Environmental Science Notes Outline Evolution and Ecology Evolution and Ecology

1. Define ecology – is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including
humans, and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between
plants and animals and the world around them.

2. Define evolution – means the process of developing by gradual changes.

3. Complete this table of the levels of organization in ecology.

Ecological Description
Levels of
Organization

Organism is a living entity with key characteristics such as order, Response to

Stimuli, growth and development, Reproduction, regulation, and
energy processing.

Population is a group of organisms that are part of the same species living in the
same area and potentially interacting with each other.

Community is a group of Populations of different species that live in the same area
and potentially interact with one another. A community can be made
up of Animals, Plants, Fungi, Bacteria, etc.

Ecosystem is the combination of all Biotic and Abiotic Factors in a given area.

Biosphere is composed of all the Ecosystems on Earth. It is also referred to as

the zone of life on Earth because it is made up of parts of Earth where
life exists.

4. Define habitat – is the natural environment of an organism, or the place where an organism
naturally lives and grows. It provides the organisms that live there with everything they need to
survive, such as food, water, shelter, and space.

a. What is an abiotic factor?

- is any nonliving chemical or physical part of the environment that affects living
organisms and the functioning of ecosystems.
b. What is a biotic factor?
- In contrast to abiotic factors, biotic factors are the living organisms within an
ecosystem. They encompass all the plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and other
living things that interact with each other and their environment.
5. Label the optimal range, zones of physiologic stress (x2), and zones of intolerance (x2).

Environmental Science Notes Outline Evolution and Ecology

- Zone of intolerance -zone of physiologic stress -optimal range -zone of physiologic

stress - zone of intolerance

Evolution
6. There are three types of adaptations seen in living organisms. Define each:
a. Physical adaptations – These are the alterations in the physical
structure or anatomy of an organism that enhance its survival and
reproduction in its environment.

b. Behavioral adaptations – These are adjustments in an organism's behavior that

increase its chances of survival and reproduction. They encompass how organisms act
in response to their environment or other living things.

c. Physiologic adaptations – These are internal adjustments in an organism's body

processes that enable it to function better in its environment. They involve changes at
the cellular or molecular level that may not be immediately visible.

7. All adaptations are the results of:

 a. Explain genetic diversity – refers to the total amount of variation in the genetic makeup
of a species. This variation arises from the different versions of genes, called alleles,
present within a population.

b. Mutations can be beneficial, harmful , or neutral.

8. Define evolution – is the process by which the heritable characteristics of biological

populations change over successive generations. This means that the traits passed down
from parents to offspring (genes) gradually change over time, resulting in new and
different forms of life emerging.

9. Explain each mechanism of evolution:

a. Genetic Drift - is a mechanism of evolution that results in the random fluctuation of

allele frequencies in a population over time. Alleles are the different versions of a
particular gene. Unlike natural selection, which favors traits beneficial for survival and
reproduction, genetic drift is purely driven by chance.

b. Bottleneck Effect - is an extreme example of genetic drift that happens when the size
of a population is severely reduced. Events like natural disasters (earthquakes, floods,
fires) can decimate a population, killing most individuals and leaving behind a small,
random assortment of survivors.

c. Founder effect - is a phenomenon in population genetics where a small subgroup of a

larger population establishes a new population in a new habitat. This new population
inherits a limited gene pool, representing only a fraction of the genetic variation present
in the original population.

d. Natural selection - is the cornerstone of evolution. It's the process by which organisms
with traits best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce,
passing on those advantageous traits to their offspring.

10. The factors that “encourage” natural selection include:

a. Physiological Stress - when organisms experience environmental challenges or

physiological stress, it can favor the survival and reproduction of individuals with traits
that enable them to cope better with that stress.

b. Predation - predation creates a strong selective pressure. Organisms that possess

traits that help them evade predators, like camouflage, speed, or defensive
mechanisms, are more likely to survive and reproduce.

c. Competition - Competition for resources like food, mates, or territory can be a

significant driver of natural selection. Individuals with traits that give them an edge in
 competition are more likely to survive and reproduce.

d. Sexual Selection - This is a specific type of natural selection where individuals with
traits that enhance their mating success are favored. These traits can be physical
attributes like bright plumage in birds or elaborate antlers in deer, or behavioral displays
like singing in birds.

Environmental Science Notes Outline Evolution and Ecology

11. Define artificial selection – also sometimes called selective breeding, is the process by
which humans choose which organisms will reproduce in order to produce offspring with
desired traits. It's essentially human intervention in the evolutionary process.

a. Describe an example:
Domesticated animals: Dogs, cats, cows, horses, and many other domesticated
animals are products of artificial selection over centuries. Breeders selected traits
considered desirable for companionship, work, or food production.

12. Compare divergent and convergent evolution

Divergent Convergent -

Divergent and convergent evolution are two fascinating processes that result in a wide
variety of life forms on Earth. Divergent evolution describes the process where closely
related species over time accumulate differences in their physical or behavioral traits,
eventually leading to the formation of new species. Imagine branches diverging from a
common ancestor on the tree of life. Convergent evolution, in contrast, describes the
process where unrelated species evolve similar traits due to adapting to similar
environments or ecological niches. Imagine branches on the tree of life from completely
different starting points converging towards a similar form.

13. Identify each type of biodiversity:

a. Ecosystem - is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, along
with weather and landscape, work together to form a bubble of life. It's a complex
system where living organisms (biotic factors) interact with non-living components
(abiotic factors) of the environment.

b. Genetic - the term "genetic" refers to anything related to genes or heredity. Genes are
the fundamental units of inheritance that carry the instructions for building and
maintaining an organism's features. They are made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),
a molecule that encodes the blueprint for life.

c. Species - is a group of organisms that can reproduce with one another in nature and
produce fertile offspring.
Environmental Science Notes Outline Evolution and Ecology

Classification
14. The final two taxa are used to determine scientific name. What is the scientific name of the modern
human? (Use the correct format)
- Homo sapiens

Niche and Community Interactions

15. What is a niche?

- In ecology, a niche refers to the specific role and position an organism (or a species)
occupies within its environment. It encompasses both the physical space the organism
lives in and its functional role within the ecosystem.

16. Describe and give an example of each of the following types of community

interactions:

a. Predator-Prey - This interaction involves one organism, the predator, hunting,

killing, and consuming another organism, the prey. Predators play a crucial
role in regulating prey populations and maintaining ecosystem balance.
● Example: Lions hunting zebras on the African savanna. The lions benefit by acquiring
food (zebra meat) for survival and reproduction. The zebra population is kept in check by
predation, preventing them from overgrazing the grasslands.

b. Competitive Exclusion - This concept is based on the idea that two species cannot
coexist indefinitely within a niche if they compete for the same limiting resources
(resources essential for survival and reproduction that are in short supply). Eventually,
one species will outcompete the other.

i. Interspecific competition - This is competition between different species for a

shared resource. When two species need the same limited resource, they will
compete for it. This competition can take various forms, such as competition for
food, water, space, or mates.
● Example: Cheetahs and lions in the African savanna both prey on antelopes. They
compete for the same food source. Cheetahs might have an advantage in chasing down
swift antelopes, while lions might be more successful in taking down larger prey. This
competition can influence the hunting strategies and population dynamics of both
predators.

ii. Intraspecific competition - This is competition between individuals of the same

species for a shared resource. Since individuals within a species have similar
needs, they may compete for things like food, mates, or territory.
 ● Example: Competition for nesting sites among birds of the same species. Birds may
display aggressive behavior or compete for suitable nesting locations to raise their
young. This competition can help ensure only the strongest or most resourceful
individuals reproduce successfully.

17. How do organisms avoid competing with their own species with resource partitioning?

- By consuming slightly different forms of a limiting resource or using the same limiting
resource at a different place or time, individuals of different species compete less with
one another (interspecific competition) than individuals of the same species (intraspecific
competition).

Environmental Science Notes Outline Evolution and Ecology

18. Define and give an example of each of the following types of symbiosis:

a. Mutualism – is a symbiotic relationship where both organisms benefit from the

interaction. This often involves a long-term association where each organism plays a
crucial role in the other's survival and well-being.
● Example: Clownfish and sea anemones: Clownfish live among the stinging tentacles of
sea anemones. The anemone protects the clownfish from predators, and in return, the
clownfish chases away anemone-eating fish and may even attract prey to the anemone
with their bright colors.

b. Commensalism – is a symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits from the

interaction, while the other organism is neither significantly harmed nor helped.
● Example: Birds and remoras: Remoras are fish that attach themselves to sharks or
other large marine animals using a suction disc on their head. The remora gets a free
ride and scraps of food left behind by the larger animal, while the shark is mostly
unaffected by the remora's presence.

c. Parasitism – is a symbiotic relationship where one organism (parasite) benefits at

the expense of the other organism (host). The parasite gains nourishment and lives on
or inside the host, often harming the host's health.
● Example: Tapeworms and humans: Tapeworms are intestinal parasites that live inside a
human's digestive system. They absorb nutrients from the food the human eats, harming
the human's health by depriving them of essential nutrients

Population Growth Patterns

19. Identify each survivorship curve, describe it, and give an example species.
Type I Survivorship: Mortality is initially low due to high parental care - Mortality rapidly increases
in old age.
● Example Species: Humans, elephants, and other large mammals with parental care
and advanced healthcare tend to exhibit this type of curve.
Type II. Mortality is constant. Limited parental care is given , but all stages have predators.
● Example Species: Birds, fish, and some small mammals with short lifespans and
minimal parental care often exhibit this type of curve. Many offspring may be produced,
but mortality risks are constant throughout life.
Type III. Mortality is initially high due to lack of parental care, heavy predation and exposure.
● Example Species: Oysters, insects like fruit flies, and some plants that produce many
seeds or spores exhibit this type of curve. These organisms rely on sheer number of
offspring to ensure some survive to reproductive age despite high juvenile mortality.

20. What causes the population growth to slow down?

- Population growth can slow down due to various factors, including: Decline in fertility
rates, Access to contraception, Government policies, Economic factors, Educational
attainment, Urbanization, and Cultural shifts.

Density-Dependent Factors – are those that limit population growth and affect populations
more severely as the population density increases. As the number of individuals in a
population grows, the impact of these factors becomes more pronounced.

Density-Independent Factors – are those that affect populations irrespective of their density.
These factors can cause significant fluctuations in population size regardless of the number
of individuals.
Environmental Science Notes Outline Evolution and Ecology
21. At what point do logistic growth curves eventually stabilize?
- In logistic growth curves, stabilization occurs at the carrying capacity (K) of the
environment. This is the maximum population size that a particular environment can
sustain over a long period.
22. What shape does an exponential growth pattern take? Draw it on
the graph to the right.

a. What is missing that allows the population to grow so

rapidly?
- While exponential growth shows a population exploding in size, it's not
sustainable in the long term. The missing piece is carrying capacity, which acts
as a natural brake on population growth when resources become limited. This is
reflected in the logistic growth curve, which provides a more realistic picture of
population dynamics.
-
23. Compare r-selected and K-selected species.
- K-selected species are those that are larger, have long lifespans,
produce few young at a time, and exhibit logistic growth. R-selected
species are those that have shorter lifespans, are generally smaller,
produce many young, and exhibit exponential growth.