FED 213

LECTURE NOTE
PSYCHOLOGY OF GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Definitions of Growth and Development
The terms growth and development are synonymous hence
they are seldom used interchangeably. They are the
processes involved in the reproduction of organisms. The
processes begin as soon as a mature female conceives,
and it terminates at death.
Life begins in the mother’s womb as a result of the
fertilization process of the ovum (egg cell) by the sperm of
a father. A man possesses xy chromosomes and a woman
only x chromosomes. The sex of the unborn child is
determined by the father as it largely depends on which of
his chromosomes fertilizes the egg cell.
The mother’s womb becomes the site and the means for
growth and development for a period of 42 weeks (9
months) under normal circumstances. The fetus is fed
through the placenta of the mother while the sojourn in the
womb lasts. The period the embryo is in the womb is
referred to as pre-natal period.
Growth and development refer to the changes brought
about as a result of the interaction of one’s genetic and
environmental factors as well as the changes in the moral,
mental, emotional, social, and physical aspects which
culminate in individuality.
Specifically, the term growth, with regard to human species,
means the process of increasing in size, length, weight,
height, and vocabulary among others. Growth is limited and
specific to the changes in only the quantitative areas as
listed above; it is specific, observable, and measurable.
Growth does not continue throughout life; it ends when
maturity is attained.
Maturation refers to naturally or genetically programmed
changes over time. Development, on the other hand refers
to certain changes that occur in human beings between
conception and death. It refers to the changes that are
enduring for a reasonably long period of time, that is, the
orderly, adaptive changes we go through from conception
to death.
Human development includes physical, personal, social
and cognitive development. Development is all embracing
as it subsumes both the qualitative and quantitative
aspects. This makes development more comprehensive
and complex than the term growth.
Development is complex because it is the product of
several processes which include; biological (due largely to
genetic inheritance), cognitive (changes in the child’s
thinking, intelligence and language), and socioemotional
(changes in child’s relationships with other people, changes
in emotion and changes in personality). Biological,
cognitive, and socioemotional processes are closely
related.
Stages of Growth and Development
The chronological counting of age begins the moment a fetus
emerges from the mother’s womb which signifies the beginning
of post-natal period. In the most widely and commonly used
system of classifications, the developmental stages or periods
are infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood,
adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and late
adulthood.
Infancy Stage (from birth – 2 years): at this stage of life,
the new born baby is dependent. The baby needs all the
cares he or she can get from the parents and the significant
others. At this stage, such activities as sitting, crawling, and
walking will commence. The stage also witnesses language
development, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination
and social learning.
Early Childhood (2-5 years): this is sometimes referred to
as preschool years. It begins from the end of infancy and
ends at the beginning of middle childhood. Children at this
point in time become more self-sufficient, demonstrate
readiness for school by taking instructions, and identify
pictures. They find it convenient spending more time with
peers depending largely on the individual’s social skill.
Middle and Late Childhood (5-11 years): it is also called
elementary school years. The child is mature and ready for
elementary school. It is at this period children learn the
fundamental skills of reading, writing, and doing
arithmetic/mathematics. Self-control is gained and they
become independent by interacting with their immediate
environment at school and around their place of abode.
Adolescence (12-21 years): sometimes it begins between
ages 10-12 and terminates between 18-21 years. It is a
period between the end of childhood and the beginning of
adulthood. It is a period of rapid development including
physical changes such as height and weight gains and
sexual functions – puberty, among others.
Adolescence, a period of storm and stress is a period they
want to explore, pursue independence and seek their own
identity. Their thoughts become more abstract, logical, and
idealistic.
Early Adulthood (21-40 years): the young adult must learn
how to form intimate relationships, both in friendship and
love. The development of this skill relies on the successful
resolution or otherwise of other stages. It may be difficult to
establish intimacy if one has not successfully developed
trust or a sense of identity.
If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation,
isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend
on others. Also critical is the development of sociopolitical
views and occupational choice during early adulthood.
Middle adulthood (40-65 years): during this period, the
middle-aged experience a conflict between generativity and
stagnation. They may either feel a sense of contributing to
the next generation and their community or a sense of
purposelessness.
Physically, at about 50 plus, the middle-aged experience a
decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory
keenness, and cardiac output. Also, women experience
menopause and a sharp drop in the hormone estrogen.
Men do not have an equivalent to menopause, but they do
experience a decline in sperm count and speed of
ejaculation and erection. Most men and women remain
capable of sexual satisfaction after middle age.
Late Adulthood (65 – till death): during old age, adults
experience a conflict between integrity and despair. When
reflecting on their life, they either feel a sense of
accomplishment or failure that culminates in regrets over
lost opportunities.
Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular
strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance
perception, and the sense of smell. They are also more
susceptible to severe diseases such as cancer and
pneumonia due to a weakened immune system.
Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia
praecox or Alzheimer's disease. However, partially due to a
lifetime's accumulation of antibodies, the elderly is less
likely to suffer from common diseases such as the cold or
flu.
Whether or not intellectual powers increase or decrease
with age remains controversial. Longitudinal studies have
suggested that intellect declines, while cross-sectional
studies suggest that intellect is stable. It is generally
believed that crystallized intelligence increases up to old
age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age.
Factors Enhancing Growth and Development
The factors can be grouped into internal and external. The
internal factors include:
• Heredity/genetic control
• Intelligence
• Biological factors
• Social nature
• Emotional factors
The external factor is the environment in the womb of the
mother. It takes effect from conception and continues after birth.
The factors include:
• The environment in the womb of the mother
• Nutrition of the mother
• Accidents and incidents of life
• Socioeconomic of the parents
• Cultural factors
Principles of Development
Development follows certain rules and principles. There is
no “short cut”. People develop at different phases and
rates; development is relatively orderly, and it takes place
gradually. It cannot be hastened or influenced.
Development follows a logical and sequential pattern from
conception and throughout life. Some of the principles are
listed and briefly expatiated on below.
Principle of continuity: Development in the course of living
is a continuous process. It begins from conception onward.
The changes, however little or minute, continue to take
place until one dies
Principles of lack of uniformity in the developmental rate:
Each human species develops at his or her own rate.
There is no competition in development. No one has any
idea of how and when the development is taking place
because it is silent and gradual. It can be fast even though
gradual in some people, depending on the nature or
heredity, while in some it is slow due to same reason.
Principles of individual differences: Each organism is
unique and as a result will develop differently. The common
goal is that everyone will develop and attain maturity, but
the time and rate are not the same.
Principles of uniformity of pattern: Development follows the
same pattern in all organisms. Development starts from the
head and through the other parts of the body to the foot
(Cephalo-Caudal head-tail).