2 Organization of the organism

Cell structure and organisation

What are the structures and functions of plant, animal and bacterial
cells?

Animal and plant cells

Cytoplasm

Under the ordinary (light microscope), cytoplasm looks like a

thick liquid with particles in it. In plant cells it may be seen to be
flowing about. The particles may be food reserves like oil
droplets or ganules (small particles) of starch. Other particles are
structures known as organelles, which have special functions in
the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm, large numbers of chemical
reactions are taking place, which kepp the cell alive by providing
energy and making substances that the cell needs. The liquid
part of the cytoplasm is about 90% water, with molecules of salt
and sugars dissolves in it. Suspended in this solution there are
larger molecules of fats (lipids) and proteins. Fats and proteins
may be used to build up the cell structures, like the membranes.
Some of the proteins are enzymes. Enzymes control the rate and
type of chemical reactions that take place in the cells. Some
enzymes are attached to the membrane systems of the cell,
while other float freely in the liquid part of the cytoplasm.

Cell membrane

This is a thin layer of cytoplasm around the outside of the cell. It

stops the cell contents from escaping and controls which
substances can enter and leave the cell. In general, oxygen food
and water are allowed to enter; waste products are allowed to
leave; and harmful substances are kept out. In this way the cell
membrane maintains the structure and chemical reactions of the
cytoplasm.

Nucleus

Most cells contain one nucleus, which is usually seen as a

rounded structure covered by a membrane and fixed in the

2 Organization of the organism 1

 cytoplasm. In drawings of cells, the nucleus may be shown
darker than the cytoplasm because, in prepared sections, it takes
up certain stains more strongly than the cytoplasm. The functions
of the nucleus is to control the type and quantity of enzymes
produced by the cytoplams. In this way it regulates the chemical
changes that take place in the cell. As a result, the nucleus
controls what the cell will be, for example, a blood cell, a liver
cell, a muscle cell or nerve cell. When existing cells divide, new
cells are produced. The nucleus controls cell division. A cell
without a nucleus cannot reproduce. Inside the nucleus are
thread-like structures called chromosomes, which can be seen
most easily at the time when the cell is dividing.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are tiny organelles, (fluid that surrounds the cell

nucleus). They have an outer membrane and an inner
membrane with many inward-pointing folds. Mitochondria are
most frequent in regions of rapid chemical activity. Mitochondria
make most of the energy for the cell and have their own genetic
material that is different from the genetic material found in the
nucleus. They are responsible for releasing energy from food
substances through the process of aerobic respiration.

Ribosomes

Ribosome is an intercellular structure made of both RNA and

protein, and it is the site of protein synthesis in the cell. They
may be held on a membrane but can also be found free in the
cytoplasm. The ribosome reads the messenger RNA (mRNA)
sequence and translates that genetic code into a specified string
of amino acids, which grow into long chains that fold to form
proteins.

Plant cells only

Cell wall

The cell wall, which is outside the membrane, is a rigid layer

of polysaccharides lying outside the plasma membrane of the
cells of plants, fungi, and bacteria. In the algae and higher plants
it consists mainly of cellulose. . It is non-living and allows water

2 Organization of the organism 2

 and dissolved substances to pass through it. The cells wall is not
selective like the cell membrane. Plant cells do have a cell
membrane, but it is not easy to see or draw because it is pressed
against the inside of the cell wall.

Vacuole

A vacuole is a membrane-bound cell organelle. Vacuole helps in

storage of salts, nutrients, micronutrients, pigments and proteins
within the cell. It isolates metabolic waste that might be harmful
to the cell, maintains water balance. In plant cells, it is a
structural support via turgor pressure. Sometimes a single
vacuole can take up most of the interior space of the plant cell. In
animal cells, vacuoles are generally small ande help sequester
waste products, and they are not permanent.

Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that convert light energy

into relatively stable chemical energy via the photosynthetic
process.

Bacterial cells

Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are very small organisms that are

single cells not often more than 0.01 mm in length. They can be seen
only at high magnification under a microscope. They have a cell wall
made of coplicated mixture of proteins, sugars and fats. (The plant
cell walls are made of cellulose (pollysacharide). Inside the cell wall
is the cytoplasm, which may contain granules (small particles) of
glycogen, fat and other food reserves. Large numbers of ribosomes
float freely in the cytoplasm. They are smaller than the ribosomes
found in plant and animal cells but have the same function of protein
synthesis. Each bacteriall cell contains a single chromosome made
of a circular strand of DNA. The chromosome is not surrounded by a
nuclear membrane but is coiled up to fill a small part of the cell.
There are also small cicular structures called plasmids, which are
also made of DNA. Plasmids are used by scientists in the process of
genetic modification because it is relatively easy to insert genetic
material into them. Bacteria can be different shapes: they may be
spherical, rod-shaped or spiral. Some have filaments, called flagella,

2 Organization of the organism 3

 projecting from them. The flagella can flick and so move the bacterial
cell about.

How do you identify cell structures in diagrams and images of animal,

plant and bacterial cells?

There is no such thing as a typical plant, animal or bacterial cell becuase

cells vary alot in their size and shape depending on their function.
However, it is possible to make a drawing, to show the features and
differences that are present in most cells.

What are the differences between a plant and an animal cell?

Plant cells differ from animal cells in several ways because they have
extra structures: a cell wall, chloroplasts and sap vacuoles.

How are new cells produced?

During mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its contents, including its

chromosomes, and splits to form two identical daughter cells.

What are the specific functions of theses specialised cells:

When cells have finished dividing and growing, most become specialised
and have specific functions. When cells are specialised, they do one
special job, develop a distinct shape and special kinds of chemical
changes take place in their cytoplasm. The changes in shape and the
chemical reactions enable the cell to carry out its special function. The
specialisation of cells to carry out special functions in an organism is
sometimes called ‘division of labour’ within the organism. Similarly , the
special functions of mitochondria, ribosomes and other cell organelles
may be cell division of labour within the cell.

ciliated cells

These cells form the lining of the nose and windpipe, and the tiny
cytoplasmic ‘hairs’, called cilia are in a continual flicking movement,
which creates a stream of fluid (mucus) that carries dust and bacteria
through the bronchi and trachea, away from the lungs.

root hair cells

These cells absorb water and mineral salts from the soil. The hair-
like projection on each cell penetrates between the soil particles and

2 Organization of the organism 4

 offers a large absorbing surface. The cell membrane is able to
control which dissolved substances enter the cell.

palaside mesophyll cells

These are found underneath the upper epidermis of plant leaves.

They are columnar (quite long) and packed with chloroplasts to trap
light energy. Their function is to make food for the plant by
photosynthesis using carbon dioxide, water and light energy.

neurones (nerve cells)

These cells are specialised for conducting electrical impulses along

the fibre, to and from the brain and the spinal cord. The bibres are
often very long and connect distant parts of the body to the CNS, e.g.
the foot and the spinal column. Chemical reactions cause the
impulses to tracel along the fibre.

red bllod cells

These cells are distinctive because they have no nucleus when

mature. They are tiny disc-like cells that contain a red pigment called
haemoglobin. This readily combines with oxygen and their function is
the transportation of oxygen around the body.

sperm cell

Sperm cells are male sex cells. The front of the cell is oval shaped
and contains a nucleus which carries genetic information. There is a
tip, called an acrosome, which secretes enzymes to digest the cells
around an egg and the egg membrane. Behind this is a mid-piece
which is packed with mitochondria to provide energy for movement.
The tail moves with a whip-like action, enabling the sperm to swim.
Their function is reproduction, achieved by fertillising an egg cell.

egg cell (gametes)?

Egg cells (ova, singular: ovum) are larger than sperm cells and are
spherical. They have a large amount of cytoplasm, containing yolk
droplets made up of protein and fat. The nucleus carries genetic
information. The function of the egg cell is reproduction.

What are the meanings of the terms cell, tissue, organ, organ system
and organism?

2 Organization of the organism 5

 Tissues

A tissue is a group of cells with similar structures working together to

perform a shared function. A tissue, like bone, nerve or muscle in
animals, and epidermis, xylem or pith in plants, is made up of large
numbers of cells. These are often just a single type. The cells of
each type have a similar structure and function so that the tissue
itself has a special function. For example, muscles contract to cause
movement, xylem carries water in plants. Some forms of tissues are
epithelium, tubes, sheets and glands.

Organ

An organ is a structure made up of a group of tissues working

together to perform a specific function. Organs are made up of
several tissues grouped together to make a sturcture with a special
job. For example, the stomach is an organ that contains tissues
made from epithelial cells, gland cells and muscle cells. These cells
are supplied with food and oxygen brought by blood vessels. The
stomach also has a nerve supply. The heart, lungs, intestines, brain
and eyes are further examples of organs in animals. In flowering
plants, the root, stem and leaves are the organs. Some of the tissues
of the leaf are epidermis, palisade tissue, spongy tissue, xylem and
phloem.

Organ system

An organ system is a group of organs with related functions working

together to perform a body function. An organ system usually
describes a group of organs with closely related functions. For
example, the heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory
system; the brain, spinal cord and nerves make up the nervous
system. In a flowering plant, the stem, leaves and buds make up a
system called the shoot.

Organism

An organism is a living thing that has an organised structure, can

react to stimuli, reproduce, grow, adapt, and maintain homeostasis.
An organism is formed by the organs and systems working together
to make an independent plant or animal (one that can survive by
itself).

2 Organization of the organism 6

 Size of specimens
How do you calculate the magnification and size of biological
specimens using millimetres as units?

Magnification = Image size / actual size

Actual size = image size / magnification

How do you convert measurments between millimetres and

micrometres?

1 mm = 1,000 µm

1 cm = 10,000 µm

1 m = 1,000,000 µm

Revision checklist
Cytoplasm contains organelles, which include mitochondria (respiration),
chloroplasts (photosynthesis) and ribosomes (protein synthesis).

The nucleus directs the chemical reactions in the cell and also control cell
division

Plant cells have cellulose cell wall and a large central vacuole.

Cells are often specialised in their shape and activity to carry out special
jobs.

Large number of similar cells packed together form a tissue.

Different tissues arranged together form organs.

A group of related organs makes up a system.

The maginification of a specimen can be calculated if the actual size and the
size of the image are known. Magnification = image size / actual size of the
specimen

Exam-style question
Question in the book

2 Organization of the organism 7