SOLAR POWERED IOT AGRIBOT

ABSTRACT

Farmers today spend a lot of money on machines that help them decrease labor and increase
yield of crops we introduced the automatic machine called Agricultural Robot for automatic ploughing
and seeding. This paper strives to develop a solar powered robot capable of performing operations like
automatic plough, seed dispensing, and water spraying through IOT application. This system monitors
the temperature, humidity and soil moisture parameters status will upload into IOT application. It also
provides automatic control robot using IOT module. The main component here is the AVR At mega
microcontroller that supervises the entire process. Initially the robot tills the entire field and proceeds to
plough, simultaneously dispensing seeds side by side. The device controlled by IOT which continuously
sends data to the microcontroller. IOT module used to control the b\robot for directions. Dc geared
motors used to plough the soil and releases the seed then water sprinkler automatically sprinkle water
for automatic seeding in agriculture. All components are associated to microcontroller Arduino.
Arduino ATMEGA328 micro controller used to process input and produce output by using ARDUINO
IDE with Embedded C programming and operated through Regulated power supply which gives 5v of
DC voltage to all hardware modules.
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

In the past, agricultural practices heavily relied on manual labor due to limited technological
advancements. However, with the rapid development of technology, the scenario has changed
significantly. Nowadays, robotics has revolutionized the farming industry, allowing individuals to
oversee and control seeding processes comfortably from a cool and convenient location. Implementing
robotic systems in agriculture has led to the exploration of new operational approaches and improved
efficiency. Traditionally, agricultural tasks such as planting seeds, plowing, and weeding have been
labor-intensive and greatly influenced by unpredictable weather conditions. Moreover, the equipment
used for these operations has been bulky and cumbersome. Labor shortages caused by population
migration to cities have exacerbated the challenges faced by the agricultural sector. However, the rise of
robotics has brought about transformative changes not only in fields like medicine, industry, and
entertainment but also in farming. By integrating existing technologies and robotics into agricultural
systems, it is possible to enhance performance while reducing the overall time, effort, and costs
involved. To achieve this, specialized robotic systems are employed on farms. These systems utilize
motors to control various tasks such as harvesting, sowing, and watering crops. By automating these
processes, farmers can streamline their operations and optimize resource allocation, leading to improved
productivity and reduced manual labor requirements.
Our robot is powered by Intel's highly capable microcontroller, the 8051. Specifically, we utilize the
AT89C2051 microcontroller IC2 as the primary controller. This microcontroller acts as the master
controller, responsible for decoding commands received from the remote-control unit or base station. It
executes these commands and generates pulses for speed control. The LD293 motor ICs are employed
to drive the two motors of the vehicle. These motors not only facilitate the movement of the robot but
also power other agricultural attachments mounted on the vehicle. The microcontroller serves as the
brain of the system, efficiently managing the commands received from various sources and coordinating
the actions of the different components. Additionally, it processes data from sensors, ensuring that
the system operates in a sensitive and responsive manner. To facilitate communication, a GSM module
is incorporated into the system. This module enables users to select options and send instructions to the
robot. Consequently, the robot can move in a specific direction as instructed by the user. Furthermore,
our system emphasizes sustainability by utilizing solar energy. The robot is equipped with solar panels
that harness sunlight to power the various components, including the GSM module. This ensures that
the robot remains operational while minimizing its environmental impact.
The seed sowing process is accomplished using a DC motor in our project. The entire system's
operations and information will be displayed on an LCD screen. The robot unit is powered by solar
energy, utilizing sunlight as a sustainable power source. In the GSM application, users have the option
to set the number of columns and steps for the robot's movement. The agricultural land is divided into
columns and numbered steps to facilitate efficient navigation. To facilitate communication and data
management, the project integrates with the Things peak cloud service. When users input information,
such as commands or settings, the system sends the message to the server for processing and storage.
The system utilizes a booster to regulate the battery and solar voltage, ensuring a stable power
supply for the robot unit. The advancement of electric-powered technological solutions has greatly
influenced irrigation and agricultural task automation. In India, the abundance of solar radiation is a
significant advantage, with an average of 3000 hours of sunshine throughout the year, equating to
approximately 4-7 kWh of solar radiation per square meter. This makes solar-driven technological
solutions highly beneficial for agricultural automation, considering the environmental conditions in
India. Numerous technological solutions have been explored in the literature to achieve automation in
agriculture tasks and enable remote monitoring of farmland. One such solution involves the
development of a smart irrigation controller utilizing the PIC16F876A microcontroller. This system
employs an XBee link to transmit data to a remote server. However, the system is limited to monitoring
moisture levels at a single point. To effectively monitor an entire farm area, a large number of sensors
would need to be deployed, thereby increasing the overall cost of the system. Additionally, the XBee
communication range is limited to 50 meters. Furthermore, the developed remote interface lacks signal
processing capabilities to derive meaningful statistics relevant for farm monitoring. It is evident that
while these existing solutions offer some level of automation and monitoring, they have certain
limitations in terms of scalability, data processing, and communication range. Addressing these
limitations is crucial for the successful implementation of comprehensive and efficient agricultural
automation systems. A proposal for agricultural task automation involves a two-cell overhead crane
system. This system aims to automate tasks such as fertilizer spraying, irrigation, and seed planting
through the use of a solar-driven crane. However, implementing such systems requires a substantial
budget, and for effective farm monitoring, multiple sets of sensors must be strategically placed across
different geographical points. This requirement adds to the overall cost of the system. Another proposed
solution for agricultural automation is a wireless sensor network and GPRS-based technology. This
solution utilizes multiple sensors to monitor plant health and environmental parameters. Similarly, a
smart GSM-controlled weather-based irrigation system has been developed, incorporating an ARM
processor. This system senses soil moisture levels and irrigates the farm based on rain predictions.
However, the implementation of both necessitates a significant amount of hardware to form a sensor
 network across a geographically dispersed farm, further increasing costs. In addition to automated
irrigation systems for farmland, automation can also benefit green roof irrigation, conserving water
resources. A microcontroller-based irrigation system has been developed, considering soil moisture,
humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed. This system employs a single sensing node instead of
multiple points. However, for a complete roof garden, multiple sensor nodes are still required. It is
evident that while various automated solutions have been proposed, they often come with challenges
related to cost, scalability, and the need for multiple sensor installations. Overcoming these challenges
is crucial for the successful implementation of efficient and cost-effective agricultural automation
systems. In contrast to the previously discussed systems, agricultural robots offer a promising solution
for irrigation and agricultural task automation. In this paper, we introduce the Agribot, a versatile robot
capable of irrigating the farm, harnessing solar power during non-irrigation periods, and providing
remote farm monitoring. The Agribot's design focuses on achieving better efficiency in water usage
compared to manual irrigation methods. This is accomplished through direct soil moisture and humidity
measurements at various locations within the farm. Unlike automated systems that rely on single-point
data for irrigation decisions, the Agribot irrigates the farm based on averaged data obtained from
multiple points. This eliminates the need for installing dedicated sensors at various positions throughout
the farm.
PROBLEM STATEMENT:

 Traditional farming practices are labour-intensive and often inefficient.

 This leads to suboptimal resource utilization and diminished crop yields.
 The need for more sustainable and efficient agricultural practices is paramount.
 Developing a solar-powered IoT agricultural robot (Agri Bot) is an innovative solution.
 It aims to revolutionize the way crops are managed and cultivated.
 The project aims to design and implement a solar-powered IoT agricultural robot.
 The robot will be capable of autonomous navigation, data collection, and crop management tasks.
 It will utilize IoT sensors and AI algorithms to optimize water and fertilizer usage.
 It will monitor crop health and increase overall farm productivity.
 The solar-powered design will reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
 This makes the Agri Bot more sustainable and environmentally friendly.
 By providing farmers with a cost-effective and efficient tool for crop management.
 This project aims to contribute to the development of sustainable and resilient agricultural practices.
 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES:

 The aim of the project is to develop an efficient and sustainable IoT solar-powered Agribot to enhance
agricultural productivity and sustainability.
 The objective is to design a solar-powered system that harnesses renewable energy, aiming to reduce
reliance on non-renewable sources and minimize the carbon footprint of agricultural operations.
 Implementing algorithms and systems will enable the Agri Bot to operate autonomously, navigating
through fields and executing tasks such as planting seeds, monitoring crops, and applying irrigation
according to predefined schedules.
 Integration of IoT sensors will facilitate real-time data collection on soil moisture, temperature,
humidity, and crop health, allowing for precision agriculture techniques such as targeted irrigation,
fertilization, and pest control.
 IoT connectivity will enable remote monitoring and control of the Agri Bot’s operations, providing
farmers with access to real-time data and empowering them to make informed decisions from anywhere.
 Resource utilization will be optimized through data analytics, tailoring agricultural practices to specific
field conditions, thereby reducing water usage, minimizing chemical inputs, and improving overall
resource efficiency.
 Enhanced crop management capabilities, including precision planting, weed detection, and crop
monitoring, will contribute to improved yield, quality, and profitability.
 The Agri Bot will be designed to be scalable and adaptable, capable of deployment across diverse
agricultural landscapes and easily customizable to accommodate different crop types and farm sizes.
 Durability and reliability will be prioritized in the design process to ensure the Agri Bot can withstand
harsh environmental conditions prevalent in agricultural settings.
 Cost-effectiveness will be a key consideration, with the development of solutions offering a favorable
return on investment for farmers, taking into account initial investment, operational costs, and potential
productivity gains.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

Suresh, K., (2019), The basic goal of seed sowing process is to sow the seeds at required depth and at
required spacing. The foremost objective of this paper is to design the Agribot (Automatic Seed Sowing
Machine) using solar energy. In this proposed system, ultrasonic sensors give the signal to the micro-
controller. It gives the signal to the motor driver circuit, then Agribot turns automatically and with the
help of a linear actuator it sows the seeds in the next line after sensing the furrows in the agricultural
field. Solar panel is used to charge the battery that provides the necessary power to the gear motors. The
boost converter is connected between the solar panel and the battery [1].
Rafath, Farha, (2020), Mahapurush proposed a solar operated automatic pesticide spraying robot to
reduce the manpower and use of electricity. The author implemented the prototype with Arduino,
ultrasonic sensor, motor drive circuit, relay circuit to pump the sprayer circuit and the battery powered
with the help of solar panel. The robot is operated with transmitter and receiver operating at high
frequency of 434 Mhz. It is an automated robot that is controlled by Arduino UNO R3. Automation of
the robot is achieved by using ultrasonic sensors and Arduino UNO R3. DC motors are used for the
operation of cutting of the grass. DC battery is used to power all the components of the system [2].
Sapkal, Kranti G., and Avinash B. Kadam (2020), To enhance the efficiency and safety of production
and management of modern agriculture in China, based on the new generation of information
technology (IT), an integrated framework system platform incorporating the Internet of Things (IoT).
designed. To analyse the information and data collected from different datasets, machine learning
techniques plays a big role. The real-time analytics is performed to predict the future condition of the
crops based on its past data. Limitations of the system are capturing correct data from large data set and
security. The research deployed a sensing network to gather the field data of some crops (Potatoes,
Tomatoes, etc). The field data collected from the deployed sensors (air temperature, air humidity, soil
moisture, soil temperature, radiation) [3].
YURTSEVER, Cihan, (2020), and, Amit Kumar, and Arpita Mukherjee (2022) In this paper, a
comprehensive review of available IoT solution in the areas of the agriculture is presented. Some of the
major targeted areas in the agriculture are selected, e.g. soil monitoring, crop monitoring, IoT-based
smart irrigation and real-time weather forecasting where automation can be implemented. The IoT-
based crop and soil monitoring to reduce wastage by the effective usage of water, thereby increasing
crop yield. An IoT architecture in smart agricultural model and a schematic model of IoT based
automated smart agricultural system comprising subsystems like soil health monitoring, crop
monitoring, IoT-based smart irrigation and real- time weather forecasting has been presented [4].
Alotaibi, Alanoud, and Farrukh Nadem (2021), Quantitative methods help farmers plan and make
decisions. These methods acknowledge the importance of economizing on available resources among
them being water supply and labor. It is through this economizing that farmers maximize their profit.
The significance of linear programming is to provide a solution to the existing real-world problems
through the evaluation of existing resources and the provision of relevant solutions. This research
studies various applications including crop pattern and rotation plan, irrigation water, and product
transformation; that have the main role to enhance various facts of the agriculture sector. The review
will culminate in a discussion on the different approaches that help optimize agricultural solutions [5].
Nugraha, Adis Kusyadi, (2023), In cultivating timber trees, farmers must pay attention to the seed
selection with superior heredity and the condition of the plantation area that supports the growth of
nursery plants properly. Several factors that support the growth of nursery plants are nutritional factors,
sunlight, temperature, water, and soil moisture. In terms of effectiveness and ease of access to
information in monitoring the supporting condition factors and facilitating the farmers, an Android
based monitoring system was built to monitor the growth of nursery plants. The system consists of
several sensors, such as soil moisture sensor [6].
A. Karwankar (2016), Devoloped a system which minimizes the working cost and also reduces the
time for digging operation and seed sowing operation by utilizing solar energy to run the agribot. In this
machine, solar panel is used to capture solar energy and then it is converted into electrical energy which
is used to charge battery, which then gives the necessary power to a shunt wound DC motor. The
sensors are used with the help of Wi-Fi interface operated on Android Application to maneuver robot in
the field. This brings down labour dependency. Seed sowing and digging robot will move on various
ground contours and performs digging, sowing the seed and covers the ground by closing it [7].
S. Umarkar "Automated seed sowing agribot using arduino," 2016 At each sensing point, data acquired
from multiple sensors is processed locally to decide the necessity of irrigation and accordingly farm is
watered. Further, Agribot acts as an IoT device and transmits the data collected from multiple sensors to
a remote server using Wi-Fi link [8].
D. S. Rahul, S. K. Sudarshan, K. Meghana, K. N. Nandan, R. Kirthana and P. Sure (2018), Designed an
IoT based solar powered Agribot that automates irrigation task and enables remote farm monitoring.
While executing the task of irrigation, it moves along a pre-determined path of a given farm, and senses
soil moisture content and temperature at regular points [9].
S. Gupta, R. Devsani, S. Katkar, R. Ingale, P. A. Kulkarni and M. Wyawhare (2020), fabricated an
agribot which is a multipurpose bot can perform all the farming operations including ploughing the soil
of the field, sowing seeds in the ploughing area, making the field in plain by using leveler, watering the
crops, fertilizing them and monitor the agribot by using camera. The traditional farming methods
consume a lot of manual labour [10].
Khan, M. (2011) - "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Seed Sowing: A Review". This literature
review explores the use of solar-powered agricultural robots for seed sowing. It discusses the benefits of
using solar energy for farming and the challenges associated with designing and implementing solar-
powered agricultural robots [11].
Liu, H. (2010) - "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Fertilization: A Review". This literature review
examines the use of solar-powered agricultural robots for fertilization It examines the benefits of
incorporating solar energy into agricultural tasks and the challenges faced in developing and deploying
solar-powered agricultural robots [12].
Malik, A. (2009) - "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Crop Monitoring: A Review". This literature
review explores the use of solar-powered agricultural robots for crop monitoring. It elaborates on the
perks of integrating solar energy into farming tasks and the obstacles faced when developing and
deploying solar-powered agricultural robots [13].
Nadeem, A. (2008) - "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Weed Control: A Review". This literature
review examines the use of solar-powered agricultural robots for weed control. It discusses the benefits
of using solar energy for farming and the challenges associated with designing and implementing solar-
powered agricultural robots [14].
Omar, M. (2007) - "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Crop Harvesting: A Review". This literature
review explores the use of solar-powered agricultural robots for crop harvesting. The manuscript
examines the benefits of harnessing solar power in farming activities and the challenges encountered in
designing and deploying solar-powered farming machinery [15].
Patel, S. (2006) - "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Soil Cultivation: A Review". This literature
review examines the use of solar-powered agricultural robots for soil cultivation. It discusses the
benefits of using solar energy for farming and the challenges associated with designing and
implementing solar-powered agricultural robots [16].
Qureshi, K. (2005) - "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Fertilization: A Review". This literature
review explores the use of solar-powered agricultural robots for fertilization. The manuscript examines
the benefits of harnessing solar power in farming activities and the challenges encountered in designing
and deploying solar-powered farming machinery [17].
Rahman, A. (2004) - "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Crop Dusting: A Review". This literature
review examines the use of solar-powered agricultural robots for crop dusting. It addresses the benefits
of utilizing solar energy in agricultural tasks and the difficulties faced when developing and deploying
[18].
Sadiq, M. (2003) - "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Seed Sowing: A Review". This literature
review explores the use of solar-powered agricultural robots for seed sowing. It discusses the benefits of
using solar energy for farming and the challenges associated with designing and implementing solar-
powered agricultural robots [19].
Tariq, M. (2002) - "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Irrigation: A Review". This literature review
examines the use of solar-powered agricultural robots for irrigation. It elaborates on the perks of
integrating solar energy into farming practices and the hurdles faced when developing and deploying
solar-powered agricultural robots [20].
 CHAPTER 3
EXISTING SYSTEM
There are several systems and prototypes for solar-powered IoT (Internet of Things) agribots, also
known as agricultural robots. These robots are designed to assist in various agricultural activities, such
as planting, monitoring crops, and harvesting. They are typically equipped with sensors, cameras, and
other devices to collect data and perform tasks autonomously or semi-autonomously. Here is an
overview of some of the key aspects of these systems:
Solar Power: One of the primary features of these agribots is their ability to operate using solar power.
Solar panels are typically integrated into the robot's design, allowing them to recharge their batteries
during the day. This enables the robots to operate for extended periods without the need for manual
recharging.
IoT Connectivity: IoT agribots are equipped with various sensors and communication modules that
enable them to collect and transmit data in real-time. This data can include information about soil
moisture levels, temperature, humidity, and more. The robots can use this data to make informed
decisions about irrigation, fertilization, and other agricultural tasks.
Autonomous Navigation: Many agribots are equipped with advanced navigation systems that allow
them to move autonomously through fields. These systems use GPS, LiDAR, or other technologies to
create maps of the environment and plan efficient routes.
Task-Specific Tools: Agribots can be equipped with a variety of tools and attachments depending on
the specific tasks they are designed to perform. For example, some robots are designed for planting
seeds, while others are designed for harvesting crops.
Remote Monitoring and Control: Farmers can monitor and control agribots remotely using
smartphones or other devices. This allows them to check on the progress of tasks, make adjustments to
the robot's operation, and receive alerts if any issues arise.
Data Analysis and Insights: Agribots collect a wealth of data about the farm's environment and crops.
This data can be analyzed using machine learning algorithms to provide insights that can help farmers
make more informed decisions about crop management.
 CHAPTER 4
PROPOSED SYSTEMS
Solar-powered IoT agribots are a promising innovation in agriculture. These robots are designed to
assist farmers in various tasks, from planting to harvesting, using renewable energy sources such as
solar power. By incorporating IoT connectivity, these robots can collect real-time data about
environmental conditions and crop health, enabling farmers to make data-driven decisions.
The proposed system aims to create a solar-powered agricultural robot capable of autonomous
ploughing, seeding, and watering, thereby reducing labour costs and increasing crop yields.The system
will integrate various hardware modules such as a microcontroller (Arduino ATMEGA328), DC
motors, motor driver IC, water sprinkler, seed release mechanism, plough mechanism, and sensors for
temperature, humidity, and soil moisture. The robot will be equipped with an IoT device to enable
remote monitoring and control via an IoT application. This allows farmers to receive real-time data on
field conditions and control the robot's actions from a distance. The system will be powered by solar
energy, reducing reliance on traditional energy sources and minimizing the environmental impact. The
Arduino IDE will be used for Embedded C programming to control the microcontroller and its
peripherals. This will allow for precise control of the robot's actions and efficient use of resources. By
automating labour-intensive tasks and optimizing resource usage, the proposed system can help farmers
increase productivity, reduce costs, and improve overall crop quality. Additionally, the use of solar
power and IoT connectivity aligns with sustainable agricultural practices, making the system
environmentally friendly.

BLOCK DIAGRAM
A solar-powered IoT agribot integrates several key components to facilitate efficient and automated
agricultural operations. At its core are solar panels, strategically mounted on the agribot's structure to
harness sunlight and convert it into electrical energy. This energy is managed by a charge controller,
which regulates voltage and current to ensure optimal charging of the battery system. The battery serves
as an energy reservoir, storing excess power generated during peak sunlight hours for use during periods
of low light or high demand.

A microcontroller acts as the brain of the agribot, orchestrating its operation by collecting data from an
array of sensors dispersed throughout the system. These sensors, which include temperature, humidity,
soil moisture, and pH sensors, provide real-time environmental data crucial for precision agriculture.
Furthermore, an IoT module enables seamless communication between the agribot and external devices
or cloud-based platforms. This connectivity allows for remote monitoring and control, empowering
farmers to access critical information and make informed decisions from anywhere with internet access.
Data logging and storage mechanisms ensure that historical data is captured for analysis and future
planning. The user interface plays a vital role in facilitating interaction between the agribot and its
operators. Whether through a display screen, mobile application, or web-based dashboard, farmers can
set parameters, monitor performance, and receive alerts or notifications regarding the agribot's status.
Additionally, a communication interface enables collaboration between multiple agribots or integration
with centralized farm management systems, enhancing overall efficiency and productivity in
agricultural operations. In summary, the block diagram of a solar-powered IoT agribot illustrates a
sophisticated ecosystem designed to revolutionize farming practices through automation, data-driven
decision-making, and sustainable energy solutions.
WORKING:
The solar-powered IoT agribot operates through a systematic workflow encompassing five distinct
sections. At its core lies the Solar Power Battery, serving as the primary energy source. Solar panels
capture sunlight, converting it into electrical energy stored within the battery, ensuring a sustainable
power supply for the entire system's operation.
Moving into the Input Section, two key modules come into play. Firstly, the IoT Module establishes
connectivity between the agribot and external systems, enabling remote monitoring and control. This
module also facilitates data exchange, allowing for seamless integration with cloud-based platforms for
comprehensive data analysis and management. Secondly, an array of sensors, including Temperature,
Humidity, and Soil Moisture sensors, gather vital environmental data crucial for informed decision-
making in agricultural operations. These sensors continuously monitor various parameters, providing
real-time insights into the crop conditions and surrounding environment.
Transitioning to the Output Section, the IoT Module continues its role, facilitating communication with
external devices and platforms. It relays processed data and status updates, ensuring farmers have access
to relevant information wherever they are. The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) serves as a user-friendly
interface, offering real-time feedback on the agribot's operation. Farmers can monitor sensor readings,
system status, and receive alerts directly from the display, enhancing operational transparency and
efficiency. Additionally, DC Motors act as the physical actuators of the agribot, executing commands
from the Arduino microcontroller for tasks such as propulsion, steering, and mechanical operations.
At the heart of the agribot lies the Arduino Microcontroller, orchestrating the entire system's
functionality. It receives data from sensors, processes it using predefined algorithms, and issues
commands to actuators based on programmed logic. The Arduino IDE Software serves as the
development environment for programming and uploading code to the microcontroller. Programmers
can customize algorithms and logic to suit specific agricultural tasks and operational requirements,
ensuring the agribot operates autonomously and efficiently.
In essence, these sections and modules work cohesively to create a sophisticated agricultural automation
system. By harnessing solar energy, gathering environmental data, and enabling remote monitoring and
control, the solar-powered IoT agribot optimizes agricultural operations, enhancing productivity, and
sustainability in farming practices.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
 The above figure is the schematic diagram of Solar powered IoT Agribot. It shows how the components
are connected to the microcontroller and to what pins.
 ARDUINO ATmega328P, this microcontroller serves as the central control unit for the entire circuit.
 12V Battery, The power source for the system.
 Solar Panel, another power source, likely for recharging the battery.
 Soil Sensor, Monitors soil conditions and provides data to the ARDUINO.
 “Robot Left” (M1) and “Robot Right” (M2) motors are controlled by an L293D Motor Driver connected
to the ARDUINO for directional control.
 “Plough” (M3) and “Seed” (M4) motors are also managed by an L293D Motor Driver.
 IoT Module enables remote monitoring or control via internet connectivity.
 16x2 LCD Display used for real-time data output or system status display.
 Relay Module controls a pump (powered by +5V) for irrigation or other purposes.
 Battery and Solar Panel, both feed into a Bridge Rectifier, which connects to the ARDUINO.
 Soil Sensor connected to an analog input pin on the ARDUINO.
 Motors (M1, M2, M3, M4), connected to the ARDUINO via the L293D Motor Drivers.
 IoT Module and LCD Display, wired to the ARDUINO for data communication.
 CHAPTER 5
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

5.1 Embedded Systems:

An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a few dedicated
functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often
including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a personal
computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of end-user needs. Embedded
systems control many devices in common use today.
Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores that are
typically either microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic, however, is
being dedicated to handle a particular task, which may require very powerful processors. For example,
air traffic control systems may usefully be viewed as embedded, even though they involve mainframe
computers and dedicated regional and national networks between airports and radar sites. (Each radar
probably includes one or more embedded systems of its own.)
Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it
to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and performance. Some embedded
systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.
Physically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and
MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems
controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to
very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.
In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable term, as most systems have
some element of extensibility or programmability. For example, handheld computers share some
elements with embedded systems such as the operating systems and microprocessors which power
them, but they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected. Moreover,
even systems which don't expose programmability as a primary feature generally need to support
software updates. On a continuum from "general purpose" to "embedded", large application systems
will have subcomponents at most points even if the system as a whole is "designed to perform one or a
few dedicated functions", and is thus appropriate to call "embedded". A modern example of embedded
system is shown in fig: 2.1.
 Fig 5.1:A modern example of embedded system
Labeled parts include microprocessor (4), RAM (6), flash memory (7).Embedded
systems programming is not like normal PC programming. In many ways, programming for an
embedded system is like programming PC 15 years ago. The hardware for the system is usually chosen
to make the device as cheap as possible. Spending an extra dollar a unit in order to make things easier to
program can cost millions. Hiring a programmer for an extra month is cheap in comparison. This means
the programmer must make do with slow processors and low memory, while at the same time battling a
need for efficiency not seen in most PC applications. Below is a list of issues specific to the embedded
field.
5.1.1 History:
In the earliest years of computers in the 1930–40s, computers were sometimes dedicated
to a single task, but were far too large and expensive for most kinds of tasks performed by embedded
computers of today. Over time however, the concept of programmable controllers evolved from
traditional electromechanical sequencers, via solid state devices, to the use of computer technology.
One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo Guidance
Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. At the project's
inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo project as it
employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the size and weight. An
early mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance computer for the Minuteman
missile, released in 1961. It was built from transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory. When
the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new computer that was
the first high-volume use of integrated circuits.
2.1.2 Tools:
Embedded development makes up a small fraction of total programming. There's also a
large number of embedded architectures, unlike the PC world where 1 instruction set rules, and the Unix
world where there's only 3 or 4 major ones. This means that the tools are more expensive. It also means
that they're lowering featured, and less developed. On a major embedded project, at some point you will
almost always find a compiler bug of some sort.
Debugging tools are another issue. Since you can't always run general programs on your
embedded processor, you can't always run a debugger on it. This makes fixing your program difficult.
Special hardware such as JTAG ports can overcome this issue in part. However, if you stop on a
breakpoint when your system is controlling real world hardware (such as a motor), permanent
equipment damage can occur. As a result, people doing embedded programming quickly become
masters at using serial IO channels and error message style debugging.
5.1.3 Resources:
To save costs, embedded systems frequently have the cheapest processors that can do the
job. This means your programs need to be written as efficiently as possible. When dealing with large
data sets, issues like memory cache misses that never matter in PC programming can hurt you. Luckily,
this won't happen too often- use reasonably efficient algorithms to start, and optimize only when
necessary. Of course, normal profilers won't work well, due to the same reason debuggers don't work
well.
Memory is also an issue. For the same cost savings reasons, embedded systems usually
have the least memory they can get away with. That means their algorithms must be memory efficient
(unlike in PC programs, you will frequently sacrifice processor time for memory, rather than the
reverse). It also means you can't afford to leak memory. Embedded applications generally use
deterministic memory techniques and avoid the default "new" and "malloc" functions, so that leaks can
be found and eliminated more easily. Other resources programmers expect may not even exist. For
example, most embedded processors do not have hardware FPUs (Floating-Point Processing Unit).
These resources either need to be emulated in software, or avoided altogether.

5.1.4 Real Time Issues:

Embedded systems frequently control hardware, and must be able to respond to them in
real time. Failure to do so could cause inaccuracy in measurements, or even damage hardware such as
motors. This is made even more difficult by the lack of resources available. Almost all embedded
systems need to be able to prioritize some tasks over others, and to be able to put off/skip low priority
tasks such as UI in favor of high priority tasks like hardware control.
5.2 Need For Embedded Systems:
The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless, because every day new products
are introduced to the market that utilizes embedded computers in novel ways. In recent years, hardware
such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA chips have become much cheaper. So when
implementing a new form of control, it's wiser to just buy the generic chip and write your own custom
software for it. Producing a custom-made chip to handle a particular task or set of tasks costs far more
time and money. Many embedded computers even come with extensive libraries, so that "writing your
own software" becomes a very trivial task indeed. From an implementation viewpoint, there is a major
difference between a computer and an embedded system. Embedded systems are often required to
provide Real-Time response. The main elements that make embedded systems unique are its reliability
and ease in debugging.
5.2.1 Debugging:
Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on the facilities
available. From simplest to most sophisticate they can be roughly grouped into the following areas:
 Interactive resident debugging, using the simple shell provided by the embedded operating
system (e.g. Forth and Basic)
 External debugging using logging or serial port output to trace operation using either a monitor
in flash or using a debug server like the Remedy Debugger which even works for heterogeneous multi
core systems.
 An in-circuit debugger (ICD), a hardware device that connects to the microprocessor via a JTAG
or Nexus interface. This allows the operation of the microprocessor to be controlled externally, but is
typically restricted to specific debugging capabilities in the processor.
 An in-circuit emulator replaces the microprocessor with a simulated equivalent, providing full
control over all aspects of the microprocessor.
 A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware, allowing all of it to be
controlled and modified and allowing debugging on a normal PC.
 Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and run software
through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start or stop its operation. The view of the
code may be as assembly code or source-code.
Because an embedded system is often composed of a wide variety of elements, the
debugging strategy may vary. For instance, debugging a software(and microprocessor) centric
embedded system is different from debugging an embedded system where most of the processing is
performed by peripherals (DSP, FPGA, co-processor). An increasing number of embedded systems
today use more than one single processor core. A common problem with multi-core development is the
proper synchronization of software execution. In such a case, the embedded system design may wish to
check the data traffic on the busses between the processor cores, which requires very low-level
debugging, at signal/bus level, with a logic analyzer, for instance.
5.2.2 Reliability:
Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run continuously for
years without errors and in some cases recover by them if an error occurs. Therefore the software is
usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and unreliable mechanical
moving parts such as disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided.
Specific reliability issues may include:
 The system cannot safely be shut down for repair, or it is too inaccessible to repair. Examples
include space systems, undersea cables, navigational beacons, bore-hole systems, and automobiles.
 The system must be kept running for safety reasons. "Limp modes" are less tolerable. Often
backups are selected by an operator. Examples include aircraft navigation, reactor control systems,
safety-critical chemical factory controls, train signals, engines on single-engine aircraft.
 The system will lose large amounts of money when shut down: Telephone switches, factory
controls, bridge and elevator controls, funds transfer and market making, automated sales and service.
A variety of techniques are used, sometimes in combination, to recover from errors—
both software bugs such as memory leaks, and also soft errors in the hardware:
 Watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software periodically notifies the watchdog
 Subsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to
 software "limp modes" that provide partial function
 Designing with a Trusted Computing Base (TCB) architecture[6] ensures a highly secure &
reliable system environment
 An Embedded Hypervisor is able to provide secure encapsulation for any subsystem component,
so that a compromised software component cannot interfere with other subsystems, or privileged-level
system software. This encapsulation keeps faults from propagating from one subsystem to another,
improving reliability. This may also allow a subsystem to be automatically shut down and restarted on
fault detection.
 Immunity Aware Programming
5.3 Explanation of Embedded Systems:
5.3.1 Software Architecture:
There are several different types of software architecture in common use.
 Simple Control Loop:
 In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls subroutines, each of which
manages a part of the hardware or software.
 Interrupt Controlled System:
Some embedded systems are predominantly interrupting controlled. This means that
tasks performed by the system are triggered by different kinds of events. An interrupt could be
generated for example by a timer in a predefined frequency, or by a serial port controller receiving a
byte. These kinds of systems are used if event handlers need low latency and the event handlers are
short and simple.
Usually these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but this task is not
very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler will add longer tasks to a queue
structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has finished, these tasks are executed by the main loop. This
method brings the system close to a multitasking kernel with discrete processes.
 Cooperative Multitasking:
A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple control loop scheme,
except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer defines a series of tasks, and each task gets its
own environment to “run” in. When a task is idle, it calls an idle routine, usually called “pause”, “wait”,
“yield”, “nop” (stands for no operation), etc.The advantages and disadvantages are very similar to the
control loop, except that adding new software is easier, by simply writing a new task, or adding to the
queue-interpreter.
 Primitive Multitasking:
In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or threads based
on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level at which the system is generally considered to
have an "operating system" kernel. Depending on how much functionality is required, it introduces
more or less of the complexities of managing multiple tasks running conceptually in parallel.
As any code can potentially damage the data of another task (except in larger systems
using an MMU) programs must be carefully designed and tested, and access to shared data must be
controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as message queues, semaphores or a non-blocking
synchronization scheme.
Because of these complexities, it is common for organizations to buy a real-time
operating system, allowing the application programmers to concentrate on device functionality rather
than operating system services, at least for large systems; smaller systems often cannot afford the
overhead associated with a generic real time system, due to limitations regarding memory size,
performance, and/or battery life.
 Microkernels And Exokernels:
 A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS. The usual arrangement is that the
operating system kernel allocates memory and switches the CPU to different threads of execution. User
mode processes implement major functions such as file systems, network interfaces, etc.
In general, microkernels succeed when the task switching and intertask communication is
fast, and fail when they are slow. Exokernels communicate efficiently by normal subroutine calls. The
hardware and all the software in the system are available to, and extensible by application programmers.
Based on performance, functionality, requirement the embedded systems are divided into three
categories:
5.3.2 Stand Alone Embedded System:
These systems takes the input in the form of electrical signals from transducers or
commands from human beings such as pressing of a button etc.., process them and produces desired
output. This entire process of taking input, processing it and giving output is done in standalone mode.
Such embedded systems comes under stand alone embedded systems
Eg: microwave oven, air conditioner etc..
5.3.3 Real-time embedded systems:
Embedded systems which are used to perform a specific task or operation in a specific
time period those systems are called as real-time embedded systems. There are two types of real-time
embedded systems.
 Hard Real-time embedded systems:
These embedded systems follow an absolute dead line time period i.e.., if the tasking is
not done in a particular time period then there is a cause of damage to the entire equipment.
Eg: consider a system in which we have to open a valve within 30 milliseconds. If this valve is
not opened in 30 ms this may cause damage to the entire equipment. So in such cases we use embedded
systems for doing automatic operations.
 Soft Real Time embedded systems:
These embedded systems follow a relative dead line time period i.e.., if the task is not
done in a particular time that will not cause damage to the equipment.
Eg: Consider a TV remote control system , if the remote control takes a few milliseconds delay
it will not cause damage either to the TV or to the remote control. These systems which will not cause
damage when they are not operated at considerable time period those systems comes under soft real-
time embedded systems.
5.3.4 Network communication embedded systems:
A wide range network interfacing communication is provided by using embedded systems.
Eg:
 Consider a web camera that is connected to the computer with internet can be used to spread
communication like sending pictures, images, videos etc.., to another computer with internet connection
throughout anywhere in the world.
 Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.
Whenever a person comes near the door, it captures the image of a person and sends to
the desktop of your computer which is connected to internet. This gives an alerting message with image
on to the desktop of your computer, and then you can open the door lock just by clicking the mouse.
Fig: 5.2 show the network communications in embedded systems.

Fig 5.2: Network communication embedded systems

5.3.5 Different types of processing units:
The central processing unit (c.p.u) can be any one of the following microprocessor,
microcontroller, digital signal processing.
 Among these Microcontroller is of low cost processor and one of the main advantage of
microcontrollers is, the components such as memory, serial communication interfaces, analog to digital
converters etc.., all these are built on a single chip. The numbers of external components that are
connected to it are very less according to the application.
 Microprocessors are more powerful than microcontrollers. They are used in major applications
with a number of tasking requirements. But the microprocessor requires many external components like
memory, serial communication, hard disk, input output ports etc.., so the power consumption is also
very high when compared to microcontrollers.
 Digital signal processing is used mainly for the applications that particularly involved with
processing of signals
5.4 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:
5.4.1 Consumer applications:
 At home we use a number of embedded systems which include microwave oven, remote
control, vcd players, dvd players, camera etc….

Fig5.3: Automatic coffee makes equipment

5.4.2 Office automation:
We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc…

Fig5.4: Fax machine Fig5.5: Printing machine

5.4.3. Industrial automation:

Today a lot of industries are using embedded systems for process control. In industries
we design the embedded systems to perform a specific operation like monitoring temperature, pressure,
humidity ,voltage, current etc.., and basing on these monitored levels we do control other devices, we
can send information to a centralized monitoring station.
 Fig5.6: Robot
In critical industries where human presence is avoided there we can use robots which are
programmed to do a specific operation.
5.4.5 Computer networking:
Embedded systems are used as bridges routers etc..

Fig5.7: Computer networking

5.4.6 Tele communications:

Cell phones, web cameras etc.

 Fig5.8: Cell Phone Fig5.9: Web camera

CHAPTER 6
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

6.1 Micro controller:

Fig: 6.1 Microcontrollers

6.1.1 Introduction to Microcontrollers:
 Circumstances that we find ourselves in today in the field of microcontrollers had their
beginnings in the development of technology of integrated circuits. This development has made it
possible to store hundreds of thousands of transistors into one chip.

Fig: 6.2 Architecture

That was a prerequisite for production of microprocessors, and the first computers were made by adding
external peripherals such as memory, input-output lines, timers and other. Further increasing of the
volume of the package resulted in creation of integrated circuits. These integrated circuits contained
both processor and peripherals. That is how the first chip containing a microcomputer, or what would
later be known as a microcontroller came about.

Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems products.

Microcontroller is a programmable device. A microcontroller has a CPU in addition to a fixed amount
of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and a timer embedded all on a single chip. The fixed amount of on-chip
ROM, RAM and number of I/O ports in microcontrollers makes them ideal for many applications in
which cost and space are critical.

6.2 AVR-ARDUINO MICROCONTROLLER:

 Figure 6.3 ARDUINO Development Board

The AVR is a modified Harvard architecture 8-bit RISC single chip microcontroller which was
developed by Atmel in 1996. The AVR was one of the first microcontroller families to use on-chip flash
memory for program storage, as opposed to One-Time Programmable ROM, EPROM,
or EEPROM used by other microcontrollers at the time.

6.3 Crystal Oscillator:

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be
configured for use as an On-chip Oscillator, Either a quartz
Crystal or a ceramic resonator may be used. The CKOPT Fuse selects between two different
Oscillator amplifier modes. When CKOPT is programmed, the Oscillator output will oscillate a full rail-
to-rail swing on the output. This mode is suitable when operating in a very noisy environment or when
the output from XTAL2 drives a second clock buffer. This mode has a wide frequency range. When
CKOPT is unprogrammed, the Oscillator has a smaller output swing. This reduces power consumption
considerably.
 Figure 6.4 crystal oscillator

This mode has a limited frequency range and it cannot be used to drive other clock buffers. For
resonators, the maximum frequency is 8 MHz with CKOPT unprogrammed and 16 MHz with CKOPT
programmed. C1 and C2 should always be equal for both crystals and resonators. The optimal value of
the capacitors depends on the crystal or resonator in use, the amount of stray capacitance, and the
electromagnetic noise of the environment. For ceramic resonators, the capacitor values given by the
manufacturer should be used. The Oscillator can operate in three different modes, each optimized for a
specific frequency range. The operating mode is selected by the fuses CKSEL3..1

6.4 Architecture:
Memory: It has 8 Kb of Flash program memory (10,000 Write/Erase cycles durability), 512 Bytes of
EEPROM (100,000 Write/Erase Cycles). 1Kbyte Internal SRAM
I/O Ports: 23 I/ line can be obtained from three ports; namely Port B, Port C and Port D.
Interrupts: Two External Interrupt source, located at port D. 19 different interrupt vectors supporting
19 events generated by internal peripherals.
Timer/Counter: Three Internal Timers are available, two 8 bit, one 16 bit, offering various operating
modes and supporting internal or external clocking.
SPI (Serial Peripheral interface): ATmega8 holds three communication devices integrated. One of
them is Serial Peripheral Interface. Four pins are assigned to Atmega8 to implement this scheme of
communication.
USART: One of the most powerful communication solutions is USART and ATmega8 supports both
synchronous and asynchronous data transfer schemes. It has three pins assigned for that. In many
projects, this module is extensively used for PC-Micro controller communication.
 TWI (Two Wire Interface): Another communication device that is present in ATmega8 is Two Wire
Interface. It allows designers to set up a commutation between two devices using just two wires along
with a common ground connection, As the TWI output is made by means of open collector outputs, thus
external pull up resistors are required to make the circuit.
Analog Comparator: A comparator module is integrated in the IC that provides comparison facility
between two voltages connected to the two inputs of the Analog comparator via External pins attached
to the micro controller.
Analog to Digital Converter: Inbuilt analog to digital converter can convert an analog input signal into
digital data of 10bit resolution. For most of the low end application, this much resolution is enough.

FIG 6.5 AVR Architecture

Microcontroller: Microcontroller can be termed as a single on chip computer which includes number
of peripherals like RAM, EEPROM, Timers etc., required to perform some predefined task.
The computer on one hand is designed to perform all the general purpose tasks on a single machine like
you can use a computer to run a software to perform calculations or you can use a computer to store
some multimedia file or to access internet through the browser, whereas the microcontrollers are meant
to perform only the specific tasks, for e.g., switching the AC off automatically when room temperature
drops to a certain defined limit and again turning it ON when temperature rises above the defined limit.
There are number of popular families of microcontrollers which are used in different applications as per
their capability and feasibility to perform the desired task, most common of these
are 8051, AVR and PIC microcontrollers. In this article we will introduce you with AVR family of
microcontrollers.
AVR was developed in the year 1996 by Atmel Corporation. The architecture of AVR was developed
by Alf-Egil Bogen and Vegard Wollan. AVR derives its name from its developers and stands for Alf-
Egil Bogen Vegard Wollan RISC microcontroller, also known as Advanced Virtual RISC. The
AT90S8515 was the first microcontroller which was based on AVR architecture however the first
microcontroller to hit the commercial market was AT90S1200 in the year 1997.
AVR microcontrollers are available in three categories:
1. TinyAVR – Less memory, small size, suitable only for simpler applications
2. MegaAVR – These are the most popular ones having good amount of memory (upto 256 KB),
higher number of inbuilt peripherals and suitable for moderate to complex applications.
3. XmegaAVR – Used commercially for complex applications, which require large program
memory and high speed.

Device architecture
Flash, EEPROM, and SRAM are all integrated onto a single chip, removing the need for external
memory in most applications. Some devices have a parallel external bus option to allow adding
additional data memory or memory-mapped devices. Almost all devices (except the smallest TinyAVR
chips) have serial interfaces, which can be used to connect larger serial EEPROMs or flash chips.
Program memory
Program instructions are stored in non-volatile flash memory. Although the MCUs are 8-bit, each
instruction takes one or two 16-bit words.
The size of the program memory is usually indicated in the naming of the device itself (e.g., the
ATmega64x line has 64 kB of flash while the ATmega32x line has 32 kB).
There is no provision for off-chip program memory; all code executed by the AVR core must reside in
the on-chip flash. However, this limitation does not apply to the AT94 FPSLIC AVR/FPGA chips.
Internal data memory
The data address space consists of the register file, I/O registers, and SRAM.
Internal registers
The AVRs have 32 single-byte registers and are classified as 8-bit RISC devices.
In most variants of the AVR architecture, the working registers are mapped in as the first 32 memory
addresses (000016–001F16) followed by the 64 I/O registers (002016–005F16).
Actual SRAM starts after these register sections (address 0060 16). (Note that the I/O register space may
be larger on some more extensive devices, in which case the memory mapped I/O registers will occupy
a portion of the SRAM address space.)
Even though there are separate addressing schemes and optimized opcodes for register file and I/O
register access, all can still be addressed and manipulated as if they were in SRAM.
In the XMEGA variant, the working register file is not mapped into the data address space; as such, it is
not possible to treat any of the XMEGA's working registers as though they were SRAM. Instead, the
I/O registers are mapped into the data address space starting at the very beginning of the address space.
Additionally, the amount of data address space dedicated to I/O registers has grown substantially to
4096 bytes (000016–0FFF16). As with previous generations, however, the fast I/O manipulation
instructions can only reach the first 64 I/O register locations (the first 32 locations for bitwise
instructions). Following the I/O registers, the XMEGA series sets aside a 4096 byte range of the data
address space which can be used optionally for mapping the internal EEPROM to the data address space
(100016–1FFF16). The actual SRAM is located after these ranges, starting at 200016.
EEPROM
Almost all AVR microcontrollers have internal EEPROM for semi-permanent data storage. Like flash
memory, EEPROM can maintain its contents when electrical power is removed.
In most variants of the AVR architecture, this internal EEPROM memory is not mapped into the MCU's
addressable memory space. It can only be accessed the same way an external peripheral device is, using
special pointer registers and read/write instructions which makes EEPROM access much slower than
other internal RAM.
However, some devices in the SecureAVR (AT90SC) family use a special EEPROM mapping to the
data or program memory depending on the configuration. The XMEGA family also allows the
EEPROM to be mapped into the data address space.
Since the number of writes to EEPROM is not unlimited — Atmel specifies 100,000 write cycles in
their datasheets — a well designed EEPROM write routine should compare the contents of an EEPROM
address with desired contents and only perform an actual write if the contents need to be changed.
Note that erase and write can be performed separately in many cases, byte-by-byte, which may also help
prolong life when bits only need to be set to all 1s (erase) or selectively cleared to 0s (write).
Program execution
Atmel's AVRs have a two stage, single level pipeline design. This means the next machine instruction is
fetched as the current one is executing. Most instructions take just one or two clock cycles, making
AVRs relatively fast among eight-bit microcontrollers.
The AVR processors were designed with the efficient execution of compiled C code in mind and have
several built-in pointers for the task.
MCU speed
The AVR line can normally support clock speeds from 0 to 20 MHz, with some devices reaching
32 MHz. Lower powered operation usually requires a reduced clock speed. All recent (Tiny, Mega, and
Xmega, but not 90S) AVRs feature an on-chip oscillator, removing the need for external clocks or
resonator circuitry. Some AVRs also have a system clock prescaler that can divide down the system
clock by up to 1024. This prescaler can be reconfigured by software during run-time, allowing the clock
speed to be optimized.
Since all operations (excluding literals) on registers R0 - R31 are single cycle, the AVR can achieve up
to 1 MIPS per MHz, i.e. an 8 MHz processor can achieve up to 8 MIPS. Loads and stores to/from
memory take two cycles, branching takes two cycles. Branches in the latest "3-byte PC" parts such as
ATmega2560 are one cycle slower than on previous devices
Features:
• High-performance, Low-power Atmel®AVR® 8-bit Microcontroller
• Advanced RISC Architecture
– 130 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution
– 32 × 8 General Purpose Working Registers
– Fully Static Operation
– Up to 16MIPS Throughput at 16MHz
– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
• High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments
– 8Kbytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory
– 512Bytes EEPROM
– 1Kbyte Internal SRAM
– Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM
– Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C(1)
– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits
In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program
True Read-While-Write Operation
– Programming Lock for Software Security
• Peripheral Features
– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one Compare Mode
– One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture
Mode
– Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
– Three PWM Channels
– 8-channel ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package
Eight Channels 10-bit Accuracy
– 6-channel ADC in PDIP package
Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy
– Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
– Programmable Serial USART
– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
– On-chip Analog Comparator
• Special Microcontroller Features
– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
– Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
– External and Internal Interrupt Sources
– Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, and
Standby
• I/O and Packages
– 23 Programmable I/O Lines
– 28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF
• Operating Voltages
– 2.7V - 5.5V (ATmega8L)
– 4.5V - 5.5V (ATmega8)
• Speed Grades
– 0 - 8MHz (ATmega8L)
– 0 - 16MHz (ATmega8)
• Power Consumption at 4Mhz, 3V, 25oC
– Active: 3.6mA
– Idle Mode: 1.0mA
– Power-down Mode: 0.5µA
Brown-out Detector:
If the Brown-out Detector is not needed in the application, this module should be turned off. If the
Brown-out Detector is enabled by the BODEN Fuse, it will be enabled in all sleep modes, and hence,
always consume power. In the deeper sleep modes, this will contribute significantly to the total current
consumption. Refer to “Brown-out Detection” on page 38 for details on how to configure the Brown-out
Detector.
Internal Voltage Reference the Internal Voltage Reference will be enabled when needed by the Brown-
out Detector, the Analog Comparator or the ADC. If these modules are disabled as described in the
sections above, the internal voltage reference will be disabled and it will not be consuming power.
When turned on again, the user must allow the reference to start up before the output is used. If the
reference is kept on in sleep mode, the output can be used immediately. Refer to “Internal Voltage
Reference” on page 40 for details on the start-up time. Watchdog Timer If the Watchdog Timer is not
needed in the application, this module should be turned off.
If the Watchdog Timer is enabled, it will be enabled in all sleep modes, and hence, always consume
power. In the deeper sleep modes, this will contribute significantly to the total current consumption.
Refer to “Watchdog Timer” on page 41 for details on how to configure the Watchdog Timer. Port Pins
When entering a sleep mode, all port pins should be configured to use minimum power.
The most important thing is then to ensure that no pins drive resistive loads. In sleep modes where the
both the I/O clock (clkI/O) and the ADC clock (clkADC) are stopped, the input buffers of the device
will be disabled. This ensures that no power is consumed by the input logic when not needed. In some
cases, the input logic is needed for detecting wake-up conditions, and it will then be enabled. Refer to
the section “Digital Input Enable and Sleep Modes” on page 53 for details on which pins are enabled. If
the input buffer is enabled and the input signal is left floating or have an analog signal level close to
VCC/2, the input buffer will use excessive power.
Power-on Reset:
A Power-on Reset (POR) pulse is generated by an On-chip detection circuit. The detection level is
defined in Table 15. The POR is activated whenever VCC is below the detection level. The POR circuit
can be used to trigger the Start-up Reset, as well as to detect a failure in supply voltage.
A Power-on Reset (POR) circuit ensures that the device is reset from Power-on. Reaching the Power-on
Reset threshold voltage invokes the delay counter, which determines how long the device is kept in
RESET after VCC rise. The RESET signal is activated again, without any delay, when VCC decreases
below the detection level.
External Reset:
An External Reset is generated by a low level on the RESET pin. Reset pulses longer than the minimum
pulse width (see Table 15) will generate a reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter pulses are not
guaranteed to generate a reset. When the applied signal reaches the Reset Threshold Voltage – VRST on
its positive edge, the delay counter starts the MCU after the time-out period tTOUT has expired.
6.5 Pin diagram:
 Fig.6.6 PIN DIAGRAM OF ATMEGA328

Fig.6.7 PIN DIAGRAM OF ATMEGA328

VCC
Digital supply voltage magnitude of the voltage range between 4.5 to 5.5 V for the ATmega8 and 2.7 to
5.5 V for ATmega8L
GND
Ground Zero reference digital voltage supply.
PORTB (PB7.. PB0)
PORTB is a port I / O two-way (bidirectional) 8-bit with internal pull-up resistor can be selected. This
port output buffers have symmetrical characteristics when used as a source or sink. When used as an
input, the pull-pin low externally will emit a current if the pull-up resistor is activated it. PORTB pins
will be in the condition of the tri-state when RESET is active, although the clock is not running.
PORTC (PC5.. PC0)
PORTC is a port I / O two-way (bidirectional) 7-bit with internal pull-up resistor can be selected. This
port output buffers have symmetrical characteristics when used as a source or sink. When used as an
input, the pull-pin low externally will emit a current if the pull-up resistor is activated it. PORTC pins
will be in the condition of the tri-state when RESET is active, although the clock is not running.
PC6/RESET
If RSTDISBL Fuse programmed, PC6 then serves as a pin I / O but with different characteristics. PC0
to PC5 If Fuse RSTDISBL not programmed, then serves as input Reset PC6. LOW signal on this pin
with a minimum width of 1.5 microseconds will bring the microcontroller into reset condition, although
the clock is not running.
PORTD (PD7.. PD0)
PORTD is a port I / O two-way (bidirectional) 8-bit with internal pull-up resistor can be selected. This
port output buffers have symmetrical characteristics when used as a source or sink. When used as an
input, the pull-pin low externally will emit a current if the pull-up resistor is activated it. PORTD pins
will be in the condition of the tri-state when RESET is active, although the clock is not running.
RESET
Reset input pin. LOW signal on this pin with a minimum width of 1.5 microseconds will bring the
microcontroller into reset condition, although the clock is not running. Signal with a width of less than
1.5 microseconds does not guarantee a Reset condition.
AVCC
AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the ADC, PC3 .. PC0, and ADC7..ADC6. This pin should be
connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, AVCC should be connected to
VCC through a low-pass filter to reduce noise.
Aref
Analog Reference pin for the ADC.
ADC7 .. ADC6
ADC analog input there is only on ATmega8 with TQFP and QFP packages / MLF.
PORTS
Term "port" refers to a group of pins on a microcontroller which can be accessed simultaneously, or on
which we can set the desired combination of zeros and ones, or read from them an existing status.
Physically, port is a register inside a microcontroller which is connected by wires to the pins of a
microcontroller. Ports represent physical connection of Central Processing Unit with an outside world.
Microcontroller uses them
The Atmega8 has 23 I/O ports which are organized into 3 groups:
 Port B (PB0 to PB7)
 Port C (PC0 to PC6)
 Port D (PD0 to PD7)
We will use mainly 3 registers known as DDRX, PORTX & PINX. We have total four PORTs on my
ATmega16. They are PORTA, PORTB, PORTC and PORTD. They are multifunctional pins. Each of
the pins in each port (total 32) can be treated as input or output pin.
Applications
AVR microcontroller perfectly fits many uses, from automotive industries and controlling home
appliances to industrial instruments, remote sensors, electrical door locks and safety devices. It is also
ideal for smart cards as well as for battery supplied devices because of its low consumption.
EEPROM memory makes it easier to apply microcontrollers to devices where permanent storage of
various parameters is needed (codes for transmitters, motor speed, receiver frequencies, etc.). Low cost,
low consumption, easy handling and flexibility make ATmega8 applicable even in areas where
microcontrollers had not previously been considered (example: timer functions, interface replacement in
larger systems, coprocessor applications, etc.).
In System Programmability of this chip (along with using only two pins in data transfer) makes possible
the flexibility of a product, after assembling and testing have been completed. This capability can be
used to create assembly-line production, to store calibration data available only after final testing, or it
can be used to improve programs on finished products.
6.6 Regulated Power Supply:
A regulated power supply converts unregulated AC (Alternating Current) to a constant DC (Direct
Current). A regulated power supply is used to ensure that the output remains constant even if the input
changes. A regulated DC power supply is also known as a linear power supply; it is an embedded circuit
and consists of various blocks. The regulated power supply will accept an AC input and give a constant
DC output. The figure below shows the block diagram of a typical regulated DC power supply.
 Figure 6.8 Block diagram of power supply

Figure 6.9 Power supply circuit diagram

Fig6.10 Regulated Power Supply

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led connected as
load is shown in fig: 3.3.3.
 Fig 6.11 Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection
The components mainly used in above figure are
 230V AC MAINS
 TRANSFORMER
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)
 CAPACITOR
 VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)
 RESISTOR
 LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows:
Transformation: The process of transforming energy from one device to another is called
transformation. For transforming energy we use transformers.
Step down transformer:
Incase of step down transformer, Primary winding induces more flux than the secondary
winding, and secondary winding is having less number of turns because of that it accepts less number of
flux, and releases less amount of voltage.

Bridge full wave rectifier:

The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig:3.8, which converts an ac voltage to dc
voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure.
The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally
opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
 For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and
D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance R L and
hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-
directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
Input Output

Fig 6.12 Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

DB107:
Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In our project
we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of DB 107 is shown in fig: 3.3.8.

Fig 6.13. DB107

Capacitor Filtration:

The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a pure direct current using filters
is called as filtration. Electronic filters are electronic circuits, which perform signal-processing
functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted
ones.The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device, and one which stores
energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential (static voltage) across its plates.
In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates that are not connected but are
electrically separated either by air or by an insulating material called the Dielectric. When a voltage is
applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the plates with electrons giving one plate a positive
charge and the other plate an equal and opposite negative charge this flow of electrons to the plates is
known as the Charging Current and continues to flow until the voltage across the plates (and hence the
capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vcc. At this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged and
this is illustrated below. The construction of capacitor and an electrolytic capacitor are shown in figures
3.3.9 and 3.3.10 respectively.

Fig 6.14 Construction Of a Capacitor Fig 6.15 Electrolytic

Voltage Regulation:
The process of converting a varying voltage to a constant regulated voltage is called as
regulation. For the process of regulation we use voltage regulators.

Voltage Regulator:
A voltage regulator (also called a ‘regulator’) with only three terminals appears to be a
simple device, but it is in fact a very complex integrated circuit. It converts a varying input voltage into
a constant ‘regulated’ output voltage. Voltage Regulators are available in a variety of outputs like 5V,
6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series of voltage regulators are designed for positive input. For
applications requiring negative input, the LM79XX series is used. Using a pair of ‘voltage-divider’
resistors can increase the output voltage of a regulator circuit.
It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You cannot use a 12V regulator
to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are very robust. These can withstand over-current draw
due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases, the regulator will cut off before any damage
occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its input. Reverse polarity
destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 3.3.11 shows voltage regulator.

Fig 6.16. Voltage Regulator

Resistor:
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its terminals that is
proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum working voltage and
the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-
known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted
current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the
design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.
dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is calculated using the
following:
 Fig 6.18 Resistor Fig 6.19 Color Bands In Resistor

LED:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LED’s are used as
indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LED’s emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. The internal
structure and parts of a led are shown in figures 3.4.1 and 3.4.2 respectively.

Fig.6.20 Inside a LED Fig 6.21. Parts of a LED

6.8 Buzzer
Basically, the sound source of a piezoelectric sound component is a piezoelectric diaphragm. A
piezoelectric diaphragm consists of a piezoelectric ceramic plate which has electrodes on both sides and
a metal plate (brass or stainless steel, etc.). A piezoelectric ceramic plate is attached to a metal plate
with adhesives. Applying D.C. voltage between electrodes of a piezoelectric diaphragm causes
mechanical distortion due to the piezoelectric effect. For a misshaped piezoelectric element, the
distortion of the piezoelectric element expands in a radial direction. And the piezoelectric diaphragm
bends toward the direction. The metal plate bonded to the piezoelectric element does not expand.
Conversely, when the piezoelectric element shrinks, the piezoelectric diaphragm bends in the direction
Thus, when AC voltage is applied across electrodes, the bending is repeated, producing sound waves in
the air. To interface a buzzer the standard transistor interfacing circuit is used. Note that if a different
power supply is used for the buzzer, the 0V rails of each power supply must be connected to provide a
common reference.
If a battery is used as the power supply, it is worth remembering that piezo sounders
draw much less current than buzzers. Buzzers also just have one ‘tone’, whereas a
piezo sounder is able to create sounds of many different tones. To switch on buzzer -high 1 To switch
off buzzer -low 1

Fig: 6.22 Picture of buzzer

6.9 Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching
mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find applications where it is necessary
to control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one
circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays found extensive use in telephone exchanges and early
computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay that can handle the high power required to
directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no
moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device triggered by light to perform switching. Relays with
calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical
circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by
digital instruments still called "protection relays".

Fig :6.23 Relay circuit

Relay Driver:
The current needed to operate the relay coil is more than can be supplied by most chips (op. amps etc),
so a transistor is usually needed, as shown in the diagram below.
Use BC109C or similar. A resistor of about 4k7 will probably be alright. The diode is needed to short
circuit the high voltage “back emf” induced when current flowing through the coil is suddenly switched
off.
 Fig: 6.24 Relay Driver

6.10 LCD DISPLAY

LCD Background:
One of the most common devices attached to a micro controller is an LCD display. Some of the most
common LCD’s connected to the many microcontrollers are 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16
characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.
Basic 16x 2 Characters LCD

Figure 6.25 LCD Pin diagram

Pin description:
 Pin No. Name Description
Pin no. 1 VSS Power supply (GND)
Pin no. 2 VCC Power supply (+5V)
Pin no. 3 VEE Contrast adjust
0 = Instruction input
Pin no. 4 RS
1 = Data input
0 = Write to LCD module
Pin no. 5 R/W
1 = Read from LCD module
Pin no. 6 EN Enable signal
Pin no. 7 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)
Pin no. 8 D1 Data bus line 1
Pin no. 9 D2 Data bus line 2
Pin no. 10 D3 Data bus line 3
Pin no. 11 D4 Data bus line 4
Pin no. 12 D5 Data bus line 5
Pin no. 13 D6 Data bus line 6
Pin no. 14 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)
Table 1: Character LCD pins with Microcontroller
The LCD requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the data bus. The user may
select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data bus. If a 4-bit data bus is used
the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control lines plus the 4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit
data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the 8 lines for the data
bus).
The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW.
The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that we are sending it data. To
send data to the LCD, our program should make sure this line is low (0) and then set the other two
control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely ready, bring EN high
(1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD to
LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.
The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a
command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the
data being sent is text data which should be displayed on the screen. For example, to display the letter
"T" on the screen we would set RS high.
The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the data
bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or reading)
the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are write commands--
so RW will almost always be low.

Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation selected by
the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5,
DB6, and DB7.
Schematic:

Circuit Description:
Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and Register Select is connected to
the Control Port. The Control Port is an open collector / open drain output. While most Parallel Ports
have internal pull-up resistors, there is a few which don't. Therefore by incorporating the two 10K
external pull up resistors, the circuit is more portable for a wider range of computers, some of which
may have no internal pull up resistors.
We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we hard wire the
R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the data lines. As a
result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us if the LCD has accepted and
finished processing the last instruction. This problem is overcome by inserting known delays into our
program.
The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing fancy here. As with all
the examples, I've left the power supply out. We can use a bench power supply set to 5v or use an
onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling capacitors, especially if we have trouble with the
circuit working properly.
SETB RW
Handling the EN control line:
As we mentioned above, the EN line is used to tell the LCD that we are ready for it to execute
an instruction that we've prepared on the data bus and on the other control lines. Note that the EN line
must be raised/ lowered before/after each instruction sent to the LCD regardless of whether that
instruction is read or write text or instruction. In short, we must always manipulate EN when
communicating with the LCD. EN is the LCD's way of knowing that we are talking to it. If we don't
raise/lower EN, the LCD doesn't know we're talking to it on the other lines.

Thus, before we interact in any way with the LCD we will always bring the EN line low with the
following instruction:
CLR EN
And once we've finished setting up our instruction with the other control lines and data bus lines,
we'll always bring this line high:
SETB EN
The line must be left high for the amount of time required by the LCD as specified in its
datasheet. This is normally on the order of about 250 nanoseconds, but checks the datasheet. In the case
of a typical microcontroller running at 12 MHz, an instruction requires 1.08 microseconds to execute so
the EN line can be brought low the very next instruction. However, faster microcontrollers (such as the
DS89C420 which executes an instruction in 90 nanoseconds given an 11.0592 MHz crystal) will require
a number of NOPs to create a delay while EN is held high. The number of NOPs that must be inserted
depends on the microcontroller we are using and the crystal we have selected.
The instruction is executed by the LCD at the moment the EN line is brought low with a final
CLR EN instruction.

Checking the busy status of the LCD:

As previously mentioned, it takes a certain amount of time for each instruction to be executed by
the LCD. The delay varies depending on the frequency of the crystal attached to the oscillator input of
the LCD as well as the instruction which is being executed.
While it is possible to write code that waits for a specific amount of time to allow the LCD to
execute instructions, this method of "waiting" is not very flexible. If the crystal frequency is changed,
the software will need to be modified. A more robust method of programming is to use the "Get LCD
Status" command to determine whether the LCD is still busy executing the last instruction received.

The "Get LCD Status" command will return to us two tidbits of information; the information that
is useful to us right now is found in DB7. In summary, when we issue the "Get LCD Status" command
the LCD will immediately raise DB7 if it's still busy executing a command or lower DB7 to indicate
that the LCD is no longer occupied. Thus our program can query the LCD until DB7 goes low,
indicating the LCD is no longer busy. At that point we are free to continue and send the next command.

6.11. D.C. Motor:

A dc motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically through the interaction
of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process, producing electrical energy
from mechanical energy, is accomplished by an alternator, generator or dynamo. Many types of electric
motors can be run as generators, and vice versa. The input of a DC motor is current/voltage and its
output is torque (speed).

Fig 6.26 DC Motor

The DC motor has two basic parts: the rotating part that is called the armature and the stationary part
that includes coils of wire called the field coils. The stationary part is also called the stator. Figure
shows a picture of a typical DC motor, Figure shows a picture of a DC armature, and Fig shows a
picture of a typical stator. From the picture you can see the armature is made of coils of wire wrapped
around the core, and the core has an extended shaft that rotates on bearings. You should also notice that
the ends of each coil of wire on the armature are terminated at one end of the armature. The termination
points are called the commutator, and this is where the brushes make electrical contact to bring
electrical current from the stationary part to the rotating part of the machine.
Operation:
The DC motor you will find in modem industrial applications operates very similarly to the
simple DC motor described earlier in this chapter. Figure 12-9 shows an electrical diagram of a simple
DC motor. Notice that the DC voltage is applied directly to the field winding and the brushes. The
armature and the field are both shown as a coil of wire. In later diagrams, a field resistor will be added
in series with the field to control the motor speed.
When voltage is applied to the motor, current begins to flow through the field coil from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal. This sets up a strong magnetic field in the field winding. Current also
begins to flow through the brushes into a commutator segment and then through an armature coil. The
current continues to flow through the coil back to the brush that is attached to other end of the coil and
returns to the DC power source. The current flowing in the armature coil sets up a strong magnetic field
in the armature.

Fig 6.27 Simple electrical diagram of DC motor

Fig 6.28. Operation of a DC Motor

The magnetic field in the armature and field coil causes the armature to begin to rotate. This
occurs by the unlike magnetic poles attracting each other and the like magnetic poles repelling each
other. As the armature begins to rotate, the commutator segments will also begin to move under the
brushes. As an individual commutator segment moves under the brush connected to positive voltage, it
will become positive, and when it moves under a brush connected to negative voltage it will become
negative. In this way, the commutator segments continually change polarity from positive to negative.
Since the commutator segments are connected to the ends of the wires that make up the field winding in
the armature, it causes the magnetic field in the armature to change polarity continually from North Pole
to South Pole. The commutator segments and brushes are aligned in such a way that the switch in
polarity of the armature coincides with the location of the armature's magnetic field and the field
winding's magnetic field. The switching action is timed so that the armature will not lock up
magnetically with the field. Instead the magnetic fields tend to build on each other and provide
additional torque to keep the motor shaft rotating.
When the voltage is de-energized to the motor, the magnetic fields in the armature and the field winding
will quickly diminish and the armature shaft's speed will begin to drop to zero. If voltage is applied to
the motor again, the magnetic fields will strengthen and the armature will begin to rotate again.

6.13. DC Motor Driver:

The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half-H drivers. The L293 is designed to provide
bidirectional drive currents of up to 1 A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The L293D is designed to
provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices are
designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping motors, as well as
other high-current/high-voltage loads in positive-supply applications.
All inputs are TTL compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a
Darlington transistor sink and a pseudo-Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with drivers 1
and 2 enabled by 1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN.When an enable input is high, the
associated drivers are enabled and their outputs are active and in phase with their inputs.

When the enable input is low, those drivers are disabled and their outputs are off and in the high-
impedance state. With the proper data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or bridge) reversible
drive suitable for solenoid or motor applications. On the L293, external high-speed output clamp diodes
should be used for inductive transient suppression. A VCC1 terminal, separate from VCC2, is provided
for the logic inputs to minimize device power dissipation. The L293and L293D are characterized for
operation from 0°C to 70°C.

Fig 3.10.1: L293D IC

Pin Diagram of L293D motor driver:

Fig 3.10.2: L293D pin diagram

Fig 3.10.3: Internal structure of L293D.

Features of L293D:
 600mA Output current capability per channel
 1.2A Peak output current (non repetitive) per channel
 Enable facility
 Over temperature protection
 Logical “0”input voltage up to 1.5 v
 High noise immunity
 Internal clamp diodes

6.12. IOT-ESP8266 MODULE

1 Introduction
Espressif Systems’ Smart Connectivity Platform (ESCP) of high performance wireless SOCs,
for mobile platform designers, provides unsurpassed ability to embed Wi-Fi capabilities within other
systems, at the lowest cost with the greatest functionality
2 Technology Overview
ESP8266 offers a complete and self-contained Wi-Fi networking solution, allowing it to either
host the application or to offload all Wi-Fi networking functions from another application processor.
When ESP8266 hosts the application, and when it is the only application processor in the device, it is
able to boot up directly from an external flash. It has integrated cache to improve the performance of the
system in such applications, and to minimize the memory requirements.
Alternately, serving as a Wi-Fi adapter, wireless internet access can be added to any microcontroller-
based design with simple connectivity through UART interface or the CPU AHB bridge interface.
ESP8266 on-board processing and storage capabilities allow it to be integrated with the sensors and
other application specific devices through its GPIOs with minimal development up-front and minimal
loading during runtime. With its high degree of on-chip integration, which includes the antenna switch
balun, power management converters, it requires minimal external circuitry, and the entire solution,
including front-end module, is designed to occupy minimal PCB area.
Sophisticated system-level features include fast sleep/wake context switching for energy-efficient VoIP,
adaptive radio biasing for low-power operation, advance signal processing, and spur cancellation and
radio co-existence features for common cellular, Bluetooth, DDR, LVDS, LCD interference mitigation.
3 Features
 802.11 b/g/n protocol
 Wi-Fi Direct (P2P), soft-AP
 Integrated TCP/IP protocol stack
 Integrated TR switch, balun, LNA, power amplifier and matching network
 Integrated PLL, regulators, and power management units
 +19.5dBm output power in 802.11b mode
 Integrated temperature sensor
 Supports antenna diversity
 Power down leakage current of < 10uA
 Integrated low power 32-bit CPU could be used as application processor
 SDIO 2.0, SPI, UART
 STBC, 1×1 MIMO, 2×1 MIMO
 A-MPDU & A-MSDU aggregation & 0.4s guard interval
 Wake up and transmit packets in < 2ms
 Standby power consumption of < 1.0mW (DTIM3)
ESP8266 Applications
 Smart power plugs
 Home automation
 Mesh network
 Industrial wireless control
 Baby monitors
 IP Cameras
 Sensor networks
 Wearable electronics
 Wi-Fi location-aware devices
 Security ID tags
 Wi-Fi position system beacons
Specifications
7.1 Current Consumption
The following current consumption is based on 3.3V supply, and 25C ambient, using internal
regulators. Measurements are done at antenna port without SAW filter. All the transmitter’s
measurements are based on 90% duty cycle, continuous transmit mode.
Mode Typ Unit
Transmit 802.11b, CCK 1Mbps, POUT=+19.5dBm 215 mA
Transmit 802.11b, CCK 11Mbps, POUT=+18.5dBm 197 mA
Transmit 802.11g, OFDM 54Mbps, POUT =+16dBm 145 mA
Transmit 802.11n, MCS7, POUT=+14dBm 135 mA
Receive 802.11b, packet length=1024 byte, -80dBm 60 mA
Receive 802.11g, packet length=1024 byte, -70dBm 60 mA
Receive 802.11n, packet length=1024 byte, -65dBm 62 mA
Standby 0.9 mA
Deep sleep 10 uA
Power save mode DTIM 1 1.2 mA
Power save mode DTIM 3 0.86 mA
Total shutdown 0.5 uA

CPU, Memory and Interfaces

CPU
This chip embeds an ultra low power Micro 32-bit CPU, with 16-bit thumb mode. This CPU can be
interfaced using:
 code RAM/ROM interface (iBus) that goes to the memory controller, that can also be used to
access external flash memory,
 data RAM interface (dBus), that also goes to the memory controller
 AHB interface, for register access, and
 JTAG interface for debugging

Memory Controller
The memory controller contains ROM, and SRAM. It is accessed by the CPU using the iBus, dBus and
AHB interface. Any of these interfaces can request access to the ROM or RAM modules, and the
memory controller arbiters serve these 3 interfaces on a first-come-first-serve basis.

AHB and AHB Blocks

The AHB blocks performs the function of an arbiter, controls the AHB interfaces from the MAC, SDIO
(host) and CPU. Depending on the address, the AHB data requests can go into one of the two slaves:
 APB block, or
 flash controller (usually for standalone applications).

Data requests to the memory controller are usually high speed requests, and requests to the APB block
are usually register access.
The APB block acts as a decoder. It is meant only for access to programmable registers within
ESP8266’s main blocks. Depending on the address, the APB request can go to the radio, SI/SPI, SDIO
(host), GPIO, UART, real-time clock (RTC), MAC or digital baseband.

Interfaces
The ESP8266 contains several analog and digital interfaces described in the following sections.
Master SI / SPI Control (Optional)
The master serial interface (SI) can operate in two, three or four-wire bus configurations to control the
EEPROM or other I2C/SPI devices. Multiple I2C devices with different device addresses are supported
by sharing the 2-wire bus.
Multiple SPI devices are supported by sharing the clock and data signals, using separate software
controlled GPIO pins as chip selects.
The SPI can be used for controlling external devices such as serial flash memories, audio CODECs, or
other slave devices. It is set up as a standard master SPI device with 3 different enable pins:
 SPI_EN0,
 SPI_EN1,
 SPI_EN2.

Both SPI master and SPI slave are supported with the latter being used as a host interface.
SPI_EN0 is used as an enable signal to an external serial flash memory for downloading patch code
and/or MIB-data to the baseband in an embedded application. In a host based application, patch code
and MIB-data can alternatively be downloaded via the host interface. This pin is active low and should
be left open if not used.
SPI_EN1 is usually used for a user application, e.g. to control an external audio codec or sensor ADC,
in an embedded application. This pin is active low and should be left open if not used.
SPI_EN2 usually controls an EEPROM to store individual data, such as MIB information, MAC
address, and calibration data, or for general use. This pin is active low and should be left open if not
used.
General Purpose IO
There are up to 16 GPIO pins. They can be assigned to various functions by the firmware. Each GPIO
can be configured with internal pull-up/down, input available for sampling by a software register, input
triggering an edge or level CPU interrupt, input triggering a level wakeup interrupt, open-drain or push-
pull output driver, or output source from a software register, or a sigma-delta PWM DAC.
These pins are multiplexed with other functions such as host interface, UART, SI, Bluetooth
coexistence, etc.
Digital IO Pads
The digital IO pads are bidirectional, non-inverting and tri-state. It includes input and an output buffer
with tristate control inputs. Besides this, for low power operations, the IO can also be set to hold. For
instance, when we power down the chip, all output enable signals can be set to hold low. Optional hold
functionality can be built into the IO if requested. When the IO is not driven by the internal or external
circuitry, the hold functionality can be used to hold the state to the last used state.
The hold functionality introduces some positive feedback into the pad. Hence, the external driver
that drives the pad must be stronger than the positive feedback. The required drive strength is however
small – in the range of 5uA.

Parameter Symb Min Max Unit

ol
Input low voltage VIL -0.3 0.25VIO V
Input high voltage VIH 0.75VIO 3.6 V
Input leakage current IIL 50 nA
Output low voltage VOL 0.1VIO V
Output high voltage VOH 0.8VIO V
Input pin capacitance Cpad 2 pF
VDDIO VIO 1.7 3.6 V
Maximum drive capability IMAX 12 mA
Temperature Tamb -20 100 C

Applications
 Wi-Fi Smart Hardware Converted from UART Serial Ports
 Sensor
 Smart Light
 Smart Plug
Wi-Fi (Short for Wireless Fidelity) is a wireless technology that uses radio frequency to transmit data
through the air. Wi-Fi has initial speeds of 1mbps to 2mbps. Wi-Fi transmits data in the frequency band
of 2.4 GHz. It implements the concept of frequency division multiplexing technology. Range of Wi-Fi
technology is 40-300 feet.

2.2 Wi-fi module

ESP8266 offers a complete and self-contained Wi-Fi networking solution, allowing it to either host the
application or to offload all Wi-Fi networking functions from another application processor.
When ESP8266 hosts the application, and when it is the only application processor in the device, it is
able to boot up directly from an external flash. It has integrated cache to improve the performance of the
system in such applications, and to minimize the memory requirements.
Alternately, serving as a Wi-Fi adapter, wireless internet access can be added to any microcontroller-
based design with simple connectivity through UART interface or the CPU AHB bridge interface.
ESP8266 on-board processing and storage capabilities allow it to be integrated with the sensors and
other application specific devices through its GPIOs with minimal development up-front and minimal
loading during runtime. With its high degree of on-chip integration, which includes the antenna switch
balun, power management converters, it requires minimal external circuitry, and the entire solution,
including front-end module, is designed to occupy minimal PCB area.
Sophisticated system-level features include fast sleep/wake context switching for energy-efficient VoIP,
adaptive radio biasing for low-power operation, advance signal processing, and spur cancellation and
radio co-existence features for common cellular, Bluetooth, DDR, LVDS, LCD interference mitigation.

INTRODUCTION OF ARDUINOUNO
Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board developed by Arduino.cc which is an
open-source electronics platform mainly based on AVR microcontroller
Atmega328. First Arduino project was started in Interaction Design Institute
Ivrea in 2003 by David Cuartielles and Massimo Banzi with the intention of
providing a cheap and flexible way to students and professional for controlling a
number of devices in the real world. The current version of Arduino Uno comes
with USB interface, 6 analog input pins, 14 I/O digital ports that are used to
connect with external electronic circuits. Out of 14 I/O ports, 6 pins can be used
for PWM output. It allows the designers to control and sense the external
electronic devices in the realworld.

Arduino board comes with all the features required to run the controller
and can be directly connected to the computer through USB cable that is used to
transfer the code to the controller using IDE (Integrated Development
Environment) software, mainly developed to program Arduino. IDE is equally
compatible with Windows, MAC or Linux Systems. Programming languages
like C and C++ are used in IDE. Apart from USB, battery or AC to DC adopter
can also be used to power the board. There are many versions of Uno boards
available, however, Arduino Nano V3 and Arduino Uno are the most official
versions that come with Atmega328 8-bit AVR Atmel microcontroller where
RAM memory is 32KB. When the functionality of the task go complex, Micro
SD card can be added in the boards to make them store more information.

Figure 4.1 Arduino Uno

Features of ArduinoUno

• Arduino Uno comes with USB interface i.e. USB port is added on the board to
develop serial communication with the computer.
• Atmega328microcontroller is placed on the board that comes with a number of
features like timers, counters, interrupts, PWM, CPU, I/O pins and based on a 16MHz
clock that helps in producing more frequency and number of instructions percycle.

• It is an open source platform where anyone can modify and optimize the board
based on the number of instructions and task they want toachieve.

• This board comes with a built-in regulation feature which keeps the voltage under
control when the device is connected to the externaldevice.

Figure 4.2 At mega328 Microcontroller

• Reset pin is added in the board that reset the whole board and takes the running
program in the initial stage. This pin is useful when board hangs up in the middle of
the running program, pushing this pin will clear everything up in the program and
starts the program right from the beginning.

• There are 14 I/O digital and 6 analogy pins incorporated in the board that allows the
external connection with any circuit with the board. These pins provide the flexibility
and ease of use to the external devices that can be connected through these pins.
There isnohardandfastinterfacerequiredtoconnectthedevicestotheboard.Simplyplug
 the external device into the pins of the board that are laid out on the board
in the form of the header.

• The 6 analog pins are marked as A0 to A5 and come with a resolution of 10bits.
These pins measure from 0 to 5V. So that they can be configured to the high range
using analogy Reference function and AREFpin.

• 13KB of flash memory is used to store the number of instructions in the form ofcode.

• Only 5 V is required to turn the board on, which can be achieved directly using USB
port or external adopter, so that it can support external power source up to 12 V
which can be regulated and limit to 5 V or 3.3 V based on the requirement of
theproject.
Arduino UnoPinout

Arduino Uno is based on AVR microcontroller called Atmega328. This

controller comes with 2KB SRAM, 32KB of flash memory, 1KB of EEPROM.
Arduino Board comes with 14 digital pins and 6 analog pins. ON-chip ADC is
used to sample these pins. A 16 MHz frequency crystal oscillator is equipped on
the board.
 Figure 4.3 Pin diagram of At mega 328 microcontroller

There are several I/O digital and analog pins placed on the board which operates
at 5V. These pins come with standard operating ranging between 20mA to
40mA. Internal pull-up resistors are used in the board that limits the current
exceeding from the given operating conditions.
Too much increase in current makes these resisters useless and damages the device.

• LED: Arduino Uno comes with built-in LED which is connected through pin 13.
Providing HIGH value to the pin will turn it ON and LOW will turn itOFF.
• Vin: It is the input voltage provided to the Arduino Board. It is different than 5 V
supplied through a USB port. This pin is used to supply voltage. If a voltage is
provided through power jack, it can be accessed through thispin.
• 5V: This board has ability to provide voltage regulation. 5V pin is used to provide
output regulated voltage. The board is powered up using three ways i.e. USB, Vin pin
of the board or DC power jack. USB supports voltage around 5V while Vin and Power
Jack support a voltage ranges between 7V to 20V. It is recommended to operate the
board on 5V, if a voltage is supplied through 5V or 3.3V pins, they result in by passing
the voltage regulation that can damage the board if voltage surpasses from itslimit.
• GND: These are ground pins. More than one ground pins are provided on the board
which can be used as perrequirement.
• Reset: This pin is incorporated on the board which resets the program running on the
board. Instead of physical reset on the board, IDE comes with a feature of resetting
the board throughprogramming.
• IOREF: This pin is very useful for providing voltage reference to the board. A shield
is used to read the voltage across this pin which then select the proper power source.
• PWM: PWM is provided by 3,5,6,9,10, 11pins. These pins are configured to provided
8-bit outputPWM.
• SPI: It is known as Serial Peripheral Interface. Four pins 10(SS), 11(MOSI), 12(MISO),
13(SCK) provide SPI communication with reference of SPIlibrary.
• AREF: It is called Analog Reference. This pin is used for providing a reference voltage
to the analoginputs.
• TWI: It is called Two-wire Interface. TWI communication is accessed through Wire
Library. A4 and A5 pins are used for thispurpose.
• Serial Communication: Serial communication is carried out through two pins called
Pin 0 (Rx) and Pin 1(Tx).
• Rx pin is used to receive data and Tx pin is used to transmitdata.
• External Interrupts: Pin 2 and 3 are used for providing external interrupts. An
interrupt is called by providing LOW or changingvalue.
 Ports

Port refers to a group of pins on a microcontroller which can be accessed

simultaneously on which we can set the desired combination of zeros and ones,
or read from them an existing status. Physically, port is a register inside a
microcontroller which is connected by wires to the pins of a microcontroller.
Ports represent physical connection of Central Processing Unit where
microcontroller uses them. The Atmega8 has 23 I/O ports which are organized
into 3 groups:

• Port B (PB0 toPB7)

• Port C (PC0 toPC6)
• Port D (PD0 toPD7)

It has mainly 3 registers known as DDRX, PORTX &PINX. It has total four
ports on ATmega16. They are PORTA, PORTB, PORTC and PORTD. They
are multifunctional pins. Each of the pins in each port (total 32) can be treated as
input or output pin.

Versions of Arduinoboards

• Arduino Uno(R3):
The Arduino UNO uses the Atmega16U2 instead of 8U2 and it
allows faster transfer rate & more memory. There is no need of extra
devices for the Linux & Mac and the ability to have the UNO to show as a
keyboard, mouse, joystick, etc.
 Figure 4.4(a) ArduinoUno(R3)

The Arduino R3 adds SDA & SCL pins which are next to the AREF and in
addition, there are two pins which are placed near the RESET pin. The first pin
is IOREF, it will allow the shields to adapt to the voltage from the board. The
other pin is not connected and itis
reserved for the future purpose. The working of Arduino R3 is by all existing
shields and it will adapt new shields which use these additional pins.

• LilypadArduinoBoard

Lilypad board is an Arduinoprogrammable microcontroller and it is

designed to integrate easily into an e-textiles & wearable projects. The
other Arduino boards have the same functionality like lightweight, round
package designed to minimize snagging and profile, with wide tabs that
can be sewn down and connected with conductive thread.

Figure 4.4(b) LilypadArduino Board

LilypadArduino board consist of an At mega 328 with the

Arduinobootloader and to keep it as a small minimum external
component are required. The power supply of this board is 2V to 5V and
offers large pin-out holes that make it easy to sew and connect. Each pin
is connected to positive and negative terminals and to control the input &
output devices like light, motor, and switch. This Arduino technology was
designed and developed by Leah Buechley and each Lilypad was
creatively designed to have large connecting pads to allow them to be
sewn into clothing. There is an available of various input, output, and
sensor boards and they arewashable.
• Red Board ArduinoBoard

The Red Board aArduino board can be programmed using a Mini-B

USB cable using the Arduino IDE. It will work on windows 8 without
modifying the security settings. It is more constant due to the USB or
FTDI chip is used and also it is entirely flat on the back. It is very simple
to utilize in the project design. Just plug the board, select the menu option
to choose an Arduino UNO is ready to upload the program. We can
control the Red Board over USB cable using the barreljack.

Figure 4.4(c) Red Arduino Board

• Arduino LeonardoBoard

The Leonardo Arduino board is a Microcontroller board and it is

based on the ATmega32u4 data sheet. This Arduino board has 20 digital
input/out pins and from the total number of pins, seven pins are used for
the pulse width modulation output and 12 pins are used as an analog input

20
and there are the 16MHz crystal oscillator, a micro USB connection,
RESET pin and powerjack.

Figure4.4(d) Arduino Leonardo Board

21
Leonardo board contains everything needed to support the microcontroller;
simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with an AC-to-DC
adapter or battery to get started. The Leonardo differs from all preceding boards
in that the ATmega32u4 has built-in USB communication, eliminating the need
for a secondary processor. This allows the Leonardo to appear to a connected
computer as a mouse and keyboard, in addition to a virtual (CDC) serial COM
port. It also has other implications for the behaviour of the board; these are
detailed on the getting startedpage.

• Arduino Mega(R3)

The Arduino Mega is a type of Microcontroller and it is based on

the ATmega2560. It consists of 54 digital input/output pins and from the
total pins 14 pins are used for the PWM output, 16 pins are used for the
analog inputs, 4 pins are used for the hardware serial port of the UART.
There are pins like crystal oscillator of 16 MHz, USB connection, RESET
pin, ICSP header, and a powerjack.

22
 Figure 4.4(e) Arduino Mega (R3)

Arduino Mega is also having SDA and SCL pins which are next to the
AREF. There are two new pins near the RESET pin which are IOREF
that allow the shields to adapt to the voltage provided by the board. The
other is a not connected and is reserved for future purposes.

Applications

 Security and Defense System

 Digital Electronics andRobotics

23
  Parking LotCounter

 WeighingMachines

 Traffic Light Count Down Timer

 MedicalInstrument

 Emergency Light for Railways

 HomeAutomation

 IndustrialAutomation

ESP8266MODULE

Introduction

Espress if Systems Smart Connectivity Platform (ESCP) of high

performance wireless SOCs, for mobile platform designers, provides
unsurpassed ability to embed Wi-Fi capabilities within other systems, at the
lowest cost with the greatest functionality.

24
 Technology

ESP8266 offers a complete and self-contained Wi-Fi networking solution,

allowing it to either host the application or to offload all Wi-Fi networking
functions from another application processor. When ESP8266 hosts the
application and it is the only application processor in the device, it is able to
boot up directly from an external flash. It has integrated cache to improve the
performance of the system in such applications, and to minimize the memory
requirements. Alternately, serving as a Wi-Fi adapter, wireless internet access
can be added to any microcontroller-based design with simple connectivity
through UART interface or the CPU AHB bridge interface.

ESP8266 on-board processing and storage capabilities allow it to be

integrated with the sensors and other application specific devices through its
GPIOs with minimal development up-front and minimal loading during runtime.
With its high degree of on-chip integration, which includes the antenna switch
balun, power managementconverters, it

25
requires minimal external circuitry, and the entire solution including front-end
module, is designed to occupy minimal PCB area. The system-level features
include fast sleep/wake context switching for energy-efficient VoIP, adaptive
radio biasing for low-power operation, advance signal processing, and spur
cancellation and radio co-existence features for common cellular, Bluetooth,
DDR, LVDS, LCD interference mitigation.

Features

 802.11 b/g/nprotocol

 Wi-Fi Direct (P2P),soft-AP

 Integrated TCP/IP protocolstack

 Integrated TR switch, balun, LNA, power amplifier and matchingnetwork

 Integrated PLL, regulators, and power managementunits

 +19.5dBm output power in 802.11b mode

 Integrated temperaturesensor

 Supports antennadiversity

 Power down leakage current of <10uA

26
 Integrated low power 32-bit CPU could be used as applicationprocessor

 SDIO 2.0, SPI, UART

 STBC, 1×1 MIMO, 2×1MIMO

 A-MPDU & A-MSDU aggregation & 0.4s guardinterval

 Wake up and transmit packets in <2ms

 Standby power consumption of < 1.0mW(DTIM3).

ESP8266Applications

 Smart power plugs

 Homeautomation

 Meshnetwork

27
 Industrial wirelesscontrol

 Babymonitors

 IPCameras

 Sensornetworks

 Wearable electronics

 Wi-Fi location-aware devices

 Security IDtags

 Wi-Fi position systembeacons.

Specifications

• Current Consumption

The current consumption is based on 3.3V supply, and 25C

ambient, using internal regulators. Measurements are done at antenna port
without SAW filter. All the transmitter’s measurements are based on
90% duty cycle, continuous transmit mode.

Table 4.2.5(a) Current Consumption

Mode Typ Unit

28
Transmit 802.11b, CCK 11Mbps, POUT=+18.5dBm 197 mA
Transmit 802.11g, OFDM 54Mbps, POUT =+16dBm 145 mA
Transmit 802.11n, MCS7, POUT=+14dBm 135 mA
Receive 802.11b, packet length=1024 byte, -80dBm 60 mA
Receive 802.11g, packet length=1024 byte, -70dBm 60 mA
Receive 802.11n, packet length=1024 byte, -65dBm 62 mA
Standby 0.9 mA
Deep sleep 10 uA
Power save mode DTIM 1 1.2 mA
Power save mode DTIM 3 0.86 mA
Total shutdown 0.5 uA

29
1. CPU, Memory andInterfaces
• CPU
This chip embeds an ultra low power Micro 32-bit CPU with 16-bit
thumb mode. This CPU can be interfaced using: code RAM/ROM
interface (ibus) that goes to the memory controller, that can also be used
to access external flash memory. data RAM interface (d Bus), that also
goes to the memory controller. AHB interface, for register access, and
JTAG interface for debugging

• MemoryController

The memory controller contains ROM, and SRAM. It is accessed

by the CPU using the I Bus, d Bus and AHB interface. Any of these
interfaces can request access to the ROM or RAM modules, and the
memory controller arbiters serve these 3 interfaces on a first-come-first-
serve basis.

• AHB and AHBBlocks

The AHB blocks performs the function of an arbiter, controls the

AHB interfaces from the MAC, SDIO (host) and CPU. Depending on the
address, the AHB data requests can go into one of the two slaves:

1. APBblock

2. flash controller (usually for standaloneapplications).

Data requests to the memory controller are usually high speed

requests and requests to the APB block are usually register access. APB
block acts as a decoder. It is meant only for access to programmable
registers within ESP8266’s main blocks. Depending on the address of the

30
 APB request can go to the radio, SI/SPI, SDIO (host), GPIO, UART, real-
time clock (RTC), MAC or digitalbaseband.

• Interfaces

The ESP8266 contains several analog and digital interfaces.

2. Master SI / SPIControl

The master serial interface (SI) can operate in two, three or four-wire bus
configurations to control the EEPROM or other I2C/SPI devices. Multiple I2C
devices with different device addresses are supported by sharing the 2-wire bus.

Multiple SPI devices are supported by sharing the clock and data signals, using
separate software controlled GPIO pins as chip selects. The SPI can be used for
controllingexternal

31
devices such as serial flash memories, audio CODECs, or other slave devices. It
is set up as a standard master SPI device with 3 different enable pins:

 SPI_EN0,
 SPI_EN1,
 SPI_EN2.

Both SPI master and SPI slave are supported with the latter being used as
a host interface.

SPI_EN0 is used as an enable signal to an external serial flash memory

for downloading patch code and/or MIB-data to the baseband in an embedded
application. In a host based application, patch code and MIB-data can
alternatively be downloaded via the host interface. This pin is active low and
should be left open if not used.

SPI_EN1 is usually used for a user application, e.g. to control an external

audio codec or sensor ADC, in an embedded application. This pin is active low
and should be left open if not used.

SPI_EN2 usually controls an EEPROM to store individual data, such as

MIB information, MAC address, and calibration data, or for general use. This
pin is active low and should be left open if not used.

3. General PurposeIO

It has 16 GPIO pins. They can be assigned to various functions by the

firmware. Each GPIO can be configured with internal pull-up/down, input

32
available for sampling by a software register, input triggering an edge or level
CPU interrupt, input triggering a level wakeup interrupt, open-drain or push-pull
output driver, or output source from a software register, or a sigma-delta PWM
DAC. These pins are multiplexed with other functions such as host interface,
UART, SI, Bluetooth coexistence,etc.

4. Digital IOPads

The Digital IO pads are bidirectional, non-inverting and tri-state. It has

input and an output buffer with tristate control inputs. It operates in low power
and digital IO can also be set to hold. When we power down the chip, all output
enable signals can be set to hold low. Optional hold functionality can be built
into the IO. When the IO is not driven by the internal

33
or external circuitry, the hold functionality can be used to hold the state to the
last used state. It hold functionality has positive feedback into the pad. It has the
external driver that drives the pad must be stronger than the positive feedback.
The required drive strength is small in the range of5uA.

Table 4.2.5(b) Digital I/O Specification

Parameter Name Min. Typ. Max Unit

Voltage supply VDD_P 2.1 3.6 V
ADS
Input voltage for logic 0 VIL 0 0.2*VDD_PADS V
Input voltage for logic 1 VIH 0.8*VDD_PADS VDD_PADS V
Input current for logic 0 IIL -0.5 µA
Input current for logic 1 IIH 0.5 µA
Input pull-up resistor RIPU 30 kΩ
value
Input pull-down resistor RIPD 30 kΩ
value
Output voltage for logic 0 VOL 0 0.18*VDD_PADS V
Output voltage for logic 1 VOH 0.82*VDD_PADS VDD_PADS V
Output source current IOHS 4 mA
Output Sink current IOLS 4 mA
Output source current IOHH 8 mA
(high current pad:
GPIO[16:13])
Output sink current (high IOLH 8 mA
current pad: GPIO[16:13])
Total output current (for IOH+IOL 40 mA
I/O pads)
Input voltage threshold for 0.2*VDD_PADS 0.8*VDD_PADS V
OSC32A

34
Input voltage threshold for 0.2*VDD_CORE 0.8*VDD_CORE V
OSCA
Output Voltage level 0.18*VDD_CORE 0.82*VDD_CORE V

35
Output source current 1 mA

Applications
 Wi-Fi Smart Hardware Converted from UART Serial Ports
 Sensor
 SmartLight
 SmartPlug.
D.C. Motor
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts
direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types
rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors
have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic to

periodically change the direction of current flow in part of themotor.

Figure 4.5 DC Motor

DC motors were the first form of motor widely used, as they could be powered
from existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's
speed can be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage
or by changing the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are
used in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct

36
current but is a lightweight brushed motor used for portable power tools and
appliances. Larger DC motors are currently used in propulsion of electric
vehicles, elevator and hoists, and in drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of
power electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible
in many applications.

37
 Operation

The DC motor is available in modem industrial operates very similarly to

the simple DC motor. The DC voltage is applied directly to the field winding
and the brushes. A field resistor will be added in series with the field to control
the motor speed.

Figure 4.5(a) Simple electrical diagram of DCmotor

When voltage is applied to the motor, current begins to flow through the field
coil from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. This sets up a strong
magnetic field in the field winding. Current also begins to flow through the
brushes into a commutator segment and then through an armature coil. The
current continues to flow through the coil back to the brush that is attached to
other end of the coil and returns to the DC power source. The current flowing in
the armature coil sets up a strong magnetic field in thearmature.

38
 Figure 4.5(b) Operation of a DC Motor

The magnetic field in the armature and field coil causes the armature to begin to
rotate. This occurs by the unlike magnetic poles attracting each other and the
like magnetic poles repelling each other. As the armature begins to rotate, the
commutator segments will also begin to move under the brushes. As an
individual commutator segment moves under the brush connected to positive
voltage, it will become positive, and when it moves under abrush

39
connected to negative voltage it will become negative. In this way, the
commutator segments continually change polarity from positive to negative.
Since the commutator segments are connected to the ends of the wires that make
up the field winding in the armature, it causes the magnetic field in the armature
to change polarity continually from North Pole to South Pole. The commutator
segments and brushes are aligned in such a way that the switch in polarity of the
armature coincides with the location of the armature's magnetic field and the
field winding's magnetic field. The switching action is timed so that the
armature will not lock up magnetically with the field. Instead the magnetic
fields tend to build on each other and provide additional torque to keep the
motor shaftrotating.

When the voltage is de-energized to the motor, the magnetic fields in the
armature and the field winding will quickly diminish and the armature shaft's
speed will begin to drop to zero. If voltage is applied to the motor again, the
magnetic fields will strengthen and the armature will begin to rotateagain.

Types of DCMotors

Understanding the different types of DC motors will also help you

understand how they’re used for different applications, and which type may
apply to your application.

There are 4 main types of DC motors:

1. Permanent Magnet DCMotors

The permanent magnet motor uses a permanent magnet to create field
flux. This type of DC motor provides great starting torque and has good speed

30
regulation, but torque is limited so they are typically found on low horsepower
applications.

2. Series DC Motors
In a series DC motor, the field is wound with a few turns of a large wire
carrying the full armature current. Typically, series DC motors create a large
amount of starting torque, but cannot regulate speed and can even be damaged
by running with no load. These limitations mean that they are not a good option
for variable speed driveapplications.

3. Shunt DCMotors
In shunt DC motors the field is connected in parallel (shunt) with the
armature windings. These motors offer great speed regulation due to the fact that
the shunt field can be excited separately from the armature windings, which also
offers simplified reversing controls.

31
4. Compound DCMotors
Compound DC motors, like shunt DC motors, have a separately excited
shunt field. Compound DC motors have good starting torque but may
experience control problems in variable speed drive applications. Between the 4
types of DC motors, the potential applications are numerous. Each type of DC
motor has its strengths and weaknesses. Understanding these can help you
understand which types may be good for your application.

Advantages

1. Speed control over a wide range both above and below the ratedspeed
The attractive feature of the dc motor is that it offers the wide range of
speed control both above and below the rated speeds. This can be achieved in dc
shunt motors by methods such as armature control method and field control
method. This is one of the main applications in which dc motors are widely used
in fine speed applications such as in rolling mills and in papermills.

2. High startingtorque
DC series motors are termed as best suited drives for electrical traction
applications used for driving heavy loads in starting conditions. DC series
motors will have a staring torque as high as 500% compared to normal operating
torque. Therefore dc series motors are used in the applications such as in electric
trains andcranes.

3. Accurate steep less speed with constanttorque

Constant torque drives is one such the drives will have motor shaft torque
constant over a given speed range. In such drives shaft power varies with speed.

32
  Quick starting, stopping, reversing andacceleration
 Free from harmonics, reactive power consumption and many factors which makes dc
motors more advantageous compared to ac inductionmotors.

: Applications of DCMotors

 SeriesMotors
The series DC motors are used where high starting torque is
required, and variations in speed are possible. For example – the series
motors are used in Traction system, Cranes, air compressors.

33
  ShuntMotors

The shunt motors are used where constant speed is required and
starting conditions are not severe. The various applications of DC shunt
motor are in Lathe Machines, Centrifugal Pumps, Fans, Blowers,
Conveyors, Lifts, Weaving Machine, Spinning machines, etc.

 CompoundMotors

The compound motors are used where higher starting torque and
fairly constant speed is required. The examples of usage of compound
motors are in Presses, Shears, Conveyors, Elevators, Rolling Mills, Heavy
Planners,etc.

MOTORDRIVER
Motor Driver IC L293D

The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half –H drivers. L293D
is a typical Motordriver or Motor Driver IC which is used to drive DC on either
direction. It is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors
simultaneously in any direction. It means that you can control two DC motor
with a single L293D IC. Dual H-bridge Motor Driver integrated circuit (IC).
The L293D can drive small and quiet big motors as well. L293 and L293D both
are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar
stepping motors, as well as other high-current/high voltage loads in positive-
supply applications. On the L293D, external high-speed output clamp diodes
should be used for inductive transient suppression. A Vcc1 terminal, separate
from Vcc2, is provided for the logic inputs to minimize device powerdissipation.

34
 Figure 4.6(a) Motor driver IC

The L293 and L293D are quadruple high-current half –H drivers.

L293D is a typical Motor driver or Motor Driver IC which is used to drive
DC on either direction. It is a16-
pinICwhichcancontrolasetoftwoDCmotorssimultaneouslyinanydirection.It

35
means that you can control two DC motor with a single L293D IC. Dual H-
bridge Motor Driver integrated circuit (IC). The L293D can drive small and
quiet big motors as well. L293 and L293D both are designed to drive
inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping motors, as
well as other high-current/high voltage loads in positive- supply applications.
On the L293D, external high-speed output clamp diodes should be used for
inductive transient suppression. A Vcc1 terminal, separate from Vcc2, is
provided for the logic inputs to minimize device power dissipation. The L293
and L293D are characterized for operation from 0 0C to 70 0C.

It works on the concept of H-bridge. H-bridge is a circuit which allows the

high voltage to be flown in either direction. As you know voltage should
change its direction to able to rotate the motor in clockwise or anticlockwise
direction. Hence H-bridge IC are ideal for driving a DC motor using micro-
controller. In a single L293D IC there two H-Bridge circuits inside it which
can rotate two dc motor independently. Due its size it is very much used in
robotic application for controlling DC motors.

PinDescription

L293D is a 16 pin IC. It is a dual H-bridge motor driver IC. One H-

bridge is capable enhancing IC as the output from the sensor is not able to
drive motors itself so L293D is used for this purpose having two enables
pins which should always be remain high to enable both the H-bridges.

36
Figure 4.6(b) Pinout of L293D IC

37
There are two Enable pins on L293D. Pin 1 and pin 9, for being able to drive
the motor, the pin 1 and 9 need to be high. For driving the motor with left H-
bridge you need to enable pin 1 to high. And for right H- Bridge you need to
make the pin 9 to high. If anyone of the either pin1 or pin9 goes low then the
motor in the corresponding section will suspend working. It’s like aswitch.

The 4 input pins for this L293D, pin 2,7 on the left and pin 15, 10 on
the right as shown on the pin diagram. Left input pins will regulate the
rotation of motor connected on the left side and right input for motor on the
righthand side. The motors are rotated on the basis of the inputs provided at
the input pins as LOGIC 1 or LOGIC 0.

In simple you need to provide Logic 0 or 1 across the input pins for
rotating the motor. Let us consider a Motor connected on left side output pins
(pin 3,6). For rotating the motor in clockwise-direction, the input pins have to
be given with Logic 1 and Logic0.

• Pin 2 = Logic 1 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | ClockwiseDirection

• Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 1 | AnticlockwiseDirection

• Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | Idle [No rotation] [Hi-Impedancestate]

• Pin 2 = Logic 1 and Pin 7 = Logic 1 | Idle [Norotation]

38
 In a very similar way, the motor can also operate across input pin 15,10
for motor on the right-hand side. The voltage (Vcc) needed to for its own
working is 5V but L293d will not use that Voltage to drive DC Motors. That
means you should provide that voltage (36V maximum) and a maximum
current of 600mA to drive the motors.

H-BridgeCircuit

A H bridge is an electronic circuit that allows a voltage to be applied across a

load in any direction. H-bridge circuits are frequently used in robotics and
many other applications to allow DC motors to run forward & backward.
These motor control circuits are mostly used in different converters like DC-
DC, DC-AC, AC-AC converters. In specific, a bipolar stepper motor is
always driven by a motor controller having two H-bridges.

39
 Figure 4.6(c) structure of H-Bridge

Operation ofH-Bridge

A H-bridge is fabricated with four switches like S1, S2, S3 and S4. When the
S1 and S4 switches are closed, then a +ve voltage will be applied across the
motor. By opening the switches S1 and S4 and closing the switches S2 and
S3, this voltage is inverted, allowing invert operation of the motor.The H-
bridge motor driver circuit is used to reverse the direction of the motor and
also to break the motor. When the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the
terminals of the motor are shorted. Or let the motor run free to a stop, when
the motor is detached from the circuit. The table below gives the different
operations with the four switches corresponding to the above circuit.

40
Figure 4.6(d) Two basic states of H-Bridge

41
 Table 4.4.4 Operation of Motor using H-Bridge Circuit

S1 S2 S3 S4 Operation
1 0 0 1 Motor moves right
0 1 1 0 Motor moves left
0 0 0 0 Motor free runs
0 1 0 1 Motor brakes
1 0 1 0 Motor brakes
1 1 0 0 Short power supply
0 0 1 1 Short power supply
1 1 1 1 Short power supply

H Bridge Motor Control Circuit Using L293dIC

The IC LM293D consists of 4-i/p pins where, pin2 and 7 on the left side of the
IC and Pin 10 and 15 on the right side of the IC.

42
 Figure 4.6(e) H-Bridge motor circuit with L293D IC

(Source:elprocus.com/h-bridge-motor-control-circuit-using-l293d-ic/)

43
Left input pins on the IC will control the rotation of a motor. Here, the motor is
connected across side and right i/p for the motor on the right-hand side. This
motor rotates based on the input pins as Logic 0 and Logic 1.

Let’s consider, when a motor is connected to the o/p pins 3 and 6 on the
left side of the IC. For rotating of the motor in clockwise direction, then the
input pins have to be provided with Logic 0 and Logic1.

• When Pin-2= logic 1 & pin-7 = logic 0, then it rotates in clockwisedirection.

• Pin-2=logic 0 & Pin7=logic 1, then it rotates in anti-clockdirection
• Pin-2= logic 0 & Pin7=logic 0, then it is idle (high impedancestate)
• Pin-2= logic 1 & Pin7=logic 1, then it isidle
In a similar way the motor can also operate across input pin-15 and pin-10
for the motor on the right-hand side. The L4293D motor driver IC deals with
huge currents, due to this circuit uses a heat sink to decrease the heat. Therefore,
there are 4-ground pins on the L293D IC. When we solder these pins on the
PCB (printed circuit board), then we can get a huge metallic area between the
ground pins where the heat can beproduced.

RELAY
A relay is an electromagnetic switch operated by a relatively small electric
current that can turn on or off a much larger electric current. The heart of a relay
is an electromagnet (a coil of wire that becomes a temporary magnet when
electricity flows through it). You can think of a relay as a kind of electric lever:
switch it on with a tiny current and it switches on ("leverages") another
appliance using a much bigger current. Why is that useful? As the name

44
suggests, many sensors are incredibly sensitive pieces of electronic equipment
and produce only small electric currents. But often we need them to drive bigger
pieces of apparatus that use bigger currents. Relays bridge the gap, making it
possible for small currents to activate larger ones. That means relays can work
either as switches (turning things on and off) or as amplifiers (converting small
currents into larger ones.

45
 Figure 4.7 Relay

The latter include power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer
electronics devices. Other functions that power supplies may perform include
limiting the current drawn by the load to safe levels, shutting off the current in
the event of an electrical fault, power conditioning to prevent electronic noise or
voltage surges on the input from reaching the load, power-factor correction, and
storing energy so it can continue to power the load in the event of a temporary
interruption in the source power (uninterruptible powersupply).

All power supplies have a power input connection, which receives energy
in the form of electric current from a source, and one or more power output
connections that deliver current to the load. The source power may come from
the electric power grid, such as an electrical outlet, energy storage devices such
as batteries or fuel cells, generators or alternators, solar power converters, or
another power supply. The input and output are usually hardwired circuit
connections, though some power supplies employ wireless energy transfer to
power their loads without wired connections. Some power supplies have other

46
types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions such as external monitoring
andcontrol.

Different Types ofRelay

Other than the electromagnetic relay there are many other types of relays which
work on different principles. Its classification is as follows:

Types of relay based on the principle operation:

 Electro thermalrelay
When two different materials are joined together it forms into a
bimetallic strip.When this strip is energized it tends to bend, this property
is used in such a way that the bending nature makes a connection with the
contacts.

47
  Electromechanicalrelay
With the help of few mechanical parts and based on the property of
an electromagnet a connection is made with the contacts.

 Solid staterelay
Instead of using mechanical parts as in electrothermal and
electromechanical relays, it uses semiconductor devices. So, the
switching speed of the device can be made easier and faster. The main
advantage of this relay is its span and faster switching operation
compared to other relays.

 Hybridrelay
It is the combination of both electromechanical and solid state relays.

Types of Relays based on the polarity

 Polarizedrelay
These are similar to the electromechanical relays but there exists
both permanent magnet and electromagnet in it, the movement of the
armature depends on the polarity of the input signal applied to the coil.
Used in telegraphy applications.

 Non polarizedrelay
The coil in these relays doesn’t have any polarities and its
operation remain unchanged even if the polarity of the input signal is
altered.

Advantages ofRelay

 Electromagnetic relays have a fast operation and fastreset.

 They can be used for both ac and dc systems for protection of ac and dcequipments.

48
  Electromagnetic relays operating speeds which has the ability to operate in
milliseconds are also can bepossible.
 They have the properties such as simple robust, compact and mostreliable
 These relays are almost instantaneous. Though instantaneous the operating time of
the relay varies with the current.

WATERPUMP
The pumping of water is a basic and practical technique, far more practical than
scooping it up with one's hands or lifting it in a hand-held bucket. This is true
whether the water is drawn from a fresh source, moved to a needed location,
purified, or used for irrigation, washing,
orsewagetreatment,orforevacuatingwaterfromanundesirablelocation.Regardlesso
fthe

49
outcome, the energy required to pump water is an extremely demanding
component of water consumption. All other processes depend or benefit either
from water descending from a higher elevation or some pressurized plumbing
system.

The ancient concept of the aqueduct took simple and eloquent advantage
of maintaining elevation of water for as long and far a distance as possible.
Thus, as water moves over great distances, it retains a larger component of its
potential energy by spending small portions of this energy flowing down a slight
gradation. A useful aqueduct system ultimately depends on a fresh water source
existing at a higher elevation than the location where the water can be of use.
Gravity does all the work. In all other instances, pumps are necessary.

Figure 4.8 Water pump

In day-to-day situations, available water is often contaminated, unhealthy, or

even naturally poisonous, so that it is necessary to pump potable water from
lower levels to higher levels, where it can be of use. A fresh water source in a
lower stream, river, pond, or lake is often pumped to higher ground for
irrigation, livestock, cooking, cleaning or other uses by humans, who quite
naturally need fresh water. This will purify mostly fresh water, and the treatment
of largely contaminated water refers endlessly topumping.

40
LCDDISPLAY
LCD or liquid crystal display is a combination of two states of material ie, the
solid & the liquid. These displays use a liquid crystal to produce a visible image.
LCDs are super thin technology display screen that are used in cell phones, TVs,
portable video games, laptops, computer screen, portable video games.
Compared to CRT (cathode ray tube) technology, this technology permits
displays to be much thinner. The LCD is composed of different layers which
contain two electrodes and polarized panel filters. This technology is used to
display the image in electronic devices. It is made up of active matrix or passive
display grid.
MostofthegadgetswithLCDdisplayusesactivematrixdisplay.Thesedisplaysaremai
nly

41
preferred for multi-segment light-emitting diodes and seven segments. The main
benefits of using this module are inexpensive; simply programmable,
animations, and there are no limitations for displaying custom characters,
special and even animations, etc.

LCD pindescription

Figure 4.9 16*2 LCD pin diagram

 Pin1 (Ground/Source Pin) This is a GND pin of display, used to connect the GND
terminal of the microcontroller unit or powersource.
 Pin2 (VCC/Source Pin) This is the voltage supply pin of the display, used to connect
the supply pin of the powersource.
 Pin3 (V0/VEE/Control Pin) This pin regulates the difference of the display, used to
connect a changeable POT that can supply 0 to5V.
 Pin4 (Register Select/Control Pin) This pin toggles among command or data register,
used to connect a microcontroller unit pin and obtains either 0 or 1(0 = data mode, and 1

42
 = commandmode).
 Pin5 (Read/Write/Control Pin This pin toggles the display among the read or writes
operation, and it is connected to a microcontroller unit pin to get either 0 or 1 (0 = Write
Operation, and 1 = Read Operation).
 Pin 6 (Enable/Control Pin) This pin should be held high to execute Read/Write
process, and it is connected to the microcontroller unit & constantly heldhigh.
 Pins 7-14 (Data Pins) These pins are used to send data to the display. These pins are
connectedintwo-wiremodeslike4-wiremodeand8-wiremode.In4-wiremode,only

43
 four pins are connected to the microcontroller unit like 0 to 3, whereas in 8-
wire mode, 8- pins are connected to microcontroller unit like 0 to 7.

 Pin15 (+ve pin of the LED) This pin is connected to+5V

 Pin 16 (-ve pin of the LED):This pin is connected toGND.

Registers of LCD

A 16×2 LCD has two registers like data register and command register.
The RS (register select) is mainly used to change from one register to another.
When the register set is ‘0’, then it is known as command register. Similarly,
when the register set is ‘1’, then it is known as data register.

Command Register

The main function of the command register is to store the instructions of

command which are given to the display. So that predefined tasks can be
performed such as clearing the display, initializing, set the cursor place, and
display control. Here commands processing can occur within the register.

Data Register

The main function of the data register is to store the information which is
to be exhibited on the LCD screen. Here, the ASCII value of the character is the
information which is to be exhibited on the screen of LCD. Whenever we send
the information to LCD, it transmits to the data register, and then the process
will be starting there. When register set =1, then the data register will
beselected.

Features of LCD16x2

44
• The operating voltage of this LCD is4.7V-5.3V
• It includes two rows where each row can produce16-characters.
• The utilization of current is 1mA with nobacklight
• Every character can be built with a 5×8 pixelbox
• The alphanumeric LCDs alphabets &numbers
• Is display can work on two modes like 4-bit &8-bit
• These are obtainable in Blue & GreenBacklight
• It displays a few custom generatedcharacters

45
16×2 LCDCommands

• For Hex Code-01, the LCD command will be the clear LCDscreen
• For Hex Code-02, the LCD command will be returninghome.
• For Hex Code-04, the LCD command will be decrementcursor.
• For Hex Code-06, the LCD command will be Incrementcursor.
• For Hex Code-05, the LCD command will be Shift displayright.
• For Hex Code-07, the LCD command will be Shift displayleft.
• For Hex Code-08, the LCD command will be Display off, cursoroff.
• For Hex Code-0A, the LCD command will be cursor on and displayoff.
• For Hex Code-0C, the LCD command will be cursor off, displayon.
• For Hex Code-0E, the LCD command will be cursor blinking, Displayon.
• For Hex Code-0F, the LCD command will be cursor blinking, Displayon.
• For Hex Code-10, the LCD command will be Shift cursor position toleft.
• For Hex Code-14, the LCD command will be Shift cursor position to theright.
• For Hex Code-18, the LCD command will be Shift the entire display to theleft.
• For Hex Code-1C, the LCD command will be Shift the entire display to the
right.
• For Hex Code-80, the LCD command will be Force cursor to the beginning
( 1st line).
• For Hex Code-C0, the LCD command will be Force cursor to the beginning
( 2ndline).
• For Hex Code-38, the LCD command will be 2 lines and 5×7matrix

46
 CHAPTER 7
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

The Arduino Software (IDE) makes it easy to write code and upload it to the board offline. We
recommend it for users with poor or no internet connection. This software can be used with any
Arduino board. here are currently two versions of the Arduino IDE, one is the IDE 2.0.0.

7.1 Arduino IDE – Compiler

here are currently two versions of the Arduino IDE, one is the IDE 1.x.x and the other is IDE 2.x. The
IDE 2.x is new major release that is faster and even more powerful to the IDE 1.x.x. In addition to a
more modern editor and a more responsive interface it includes advanced features to help users with
their coding and debugging.
The following steps can guide you with using the offline IDE (you can choose either IDE 1.x.x or IDE
2.x):
1. Download and install the Arduino Software IDE:
 Arduino IDE 1.x.x (Windows, Mac OS, Linux, Portable IDE for Windows and
Linux, ChromeOS).
 Arduino IDE 2.x
2. Connect your Arduino board to your device.
3. Open the Arduino Software (IDE).
The Arduino Integrated Development Environment - or Arduino Software (IDE) - connects to the
Arduino boards to upload programs and communicate with them. Programs written using Arduino
Software (IDE) are called sketches. These sketches are written in the text editor and are saved with
the file extension .ino.
Using the offline IDE 1.x.x
The editor contains the four main areas:
1. A Toolbar with buttons for common functions and a series of menus. The toolbar buttons allow
you to verify and upload programs, create, open, and save sketches, and open the serial monitor.
2. The message area, gives feedback while saving and exporting and also displays errors.
3. The text editor for writing your code.
4. The text console displays text output by the Arduino Software (IDE), including complete error
messages and other information.

47
The bottom right-hand corner of the window displays the configured board and serial port.

The Arduino Software IDE

Now that you are all set up, let’s try to make your board blink!
5. Connect your Arduino or Genuino board to your computer.
6. Now, you need to select the right core & board. This is done by navigating to Tools > Board >
Arduino AVR Boards > Board. Make sure you select the board that you are using. If you cannot
find your board, you can add it from Tools > Board > Boards Manager.

48
Selecting a board
7. Now, let's make sure that your board is found by the computer, by selecting the port. This is
simply done by navigating to Tools > Port, where you select your board from the list.

Selecting the port

8. Let’s try an example: navigate to File > Examples > 01.Basics > Blink.

49
Opening an example
9. To upload it to your board, simply click on the arrow in the top left corner. This process takes a
few seconds, and it is important to not disconnect the board during this process. If the upload is
successful, the message "Done uploading" will appear in the bottom output area.
10. Once the upload is complete, you should then see on your board the yellow LED with an L next to
it start blinking. You can adjust the speed of blinking by changing the delay number in the
parenthesis to 100, and upload the Blink sketch again. Now the LED should blink much faster.
The editor contains the four main areas:
1. A toolbar with buttons for common functions and a series of menus. The toolbar buttons allow
you to verify and upload programs, create, open, and save sketches, choose your board and port and
open the serial monitor.
2. The Sidebar for regularly used tools. It gives you quick access to board managers, libraries,
debugging your board as well as a search and replacement tool.
3. The text editor for writing your code.
4. Console controls gives control over the output on the console.
5. The text console displays text output by the Arduino Software (IDE), including complete error
messages and other information.
The bottom right-hand corner of the window displays the configured board and serial port.

50
The Arduino Software IDE
Now that you are all set up, let’s try to make your board blink!
1. Connect your Arduino or Genuino board to your computer.
2. Now, you need to select the right board & port. This is done from the toolbar. Make sure you
select the board that you are using. If you cannot find your board, you can add it from the board
manager in the sidebar.

51
Selecting a board & port
3. To upload it to your board, simply click on the arrow in the top left corner. This process takes a
few seconds, and it is important to not disconnect the board during this process. If the upload is
successful, the message "Done uploading" will appear in the bottom output area.

52
 CHAPTER 8
PROJECT CODE

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
#include <stdio.h>

LiquidCrystal lcd(2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7);

#include <Wire.h>
#include "dht.h"

unsigned char rcv,count,gchr,gchr1;

int sti=0;
String inputString = ""; // a string to hold incoming data
boolean stringComplete = false; // whether the string is complete

int buzzer = A5;

#define dht_apin A4
dht DHT;

int mos = 12;

int m1a = A0;

int m1b = A1;
int m2a = A4;
int m2b = A5;

int m3a = 8;
int m3b = 9;
int m4a = 10;
53
int m4b = 11;

int pump = 13;

int val1 = 0,val2 = 0;

int sts1=0,sts2=0;

float tempc=0,humc=0;
float vout=0;

void okcheck()
{
unsigned char rcr;
do{
rcr = Serial.read();
}while(rcr != 'K');
}
void okcheck1()
{
unsigned char rcr;
do{
rcr = Serial.read();
}while(rcr != 'K');
}
void beep()
{
digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW);delay(2500);digitalWrite(buzzer, HIGH);delay(500);
}
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);serialEvent();
54
//Serial1.begin(9600);

pinMode(mos, INPUT_PULLUP);pinMode(buzzer, OUTPUT);

pinMode(pump, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m1a, OUTPUT);pinMode(m1b, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m2a, OUTPUT);pinMode(m2b, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m3a, OUTPUT);pinMode(m3b, OUTPUT);
pinMode(m4a, OUTPUT);pinMode(m4b, OUTPUT);

digitalWrite(pump, LOW);
digitalWrite(buzzer, LOW);
digitalWrite(m1a, LOW);digitalWrite(m1b, LOW);
digitalWrite(m2a, LOW);digitalWrite(m2b, LOW);
digitalWrite(m3a, LOW);digitalWrite(m3b, LOW);
digitalWrite(m4a, LOW);digitalWrite(m4b, LOW);

lcd.begin(16, 2);
lcd.print("Solar Agribot");
delay(2500);

Serial.write("AT\r\n"); delay(3000);//okcheck();
Serial.write("ATE0\r\n"); okcheck1();
Serial.write("AT+CWMODE=2\r\n"); delay(3000);
Serial.write("AT+CIPMUX=1\r\n");delay(3000);// okcheck();
Serial.write("AT+CIPSERVER=1,23\r\n"); // okcheck();

lcd.clear();
lcd.print("Waiting For");
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("Connection");
do{
rcv = Serial.read();
}while(rcv == 'C');
55
 lcd.clear();
lcd.print("Connected");
delay(1000);

lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("T:"); //3,0
lcd.setCursor(8, 0);
lcd.print("H:");//12,0
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
lcd.print("M:"); //3,1

//serialEvent();
}

void loop()
{
DHT.read11(dht_apin);

tempc = DHT.temperature;
humc = DHT.humidity;

lcd.setCursor(2,0);convertl(tempc);
lcd.setCursor(10,0);convertl(humc);

if(tempc >= 39)

{beep();
Serial.write("AT+CIPSEND=0,17\r\n");delay(2000);
Serial.write("High Temp:");
converts(tempc);//5
Serial.write("\r\n"); delay(3000);
}
56
 if(humc >= 90)
{beep();
Serial.write("AT+CIPSEND=0,16\r\n");delay(2000);
Serial.write("High Hum:");
converts(humc);//5
Serial.write("\r\n"); delay(3000);
}

if(digitalRead(mos) == LOW)
{
lcd.setCursor(2,1);lcd.print("Wet ");
beep();
Serial.write("AT+CIPSEND=0,9\r\n");delay(2000);
Serial.write("Mos Wet\r\n"); delay(3000);
}
if(digitalRead(mos) == HIGH)
{
lcd.setCursor(2,1);lcd.print("Dry ");
}

while(Serial.available() > 0)
{
char chrt = (char)Serial.read();
if(chrt == '*')
{
sti=1;
}
if(sti == 1)
{
inputString += chrt;
}
if(chrt == '#')
{
57
 sti=0;
stringComplete = true;
}
}

if(stringComplete)
{
if(inputString[1] == 'f')
{
digitalWrite(m1a, HIGH);digitalWrite(m1b, LOW);
digitalWrite(m2a, HIGH);digitalWrite(m2b, LOW);
}
if(inputString[1] == 'b')
{
digitalWrite(m1a, LOW);digitalWrite(m1b, HIGH);
digitalWrite(m2a, LOW);digitalWrite(m2b, HIGH);
}
if(inputString[1] == 'r')
{
digitalWrite(m1a, HIGH);digitalWrite(m1b, LOW);
digitalWrite(m2a, LOW);digitalWrite(m2b, HIGH);
}
if(inputString[1] == 'l')
{
digitalWrite(m1a, LOW);digitalWrite(m1b, HIGH);
digitalWrite(m2a, HIGH);digitalWrite(m2b, LOW);
}
if(inputString[1] == 's')
{
digitalWrite(m1a, LOW);digitalWrite(m1b, LOW);
digitalWrite(m2a, LOW);digitalWrite(m2b, LOW);
}

58
if(inputString[1] == '1')
{
digitalWrite(m3a, HIGH);digitalWrite(m3b, LOW);
}
if(inputString[1] == '2')
{
digitalWrite(m3a, LOW);digitalWrite(m3b, HIGH);
}
if(inputString[1] == '3')
{
digitalWrite(m3a, LOW);digitalWrite(m3b, LOW);
}

if(inputString[1] == '4')
{
digitalWrite(m4a, HIGH);digitalWrite(m4b, LOW);
}
if(inputString[1] == '5')
{
digitalWrite(m4a, LOW);digitalWrite(m4b, HIGH);
}
if(inputString[1] == '6')
{
digitalWrite(m4a, LOW);digitalWrite(m4b, LOW);
}

if(inputString[1] == '7')
{
digitalWrite(pump, HIGH);
}
if(inputString[1] == '8')
{
digitalWrite(pump, LOW);
59
 }

}
}

void serialEvent()
{
while (Serial.available() < 0)
{

char inChar = (char)Serial.read();

if(inChar == '*')
{
gchr = Serial.read();
}
if(inChar == '#')
{
gchr1 = Serial.read();
}

}
}

void convertl(unsigned int value)

{
unsigned int a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h;

a=value/10000;
b=value%10000;
60
 c=b/1000;
d=b%1000;
e=d/100;
f=d%100;
g=f/10;
h=f%10;

a=a|0x30;
c=c|0x30;
e=e|0x30;
g=g|0x30;
h=h|0x30;

//lcd.write(a);
lcd.write(c);
lcd.write(e);
lcd.write(g);
lcd.write(h);
}

void converts(unsigned int value)

{
unsigned int a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h;

a=value/10000;
b=value%10000;
c=b/1000;
d=b%1000;
e=d/100;
f=d%100;
g=f/10;
61
 h=f%10;

a=a|0x30;
c=c|0x30;
e=e|0x30;
g=g|0x30;
h=h|0x30;

Serial.write(a);
Serial.write(c);
Serial.write(e);
Serial.write(g);
Serial.write(h);
}

62
 CHAPTER 9
RESULTS

Figure: 1
The above figure shows the hardware kit of the project. When the solar power battery is connected to
the controller, then the 12v is converted into 5v DC. When the current passes the LED is turned ON
which is an indication for the 5v DC current. This current is supplied to every component in the
circuitry.

63
 Figure: 2
The above figure shows the display of LCD when the supply is turned ON. In the above figure the
LCD displays “Solar Agribot”.

Figure: 3

Figure: 4
The above two figures are related to IoT Module. In figure 3, it is an app in which the Wi-Fi module
is connected via IoT app by using specified Port number and Port address.

64
 Figure: 5
The above figure shows that the user interface of IoT app and we are using some buttons for the
commands for user friendly interface for the farmers, such as Forward (FW), Backward (BW), Right
(RT) and Left (LT)., etc. The black screen acts as a console to show the high humidity and moisture
readings.

Figure: 5a

65
 Figure: 5b

Figure: 6
After setting all connections with input section, now the solar agribot can move according to the
commands given from an IoT enabled app.

66
 CHAPTER 10
CONCLUSION
In summary, the Agricultural Robot represents a leap forward in farming technology, designed to
streamline agricultural operations while maximizing crop yield. Powered by solar energy, this
innovative system integrates functionalities like automatic ploughing, seed dispensing, and water
spraying, all controllable through an IoT application.
Key features include real-time monitoring of environmental parameters and remote control capability
via the IoT module. The AVR Atmega microcontroller orchestrates operations efficiently, ensuring
precise task execution. With DC geared motors for ploughing and seed dispensing, and an automatic
water sprinkler, the robot offers comprehensive agricultural support.
By consolidating components under the Arduino microcontroller and utilizing regulated power
supply, the Agricultural Robot provides a reliable, efficient solution for modern farming challenges,
promising increased productivity and reduced labor costs.
REFERENCES
[1] Suresh, K., "Solar Powered Robotic Seed Sowing Agribot using Linear Actuator." i-Manager's
Journal on Electronics Engineering 10.2 (2019).
[2] Rafath, Farha, et al. "Obstacle detecting multifunctional AGRIBOT driven by solar power."
2020 4th International Conference on Trends in Electronics and Informatics (ICOEI)(48184).
IEEE, 2020.
[3] Sapkal, Kranti G., and Avinash B. Kadam. "Automation In Agriculture Using IoT And Machine
Learning Algorithms." PRATIBHA: INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,
SPIRITUALITY, BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY (IJSSBT): 12.
[4] YURTSEVER, Cihan, et al. "Development of an Agriculture Robot for Row-type Seed Sowing
Applications." Selcuk University Journal of Engineering Sciences 19.4 (2020): 228242.
[5] Pandey, Amit Kumar, and Arpita Mukherjee. "A Review on Advances in IoT-Based Technologies
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[6] Alotaibi, Alanoud, and Farrukh Nadeem. "A Review of Applications of Linear Programming to
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67
[8] S. Umarkar "Automated seed sowing agribot using arduino," 2016 International Conference on
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[16] Patel, S., (2006). "Solar-Powered Agricultural Robot for Soil Cultivation: A Review". Journal of
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