LINE INTEGRALS

 The familiar concept of integration will now be extended to

cases when the integrand involves a vector
 By a line we mean the path along a curve in space. We shall
use terms such as line, curve, and contour

 The line integral curve ‫𝑨 𝑳׬‬. 𝒅𝒍 is the integral of tangential

component of A along curve L.
 Given a vector field A and a curve L, we define the integral
as the line integral of A around L
𝒃
‫𝑨 𝑳׬‬. 𝒅𝒍 = ‫𝒔𝒐𝒄|𝑨| 𝒂׬‬Ɵ𝒅𝒍
 If the path of integration is a closed curve such as abca in
fig, above equation becomes a closed contour integral which
is called circulation of A around L
Path of integration of vector field A

ර 𝑨. 𝒅𝒍
𝑳
 SURFACE INTEGRALS
 Given a vector field A, continuous in a region containing the smooth surface
S, we define the surface integral or the flux of A through S

𝝍 = ‫𝒔𝒐𝒄|𝑨| 𝑺׬‬Ɵ𝒅𝑺 =‫𝑨 𝑺׬‬. 𝒂𝒏 𝒅𝑺

Or simply

𝝍 = ‫𝑨 𝑺׬‬. 𝒅𝑺
 where, at any point on S, 𝒂𝒏 is the unit normal to S.

The flux of a vector field A through

 For a closed surface, we define the net outward flux of A from S, surface S
𝝍 = ‫𝑨 𝑺ׯ‬. 𝒅𝑺
 Volume Integral
 Notice that a closed path defines an open
surface whereas a closed surface defines a
volume L is a closed
path
 volume integral of scalar 𝝆𝒗 over the volume 𝒗 is
defined as

න 𝝆𝒗 𝒅𝒗
𝒗

 𝝆𝒗 can represent any quantity, it is not to be

confused with the cylindrical coordinate.
 The physical meaning of a line, surface, or
volume integral depends on the nature of the
physical quantity represented by A or 𝝆𝒗
 DEL OPERATOR 𝛻
 The del operator, written 𝛻, is the vector differential operator. In Cartesian coordinates,

 This vector differential operator, otherwise known as the gradient operator, is not a vector in itself. The
operator is useful in defining
 gradient of a scalar 𝛻, written, as 𝛻V
 divergence of a vector A, written as 𝛻 • A
 curl of a vector A, written as 𝛻 X A
 Laplacian of a scalar V, written as𝛻 2 𝑉
 To obtain 𝛻, in terms of 𝜌, ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 ( cylindrical coordinates)

 To obtain 𝛻, in terms of r, 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅ ( spherical coordinates)

 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR

 The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of V
 A mathematical expression for the gradient can be obtained by evaluating
the difference in the field dV between points Pl and P2 of Figure 3.12
where V1, V2, and V3 are contours on which V is constant. From calculus

Figure 3.12 Gradient of a scalar

 where dl is the differential displacement from P1 to P2 and 𝜃 is the angle

between G and dl.
 From eq. (3.26), we notice that dV/dl is a maximum when 𝜃 = 0, that is,
when dl is in the direction of G. Thus G has its magnitude and direction as
those of the maximum rate of change of V. By definition, G is the gradient
of V. Therefore
 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR

u1 u2 u3 h1 h2 h3
Cartesian x y z 1 1 1
Cylindrical 𝜌 ∅ z 1 𝜌 1
Spherical r 𝜃 ∅ 1 r rsin𝜃
 U1 U2 U3 h1 h2 h3
Cartesian X Y z 1 1 1
Cylindrical 𝜌 ∅ z 1 𝜌 1
Spherical R 𝜃 ∅ 1 r rsin𝜃

 the gradient of V can be expressed in Cartesian, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates. For Cartesian coordinates
 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR
 The following computation formulas on gradient, which are easily proved,
should be noted:

where U and V are scalars and n is an integer

 The projection (or component) of 𝛻V in the direction of a unit vector
a is 𝛻V • a and is called the directional derivative of V along a. This is
the rate of change of V in the direction of a
 𝛻V at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface that passes
through that point
 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR
AND DIVERGENCE THEOREM
 The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P

where 𝛻V is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in which P is located

 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR
AND DIVERGENCE THEOREM
 Physically, we may regard the divergence of the vector
field A at a given point as a measure of how much the
field diverges or emanates from that point.
 Figure 3.14(a) shows that the divergence of a vector
field at point P is positive because the vector diverges
(or spreads out) at P.
Figure 3.15 Illustration of the divergence of a vector field at P: (a)
 In Figure 3.14(b) a vector field has negative divergence positive divergence, (b) negative divergence, (c) zero divergence
(or convergence) at P, and in Figure 3.14(c) a vector
field has zero divergence at P.
 The divergence of a vector field can also be viewed as
simply the limit of the field's source strength per unit
volume (or source density); it is positive at a source
point in the field, and negative at a sink point, or zero
where there is neither sink nor source
 . 𝛻 • (A + B) = 𝛻 • A + 𝛻• B
 𝛻 • (𝑉A) =V 𝛻 • A + A • 𝛻V
 DIVERGENCE THEOREM

divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field A through the closed surface
S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

volume integrals are easier to evaluate than surface

integrals. For this reason, to determine the flux of A
through a closed surface we simply find the right-hand
side of eq. (3.42) instead of the left-hand side of the
equation
 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR
AND DIVERGENCE THEOREM

U1 U2 U3 h1 h2 h3
Cartesian X Y z 1 1 1
Cylindrical 𝜌 ∅ z 1 𝜌 1
Spherical R 𝜃 ∅ 1 r rsin𝜃

Thus, the divergence of A at point P(xo, yo, zo),

P( 𝝆, ∅ , 𝒛) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑷 𝒓, 𝜽, ∅ 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒂𝒏, 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆

,
 U1 U2 U3 h1 h2 h3
Cartesian X Y z 1 1 1
Cylindrical 𝜌 ∅ z 1 𝜌 1
Spherical R 𝜃 ∅ 1 r rsin𝜃