05
 Buildings with Roofs Consisting of
Flat Surfaces
See ASCE 7-05 Figure 6-6

 ASCE 7-05 Figure 6-6 gives the external

coefficients of wall and roof surfaces.

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Buildings with Roofs Consisting of
Flat Surfaces – Wall Cp
See ASCE 7-05 Figure 6-6

 Wall pressure depends on whether the wall is

 Windward
 Same regardless of building plan dimensions
 Leeward
 Dependant on building plan dimensions
 Side
 Same regardless of building plan dimensions

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Buildings with Roofs Consisting of
Flat Surfaces – Roof Cp
See ASCE 7-05 Figure 6-6

 Dependent on direction of wind relative to

ridge
 Coefficients are given for various conditions.
Interpolation is used to find values of
conditions between those given.

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Wind Normal to Ridge
See ASCE 7-05 Figure 6-6

 Wind NORMAL to ridge

 Values given for different
building height to length
ratios and roof slope
angles.
 Windward roof surfaces
 Can be both positive

and negative on some

slopes. Both need
consideration as
separate load cases.
 Leeward roof surfaces
 All negative.

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Wind Parallel to Ridge
See ASCE 7-05 Figure 6-6

 Parallel to ridge,
flat or nearly flat
 Two different
h/L ranges,
both with
stepped
pressures.
 Interpolate
between
ranges

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Domed Roofs
See ASCE 7-05 Figure 6-7

 Pressure distributions are fairly complex.

 Two load cases to be considered.

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Arched Roofs
See ASCE 7-05 Figure 6-8

 Pressure coefficient depends on rate of rise

of the arch.
 Pressure varies by along the arch.

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

Components & Cladding
 Elements of the structure that support local
peak loads need to be designed for these
pressures.
 The magnitude of the force is dependent on
the wind area tributary to the component
 The smaller the tributary area of a component
the more likely to see relatively high pressures
on their tributary areas.

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Some Local Effects
 Wind
around a
corner

Image from FEMA Multi

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05 Hazard Seminar
Wind at a Corner

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05 Image from FEMA Multi

Hazard Seminar
Uplift on Roof
Images from FEMA Multi
Hazard Seminar

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Wall Components
See ASCE 7-05 Figure 6-11A

 For buildings
under 60 ft
 See ASCE
7-05 Figure
6-17 for
building
greater than
60 ft tall.

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

Roof Components
 Lots of different roof types with different
requirements.
 Gable Roofs of various angles
 Gable/Hip Roofs
 Stepped Roofs
 Multispan Gable Roofs
 Monoslope Roofs
 Sawtooth Roofs

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

Typical
Roof
Chart

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Finding Net Pressure
See ASCE 7-05 6.5.12

 The net pressure is the vector sum of the

internal and external pressures.
 Typical form:
p = qGCp – qi(GCpi)
 Note the sign… positive pressure externally
opposes positive pressure internally (i.e. they
act in opposite directions).

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05

 Sample Problem
 V = 120 mph
 Exposure C
 Enclosed

A Beginner's Guide to ASCE 7-05