Structure Function

CELL STRUCTURE: Label and annotate the diagrams on this sheet.

Nucleus Controls the activities of the cell. Contains chromosomes.

Cell membrane Controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell.

Cytoplasm Jelly like substance where chemical reactions take place under the control of enzymes.

Mitochondria Where energy is obtained from food by aerobic respiration.

Ribosome Where protein synthesis occurs

Cell wall Made of cellulose (strong), which strengthens the cell. Totally permeable.

Chloroplasts Contain chlorophyll (green pigment) which absorb light energy to make food by photosynthesis.

Vacuole Contains cell sap - mainly water with sugars and salt - for support and storage.
(NB. Animal cells have several small vacuoles with various functions.)

Flagella Helps bacteria to move

Plasmid Plasmids are small hoops of extra DNA that are separate from the chromosomal DNA. They contain genes that help tolerance against
drugs and can be passed from one bacteria to another.

Genetic Material Contains genetic code

Slime capsule A mucilaginous layer of slime that helps protect the bacterium from other cells. It also helps other groups of bacteria to stick together
for further protection.

How are cells organised in organisms?

Molecules 🡪 organelles 🡪 cells 🡪 tissues 🡪 organs --> organ systems 🡪 Organism

What are antigens? Why do they need to be considered when carrying out a blood transfusion?
Every cell has proteins on its surface called antigens. These help cells to communicate and identify ‘self’ from ‘non-self’. Your immune system attacks and destroys
foreign antigens. If blood from different groups is mixed there may be a reaction leading to agglutination. This clogs up capillaries or even larger vessels. In a healthy person this is not
important. However, if someone loses a lot of blood as a result of an accident, operation or liver disease, blood may need to be given from one person to another.

Explain how different specialized cells are adapted to carry out their function:
MOVEMENT BETWEEN CELLS
Diffusion
Osmosis:
Osmosis
i) What is osmosis?
Diffusion: Osmosis is the movement of water from a high concentration of
i) What is diffusion? water to a low concentration through a partially permeable
Diffusion is the spreading of the particles of any substance in solution, or membrane.
particles of a gas, resulting in a net movement from a region where they
area of a high concentration to a region with a low concentration. 2.
i) What affects the rate of diffusion? And how does it affect 3. 11. 12. ii) How does osmosis differ from diffusion?
the rate of diffusion? 7. 9.
Surface area, diffusion distance, concentration gradient
10.
i) Examples of diffusion: ii) Explain why each of the following happens in terms of the
1. 6. movement of water:
Alveolus
Small intestine (villi)

8. 4. 5.

Active Transport: Active Transport

Hypotonic – concentration of solutes is lower outside the cell
compared to the concentration inside the cell.
i) What is active transport? 1) How solutes move So water will move from a higher concentration outside the cell to
In active transport, substances move against this gradient. inside the cell by osmosis.
This process requires energy which comes from respiration. It 2) Movement of liquid water Causes lysis in animal cells and turgid in plant cells
enables cells to take in substances from a low concentration Isotonic- concentration of solutes is the same outside and inside the
to a high concentration
3) Movement of water vapour
cell. Concentration of water is the same. Animal cells normal. Plant
i) What does active transport need? 4) Requires energy cells flaccid
Hypertonic – concentration of solutes is higher outside the cell
5) Movement is against a concentration gradient compared to inside the cell.
So water will move from a higher concentration inside the cell to
6) Must take place across a membrane
outside the cell by osmosis.
ii) Give some examples of where active transport occurs 7) Describes the movement of oxygen from the alveolus into Causes animal cells to become shrivelled and plant cells to become
root hair cells : the blood plasmolysed.

8) How nitrates enter a root hair cell

9) Why potato chips swell when put into distilled water
10) Rate is affected by changes in temperature
11) Is a passive process
12) Movement of the molecules is down a concentration
gradient
 Circulation
Label this diagram of the heart:
How is the blood pumped around the body? Explain the passage of
blood on one circulation through the body:
Deoxygenated blood through vena cava into right
atrium, then into right ventricle. From right ventricle
into pulmonary artery then to lungs. Blood becomes
oxygenated, returned in the pulmonary veins to the
left atrium then pumped from the left ventricle to the
body in the aorta.
For each of the following treatments explain what heart problem it would be used to
treat and explain how it works as well as any problems or considerations with its use:
Artificial Pacemaker: Artificial pacemaker sends strong signals to your heart
that stimulate it to beat properly. May need to be
replaced.
Natural and mechanical valves – if faulty may be leaky (let blood
Natural and Mechanical Valves: through too easily, or stiff)
If mechanical valve – lasts a long time, need to take anti-coagulants.
If natural – needs to be replaced (may need immunosuppressants)
Stent:
Metal mesh placed into artery and tiny balloon inflated to open the blood vessel and stent.
Coronary artery flows freely.
Bypass surgery:
Artificial heart – carry machine in a backpack.
Artificial Heart: Machines available to everyone, but in most cases tied to hospital while attached to
artificial heart, no problem with tissue matching, usually short term solution until
transplant available, expensive,
Heart Transplant:
Need donor, often not available,
Need tissue match, further surgery usually needed, low cost of medicine, need
to take immunosuppressants
What controls the sequence of the heart beat?
Sino atrial node – resting heart rate controlled by a group of cells found in the right atrium of your heart. They
produce an electrical signal that spreads through the heart and makes it contract. The SA node gives off an electrical
impulse that causes the left and right atrium to contract.
What happens during coronary heart disease? What are the risk factors for
CHD? Fatty deposits build up within the artery wall (plaque). The flow of blood is
restricted through coronary artery. Lack of oxygen to heart muscle
High blood pressure high cholesterol smoking diabetes family history obesity
 Circulation
Explain the difference in structure and
function of the arteries, veins and capillaries:
Carry blood away from the
heart
Generally oxygenated blood
Stretch as blood is forced
through them and go back to
shape afterwards
Arteries have thick walls
containing muscle and elastic
fibres. Small lumen.
Blood in arteries under high
pressure
Huge network of tiny vessels
linking arteries and veins
Narrow with very thin walls
Enables substances produced
by your cells to pass easily
into the blood through walls
of capillaries
Carry blood from organs to
heart
Usually low in oxygen (deep
purple-red colour)
Do not have a pulse
Thinner walls than arteries,
large lumen
Have valves to prevent
backflow of blood
What causes valves to open and close?
Pressure forces them open
Describe the components of the blood and give functions of each part:
Plasma
A yellow liquid that transports all your blood cells and other substances:
• Waste carbon dioxide to be carried to lungs
• Urea carried to kidneys and removed as urine
• Food molecules
Red blood cells
• Pick up oxygen from lungs and carry to organs
• Biconcave disc shape
• Red pigment called haemoglobin to carry oxygen
• No nucleus, therefore more space to carry more haemoglobin. In lungs, there is a high concentration
of oxygen so haemoglobin reacts to form oxyhaemoglobin (bright red).
• At organs, where concentration of oxygen is low, oxyhaemoglobin splits up to form haemoglobin and
oxygen (purple-red).
White blood cells
• Fewer, much bigger and contain nucleus
• Form part of body’s defence system
Platelets
• Small fragments of cells with no nucleus
• Help blood to clot at site of wound
• Blood clotting occurs when protein fibres capture lots of red blood cells and more platelets
to form jelly-like clot.
• Stops you bleeding to death
• The clot dries and hardens to form a scab to:
• protect new skin
• stop bacteria entering the body through the wound
Describe the process of blood clotting and explain why it is beneficial:
∙ Platelets clump together at the site of a wound to form a plug and to stop blood flow
∙ The platelets release a chemical which causes the fibrinogen (blood clotting protein molecule) to form threads-like structures called
fibrin.
∙ The fibrin creates a web-like mesh which further traps platelets and red blood cells.
∙ The mesh dries and forms a scab.
∙ The scab forms a seal to protect the entry of microbes.
∙ Underneath the scab, new cells are created that enables us to heal.
∙ Eventually, the scab will fall off the initial wound and new skin tissue can be seen.
Explain how enzymes work and the
factors that affect them:
Digestion and Enzymes What do these graphs show us?

In your body, chemical reactions are controlled (and made Explain some uses of enzymes in the home
faster) by enzymes – biological catalysts
The specific 3D shape allows only ONE other molecule (a
and industry. Consider their advantages and
substrate) to fit into the enzyme protein. disadvantages:
We call this part of the enzyme its active site. biological detergents may contain proteases and lipases; proteases are used to
There is a specific enzyme for every reaction in the body. ‘pre-digest’ the protein in some baby foods; carbohydrases are used to convert starch
into sugar syrup; isomerase is used to convert glucose syrup into fructose syrup.
Enzymes catalyse reactions at low temperatures and pressures. Enzyme-based
processes are often cheap to run. Enzymes and substrate move randomly. When enzyme concentrations
One problem is they are denatured at high temperatures, and need a suitable pH. At low temperatures, movement is slow so there is less likely that a pH is a measure of H+ ions. These hydrogen ions As the concentration of are low, reaction rate is slow as
Controlling these conditions can be expensive. substrate will collide with the enzyme active sites can interfere with the hydrogen and ionic bonds substrate increases, there is an
Enzymes are also expensive to produce since it relies on growing and supplying As temperature increases, the molecules move faster and so there are less active sites for
which hold an enzyme in its specific structure. increase in the rate of reaction the substrate to fit into.
microorganisms. substrate is more likely to collide with the enzyme active site, and
so the rate of reaction increases. Also as collisions have a higher
This means that if you alter the hydrogen ion as there are more substrate Reactions rate increases as
energy it is more likely that a successful collision will occur. concentration around an enzyme, it can alter the molecules to collide with the enzyme concentration
Label the different parts of the digestive system and explain what happens at each At the optimum temperature, there is enough kinetic energy so shape of the enzyme and thus the active site. enzyme. increases as there are more
that there are frequent collisions between the enzyme active site Enzymes work in a fairly narrow pH range. There comes a point when active site available for the
part, including what enzymes are added and the substrates, and both substrate and enzyme have more If the enzyme’s shape is altered – the shape of adding more substrate does
Digestion energy so more likely that a successful collision will occur. but not the active site if changed – the enzyme is not increase the rate of
substrate molecules to fit into.
enough to break the bonds holding the enzyme in its 3D shape (no Eventually reaction rate stays
is: ‘the denaturing).
denatured. The substrate can no longer fit in the reaction, as the enzyme active the same even when enzyme
Over optimum temperature- kinetic energy so high that vibrations active site. sites are full all the time. The concentration is increased, as
chemical are so great within the enzyme that bonds holding it in its 3D shape When carrying out enzyme-controlled reactions only way to further increase the substrate becomes the
breakdown break, meaning the enzyme begins to unravel and the active site at different pH values, buffers are used (to the rate of reaction is to add limiting factor.
changes shape = denatured. maintain that particular pH). more enzymes.
of food
from Describe the how nutrients are absorbed in
the small intestine: Making Digestion efficient:
large, Glucose move from lumen (high concentration) into lower concentration in the Why is hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach?
insoluble blood. Kills bacteria & Optimum pH for pepsin enzymes
Small intestine - Folded into thousands of tiny finger-like projections (villi). Increase
molecules surface area. Each individual villus is itself covered in many microscopic microvilli. What functions does bile have?
Increases SA even more. Lining of small intestine has an excellent blood supply.
into small Steep concentration gradient is maintained all the time. Bile emulsifies fats to increase the surface area available for lipase to
As concentration of digested food molecules decreases in the lumen of your chemically digest lipids into fatty acids and glycerol molecules. Bile
soluble intestine - glucose and other dissolved food molecules are then moved from the neutralises the acid that was added to the food in the stomach,
ones that small intestine into your blood by active transport.
The digested food molecules have to move against the concentration gradient. providing the alkaline conditions necessary for the enzymes in the
can be small intestine to work at their optimum pH.
absorbed
and used Digestive Reaction that it Produced in the: Works in the: Optimum pH &
by your Enzyme catalyses: temperature
body.’
Amylase Starch 🡪 Glucose 1. Salivary glands 1. Mouth 1. 7-8, 37⁰C
2. Pancreas 2. Small Intestine 2. 7-8, 37⁰C
3. Small intestine 3. Small Intestine 3. 7-8, 37⁰C
Protease Protein 🡪 Amino 1. Stomach 1. Stomach 1. 1-2, 37⁰C
acids 2. Pancreas 2. Small intestine 2. 7-8, 37⁰C
Pancreas and salivary glands Produce digestive enzymes 3. Small intestine 3. Small intestine 3. 7-8, 37⁰C
Stomach Digests protein, contains HCl to kill bacteria
Lipase Lipids 🡪 Glycerol + 1. Pancreas 1. Small intestine 1. 7-8, 37⁰C
Liver Produces bile to emulsify lipids and neutralize stomach acid
Small intestine Digest and absorb soluble food fatty acids 2. Small intestine 2. Small intestine 2. 7-8, 37⁰C
Large intestine Absorbs water from undigested food, producing faeces
 Label the diagram of the breathing system and explain its function:
The breathing system supplies your body with vital
oxygen and removes waste carbon dioxide.
For gas exchange to work efficiently, you need a
steep concentration gradient.
Oxygen must diffuse into the blood and carbon
dioxide must diffuse out of the blood.
To maintain this gradient we need to keep
changing the composition of air in the lungs. This
is known as ventilating the lungs, or breathing.
Breathing – inhalation and exhalation:
Breathing and Respiration Aerobic Respiration:
Equation:
When you breathe in,
Adaptations of alveoli to allow efficient gas exchange: Glucose + oxygen 🡪 carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
oxygen-rich air moves
into your lungs. This Where does aerobic respiration take place?
maintains a steep
concentration gradient
Mitochondria
with the blood. What is the energy released during respiration
used for?
Therefore, oxygen Living cells need energy for basic functions (for building
continually diffuses
into the bloodstream
and breaking of large molecules). In plants, used to
through the alveoli move minerals from the soil into root hair cells (active
transport). In animals, to make muscles contract. In
When you breathe mammals and birds, to maintain body temperature
out, carbon
dioxide-rich air is
removed from the Anaerobic Respiration in humans:
lungs.
Equation: Glucose 🡪 lactic acid (+ energy)
This maintains a
concentration gradient Compare the energy released in anaerobic
so carbon dioxide can respiration to the energy released in aerobic
continually diffuse out
the blood into the air respiration: less energy released during anaerobic
in the lungs.
Effect of exercise on the body. Explain why each change
takes place: If muscles respire anaerobically what happens?
1) Your heart rate increases and the arteries supplying blood to your muscles
Lactic acid builds up and causes muscle fatigue
dilate (widen). These changes increase the blood flow to your exercising
Cilia – fine ‘hairs’ on the muscles. This increases the RATE of supply of oxygen and glucose to the
surface of ciliated muscles and increases the RATE that carbon dioxide is removed. Why do heart rate and breathing rate remain
epithelial cells which beat 2) Your breathing rate increases and you breathe more deeply. This means you high after exercise?
in a coordinated way to breathe more often and bring more air into your lungs each time you breathe Lactic acid needs to be broken down to produce carbon
carry mucus (trapped with in. The rate at which oxygen is brought into your body and picked up by your dioxide and water. The amount of oxygen needed to break
microbes and dust) away red blood cells is increased and this oxygen is carried to your exercising down lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water is known as
from the lung surfaces. muscles. And means carbon dioxide can be removed more quickly from the oxygen debt. After a race, your heart rate and breathing
blood in the lungs and breathed out. rate remain high to supply extra oxygen to pay off oxygen
3) Glycogen stored in the muscles is converted back to glucose, to supply the
debt.
cells with the fuel the need for increased cellular respiration.
When increasing your breathing and heart rate cannot supply oxygen to the
muscles fast enough, anaerobic respiration takes place.
Goblet cell – produces Anaerobic respiration is not as efficient as aerobic respiration because the
sticky mucus and releases glucose molecules are not broken down completely. Therefore less energy is
it onto the surface of cells. released.
Negative pressure ventilators:
A pump inside the machine draws air out of the tank, creating a vacuum and therefore negative pressure. This causes the thorax to Anaerobic Respiration in plants/microorganisms and some uses
expand, leading to a decrease in pressure inside the lungs, thus drawing air in.As the vacuum inside the tank is released, the pressures of
the lungs and atmosphere equalise, air flows out as the elastic tissue of the lungs recoils.
of this: Lactic acid produced by bacteria is used to form yoghurts
Positive pressure ventilators: In plants and yeasts they do not produce lactic acid, instead they form
Air is pushed into the trachea either by the ventilator machine or via a hand-help pump. This causes the air to flow into the lungs until ethanol and carbon dioxide. People use this in yeast to produce alcoholic
the ventilator pressure is stopped. At this point, the air pressure drops to zero and air flows out due to the recoiling of the elastic tissue of
the lungs. The equipment can be used at home and the patient can move about (as well as having control over the machine). drinks. Glucose 🡪 ethanol + carbon dioxide
Why is a nervous system necessary? Nervous System & Homeostasis What happens at a synapse?
1) Receptor in the skin is stimulated.
Your nervous system enables you to react to your Reflex actions are automatic, rapid responses that
2) Electrical impulse from a receptor passes along a sensory neurone to the spinal cord.
don’t involve the conscious areas of your brain.
surroundings and co-ordinate your behaviour. It They are fast, automatic and protective. e.g. knee 3) An impulse from the sensory neurone arrives at the synapse with a relay neurone.
means you can react to changes in your surroundings jerk, blinking, withdrawing hand from hot object 4) Chemicals called neurotransmitters are released from the sensory neurone and the
Help to avoid danger and harm because happen so neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse to the relay neurone.
very quickly. fast. Take care of basic bodily functions e.g.
5) The neurotransmitter binds to receptor molecules on the relay neurone. This sets off a new
electrical impulse in the relay neurone.
The nervous system has receptors that are breathing and moving food through gut. 6) The impulse is conducted along the relay neurone (in the spinal cord).
found clustered together in sense organs. They 7) When the impulse reaches the synapse between the relay neurone and the motor neurone, a
Explain how a reflex works: Reflex arc = the neurotransmitter is released from the relay neurone and the neurotransmitter diffuses across
detect stimuli. route taken by impulses during a reflex. the synapse to the motor neurone.
Extension: A reflex pathway is not very different from 8) The neurotransmitter binds to receptor molecules on the motor neurone. This sets off a new
Precise Example of a normal conscious action. electrical impulse in the motor neurone.
List someDetails
Name of
examples
of of receptors,
Sense
Name of
the
locationsense
of something But, a reflex arc bypasses the conscious 9) When the impulse reaches the effector organ it is stimulated to respond. If the effector is a The impulse arrives in the neurone
stimulus sensory muscle in the arm, the impulse will cause the muscle to contract, which moves the hand rapidly Chemicals called neurotransmitters are released from sacs called vesicles
organs
detected they are found in and
stimulus organ
cellsthe stimulus they
sensory might areas of the brain. This makes the time away from the source of pain. If the effector is a gland, it will respond to the impulse by The neurotransmitters diffuse across the gap to the next neurone
cells respond between the stimulus and reflex action as
detect: to: short as possible. So the coordinator in a
secreting chemical substances. The chemicals attach to the surface of the next neurone (bind to receptor
molecules)
reflex action is a relay neurone in the This sets up a new electrical impulse
Rods & Spotted spinal cord or in the unconscious area of the
Light Light waves Eye Retina
Cones prey. brain
Whole reflex is very fast! Brain Structure.
An impulse also travels up the spinal cord
to the conscious area of your brain. You
The brain is kept protected inside the skull and
A neurone is a specialised cell that an electrical impulse know about the reflex is encased in membranes called the meninges. It
action, but only after it has is made up of millions of interconnected
passes along. A nerve is a bundle of hundreds or even happened.
thousands of neurones. neurones, which area arranged to form
different regions.
How does your nervous system work? Thermoregulation:
• Use reflex actions to maintain body temperature at 37oC.
• The thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus in the brain
contains receptors that are sensitive to temperature changes in
the blood flowing through the brain.
• Extra information comes from temperature receptors on the
skin. These send impulses to the thermoregulatory centre.

Cooling down–Thermoregulatory centre ensures energy is released: Cerebral cortex: consciousness, intelligence, memory and language
Lots of sweat produced by sweat Cerebellum: co-ordinating muscular activity and balance
Blood vessels supplying
glands. As the extra sweat is Medulla: unconscious activities such as controlling heartbeat,
capillaries near the surface of
evaporated you lose heat energy Hairs lie flat movements of gut and breathing
the skin dilate to increase
blood flow through them – Hypothalamus: involved in regulation of many body functions, such as
more energy is released to thermoregulation
the environment Pituitary gland: produces chemical messages called hormones which
control reactions in body
Receptor 🡪 Sensory Neurone 🡪 Coordinator (CNS) 🡪 Motor neurone 🡪 Effector

Homeostasis: Conditions inside your body are known as its internal environment. Your organs cannot Keeping warm-Thermoregulatory centre ensures energy is How have we found out about the brain?
Studying people with brain damage: Phineas Gage – cerebral cortex blown away
work properly if this keeps changing. Processes inside your body aim to keep everything as constant as conserved: – including area controls social inhibitions. Personality and behavior changed
possible. This balancing act is called homeostasis. Blood vessels supplying No sweat drastically when iron rod through his skull.
4 conditions that the body controls: Electrical stimulation of parts of the brain – expose brain by removing top of
capillaries near the surface of Hairs are pulled erect to trap
Temperature; Water content of the body; Ion content; Blood glucose levels skull – stimulate different areas and see effect e.g. stimulate area associated
Explain how hormones help to co-ordinate processes in the body. Hormones are chemicals that the skin constrict so blood an insulating layer of air. with thirst – if stimulated, animal will drink even if well hydrated.
co-ordinate processes in your body. Special endocrine glands make and release (secrete) hormones into flow through them decreases. MRI Scans – takes images of brain in living people. Link loss of certain
your blood. Hormones are carried by the blood to their target organ. They regulate the functions of many
Shivering – muscle contractions need lots of function to damage of a particular region. More recent MRI scanners
respiration which releases energy take images as someone carries out a simple task.
organs and cells. Their effects are often quite slow and long-lasting.

DNA
How is genetic information in a cell stored?
Mitosis is the type of cell division that leads to growth or
repair.
Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus.
In mitosis, two identical cells are formed. Both daughter
cells have _____________ chromosomes.
• Cells are genetically identical – contain exactly the
same chromosomes
• Asexual reproduction – offspring produced by mitosis
DNA & Cell Division
Cell Cycle:
How does sexual reproduction lead to variation? How do healthy cells divide?
In meiosis, each gamete that is produced is slightly different from all the Healthy cells follow this regular pattern:
others – contain random mixtures of the original chromosome pairs.
Each gamete is genetically different, as a result of both random alignment Mitosis – Period of active cell division into 2 new cells
of the homologous pairs of chromosomes (independent assortment of the
chromosomes) and crossing over between members of a homologous Interphase – long period of non-division; cell increases size (and mass) and carries out
pair. Fertilisation – At fertilisation, genetic material from both parents normal activities. Cells also replicate their DNA ready for the next division
combine to produce a unique individual: a gamete could fuse with any
gamete from the other parent so each new individual is unique. What is a tumour?
Tumour cells divide rapidly, with little non-dividing time for growth.
Meiosis is all about the formation of gametes. In meiosis, four This leads to a mass of abnormal cells (tumour), which invades surrounding tissues.
slightly different cells are formed. These daughter cells have half
the number of chromosomes. Sperm cells (the male gametes ) Benign:
are made in the testes by meiosis. The egg cells or ova (the Grow in one place, but can be dangerous if it grows large and quickly e.g. brain
female gametes ) are made in the ovaries by meiosis. Meiosis tumours
leads to four different sex cells with half the number of
chromosomes. This is so that when fertilisation takes place, the Malignant:
zygote has a full set of chromosomes again. After fertilisation, the Spread (metastase) around the body in the blood and set up secondary tumours.
zygote will divide by mitosis.
What causes the cell cycle to become
uncontrolled and triggers the
formation of tumours?
• Mutations (change in the genetic
material of cells)– could be caused
by carcinogens.
• Ionising radiation e.g. UV light or
X-rays
• Virus infections e.g. cervical cancer
and human papilloma virus.
Treatment:
• Radiotherapy – cancer cells are
destroyed by targeted doses of
radiation
• Chemotherapy – where
chemicals are used to either stop
the cancer cells dividing or to
make them self-destruct.
• New treatments
 Genetics
DNA
What is DNA? What is Mendel famous for?
DNA is made of very long strands, twisted to form a double helix, which contain Mendel carried out breeding experiments
four different compounds, called bases. using peas (smooth, wrinkled, green and
DNA is a long molecule; consists of nucleotides which are made up of 3 sub-units: yellow peas). He cross-bred the peas and
sugars, phosphates and an organic bases. counted the different offspring carefully.
He recorded his results and explained them
What is the function of DNA? by suggesting:
It is a code – for a combination of amino acids – for forming specific proteins - The inheritance of each trait is determined
The four bases make up a code for genetic information. The four letters are organised by units or factors
to make messages that can be understood by cells. The genetic information - These factors are passed from parents
determines our characteristics. unchanged – one factor (unit) from each
parent for each trait.
- Some characteristics were dominant over
others (a trait may not show up in an
individual but can still be passed on to the
next generation)
Family Tree:
Family trees show males and females and can
be useful for tracing family likenesses and
inherited diseases, as well as where an
How does DNA code for characteristics?/ What leads to a protein being synthesised? individual is likely to be homozygous or
• The sequence of three bases is the code for a particular amino acid. heterozygous for particular alleles.
• The order of bases controls the order in which amino acids are assembled to A male is represented by a square
produce a particular protein. A female is represented by a circle
• Bases in DNA form a code Generally shading indicates the presence of a
• The bases work in threes/in a triplet character in the phenotype
• Three bases code for one amino acid Sometimes a dot signifies a normal
• Amino acids make up a protein phenotype but who carries the defective
• A protein is a particular combination of amino acids allele.
What is a mutation? What might a mutation lead to?
• a change to DNA (code)
• A different/faulty protein being produced
Why do genes come in pairs? What are different forms of a gene called?
• Because one from mother, one from father - Called different alleles.
Differences in the characteristics of individuals of the same kind may be due to
differences in:
• the genes they have inherited (genetic causes) [nature]
• the conditions in which they have developed (environmental causes)
[nurture]
• a combination of the above.
Individuals of a particular species look similar since they inherit similar genes.
They look different because their genes are not identical (have different alleles).
Classify the following characteristics:
Piercings, Physical fitness, tongue rolling, natural eye colour, language spoken,
foot size, muscial ability, height, weight, skin colour, natural hair colour, right and
left handedness
Inherited: Both: Environmental:
Key Terms:
Gene: A section of DNA that codes for a particular characteristic.
Allele: A version of a particular gene.
E.g. the gene for dimples has 2 alleles dimples present (D) , or no-dimple (d).
Dominant: A characteristic that will show up in the offspring even if only one of
the alleles is inherited. – only needs to be present on one of your chromosomes.
[a capital letter]
Recessive: A characteristic that will show up in the offspring only if both of the
alleles are inherited – they are present on both chromosomes (when no dominant
allele is present) [a lower case letter]
Homozygous: an individual with two identical alleles for a characteristic (both
chromosomes in a pair contain the same allele of a gene) e.g. DD / dd
Heterozygous: an individual with different alleles for a characteristic (the
chromosomes in a pair contain different alleles of a gene) e.g. Dd
Genotype: this describes the genetic makeup of an individual regarding a
particular characteristic e.g. Dd or dd
Phenotype: this describes the physical appearance of an indivdual regarding a
particular characteristic e.g. dimples or no dimples
 Homeostasis – Water and Ion & Glucose Concentration How is your blood glucose level controlled?
How do we remove waste products?
Lungs – remove carbon dioxide, (would change pH in cells – affect working of enzymes). remove The pancreas (co-ordinator) constantly monitors and controls your blood glucose
What causes kidney failure? Why is it dangerous?
water, water evaporates into the air in your lungs and is breathed out. Whenever you exercise or
get hot, you sweat more and lose more water.
Can be damaged and destroyed by infections Genetic problems cause kidneys to concentration using two key hormones:
fail. Kidneys can be damaged during an accident. Toxins, such as urea
insulin and glucagon
Liver produces urea – from excess protein – liver removes amino group from amino acids forming build up in the body and the salt and water balance of your body is
ammonia – converted into urea. not maintained.
This can cause cells to be damaged by osmosis.
Kidneys – filter urea out of blood, removed in urine – contains exces mineral ions and water
We treat kidney transplant by using either dialysis or a kidney transplant.

What are the jobs of the liver?

The liver is a large reddish-brown organ containing cells that grow and regenerate rapidly. Blood is Dialysis:
supplied via the hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein and returned to the heart via the hepatic carry out function of the kidney artificially.
vein. It carries out a number of key chemical reactions involved in homeostasis: Used to remove waste products such as urea, excess ions such as potassium and
• Deamination of excess amino acids to form urea.
excess water from the blood when the kidneys are incapable of doing this.
• Detoxifying poisonous substances, such as ethanol, and passing breakdown products into
blood to be excreted in urine. Takes around 8 hours to complete.
• Breaking down worn out red blood cells and storing iron until needed for new red blood Repeated at regular intervals (several times a week).
cells. Blood is passed diverted through the dialysis machine.
How does if form urea? Excess proteins 🡪 amino acids 🡪 ammonia 🡪 Urea The dialyser contains a partially-permeable membrane.
Blood flows on one side of the dialysis membrane and a dialysis fluid flows on
the other side (in opposite directions to maintain a concentration gradient)
What is the structure of the kidney including the three main regions??
Waste materials and excess salts and water diffuse across the dialysis membrane
Situated just below the ribcage, embedded in fatty tissue. Blood is supplied via that
into the dialysis fluid.
renal artery and flow back to the heart in the renal vein. The ureter carries urine
Urea removed because fluid contains no urea, contains same concentration of What are some symptoms of diabetes?
from the kidney to the bladder.
glucose and mineral ions to ensure no net movement of glucose and useful
The urethra carries urine from the bladder out of the body to be excreted.
mineral ions out of the blood. And same water concentration as plasma so if any Diabetes – symptoms Produce lots of urine, Glucose in your urine
Three distinct regions: Feel thirsty all the time, Lack energy and feel tired, Lose weight
excess water will be reabsorbed by osmosis.
Each kidney is made up of a mass of tiny tubules called nephrons.
Each nephron starts in the cortex and runs down to the pelvis. Kidney Transplant:
It is at the nephrons that the blood is filtered. Diseased kidneys can be replaced in a kidney transplant by using a single healthy
1. An outer region called the cortex kidney from a donor. What are type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
2. A middle region called the medulla The donor kidney is joined to the blood vessels in the groin of the patient.
If all goes well, the donor kidney will function normally to clean and balance the
Type 1 diabetes: Cause: a person’s blood glucose level may be too high because
3. An inner region called the pelvis leads to the ureter
blood. the pancreas does not produce enough of the hormone insulin. Usually starts in
One kidney can balance your blood chemistry and remove your waste urea for a children and teenagers, some genetic element.
What are the main functions of the kidney? lifetime. Antigens of the donor organ will be different to those of the recipient.
1. Excretion of urea and other metabolic wastes Type 2 diabetes: Cause: develops when the body does not respond to its own
2. Osmoregulation of water and ion (salt) levels. There is a risk that the antibodies of the immune system will attack the antigens on insulin. Usually occurs as people get older. Strong genetic element.
the donor organ, which would result in rejection and destruction of the donated
kidney.

How do we treat type 1 diabetes? How do we treat type 2 diabetes?

What molecules are filtered and reabsorbed in Advantage Disadvantage
the kidney? Inject insulin (because it is a protein) Type 2 diabetes is linked to obesity, lack
All small molecules are filtered in the kidney, Dialysis Readily available Requires carefully controlled diet The injected insulin: of exercise, and old age.
Allows patients to live Spend regular sessions connected to dialysis
but the useful ones are reabsorbed. Only
normal life between machine
Allows glucose to be taken back into your
large molecules e.g. proteins cannot be sessions Becomes more difficult to control over time body cells Normal blood glucose can be
filtered. Big and expensive Or glucose is converted into glycogen in maintained by:
Transpla Cheaper than dialysis Limited by: the liver • Eating a balanced diet
nt Quality of life for - availability of donors* • Losing weight
patient is better if - availability of good tissue matches Take care how much carbohydrate you eat • Regular exercise
How do we regulate the water successful Requires immunosuppressant drugs
concentration in our blood? Regular check ups
Have regular meals
Limited lifetime – average 9 years Plan exercise to keep blood sugar levels Type 2 usually affects older people, but
*never enough – require donors who die suddenly steady is becoming increasingly common in
young people who are overweight.