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i. Briefly discuss pneumonia with reference to: i. Symptoms ii. Treatment
Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs, causing them to fill with fluid or
pus, making it difficult to breathe. Here's a brief discussion on its symptoms and treatment:
i. Symptoms:
 Common symptoms include cough, which may produce phlegm, fever, sweating, and chills.
 Other symptoms may include shortness of breath, chest pain, fatigue, and sometimes nausea or
vomiting.
 In severe cases or in certain populations, such as the elderly or those with weakened immune
systems, symptoms may be more pronounced and can lead to confusion or a bluish tint to the lips
and nails due to lack of oxygen.
ii. Treatment:
 Treatment for pneumonia depends on the severity of the infection, the causative agent (bacterial,
viral, or fungal), and the overall health of the patient.
 Bacterial pneumonia is typically treated with antibiotics, whereas viral pneumonia may not respond
to antibiotics and usually requires antiviral medication if available.
 Supportive care is crucial, including rest, staying hydrated, and managing fever and pain with
appropriate medications.
 In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary, especially for those who are older or have
underlying health conditions. Hospital treatment may involve oxygen therapy, intravenous fluids,
and close monitoring.
 Prevention through vaccination is also essential, particularly for high-risk groups, such as young
children, the elderly, and individuals with chronic medical conditions.
Overall, early recognition of symptoms and prompt treatment are crucial for managing pneumonia
effectively and reducing complications.
ii. Briefly describe the adaptations by mesophytes to reduce loss of water.
Mesophytes are plants adapted to moderate moisture environments, and they have developed various
mechanisms to reduce water loss. Here are some of their adaptations:
1. Stomatal Regulation: Mesophytes regulate the opening and closing of stomata to control water loss.
Stomata are tiny pores on the surface of leaves through which water vapor escapes during
transpiration. Mesophytes can adjust the size and number of stomata in response to environmental
conditions, such as humidity and light intensity, to minimize water loss while still allowing for gas
exchange.
2. Waxy Cuticle: Mesophytes have a waxy cuticle covering the surface of leaves, which acts as a
waterproof barrier, reducing water loss through evaporation. This waxy layer helps to prevent
excessive drying of leaf tissues by providing a protective coating.
3. Reduced Leaf Surface Area: Some mesophytes have adapted by reducing the size or number of
leaves, thereby decreasing the total surface area available for transpiration. This adaptation helps to
conserve water in environments where water availability is limited.
4. Deep Root Systems: Mesophytes may develop deep root systems to access water from deeper soil
layers, where it is less prone to evaporation. Deep roots enable the plant to maintain water uptake
even during dry periods, reducing dependence on surface water sources.
5. Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM): Some mesophytes, particularly those in arid environments,
utilize CAM photosynthesis, a specialized form of photosynthesis that enables them to open their
stomata at night to take in carbon dioxide while minimizing water loss. During the day, the stomata
remain closed to conserve water, and carbon dioxide fixed during the night is used for
photosynthesis.
These adaptations allow mesophytes to thrive in environments with moderate moisture levels by minimizing
water loss and maximizing water uptake and retention.
iii. Briefly explain the role of renal tubule in the formation of urine.
The renal tubule plays a crucial role in the formation of urine as part of the nephron, the functional unit of
the kidney. Here's a brief explanation of its role:
1. Filtration: The process begins in the renal corpuscle, where blood is filtered through the glomerulus
into the Bowman's capsule, forming a fluid called filtrate. This filtrate contains water, electrolytes,
glucose, amino acids, and waste products like urea and creatinine.
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2. Reabsorption: As the filtrate passes through the renal tubule, most of the essential substances, such
as glucose, amino acids, and the majority of water and electrolytes, are reabsorbed back into the
bloodstream. This reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) primarily through
active transport and passive diffusion.
3. Secretion: In addition to reabsorption, the renal tubule also secretes certain substances into the
filtrate. This secretion process involves actively transporting substances from the blood into the
tubule, enhancing the elimination of waste products and maintaining electrolyte balance. Secretion
occurs mainly in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, as well as the collecting ducts.
4. Concentration and Dilution: Further modifications to the filtrate occur as it passes through the loop
of Henle. This structure allows for the concentration of urine by reabsorbing water and electrolytes
from the filtrate, leading to the formation of a concentrated urine in times of dehydration.
Conversely, during periods of hydration, the loop of Henle can dilute the urine by allowing less
reabsorption of water.
5. Final Adjustment: Finally, the filtrate, now referred to as urine, moves through the distal
convoluted tubule and collecting ducts, where additional fine-tuning of electrolyte balance and water
reabsorption occurs under the influence of hormonal regulation, such as antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
and aldosterone. ADH promotes water reabsorption in response to dehydration, while aldosterone
regulates sodium and potassium balance.
Overall, the renal tubule's intricate processes of filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and concentration/dilution
are essential for the formation of urine, which plays a vital role in regulating the body's water and electrolyte
balance and eliminating waste products.
iv. Differentiate between nervous coordination and hormonal coordination in terms of coordinators
Nervous coordination and hormonal coordination are two primary mechanisms through which the body
regulates and coordinates various physiological processes. Here's how they differ in terms of coordinators:
1. Nervous Coordination:
o Coordinators: Nervous coordination is primarily controlled by the nervous system, which
includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
o Mode of Communication: Nervous coordination relies on electrochemical impulses
transmitted along nerve fibers. These impulses travel rapidly from one part of the body to
another, allowing for quick responses to stimuli.
o Speed of Response: Nervous coordination typically results in rapid responses, allowing for
immediate reactions to changes in the environment or internal conditions.
o Specificity: Nervous coordination is highly specific, with nerve impulses targeting specific
cells, tissues, or organs with precision.
2. Hormonal Coordination:
o Coordinators: Hormonal coordination is primarily controlled by the endocrine system,
which consists of various glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
o Mode of Communication: Hormonal coordination relies on chemical messengers called
hormones, which are secreted by endocrine glands and transported via the bloodstream to
target cells or organs.
o Speed of Response: Hormonal responses typically occur more slowly compared to nervous
responses. It may take some time for hormones to travel through the bloodstream and exert
their effects on target tissues.
o Duration of Action: Hormonal responses often have longer-lasting effects compared to
nervous responses. Hormones can influence cellular activities over extended periods, ranging
from minutes to days.
o Generalized Effects: Hormonal coordination often produces more generalized effects,
affecting multiple organs or systems simultaneously rather than specific, localized responses.
In summary, nervous coordination involves rapid transmission of electrochemical impulses by the nervous
system, resulting in immediate and specific responses to stimuli. In contrast, hormonal coordination involves
the secretion of hormones by endocrine glands into the bloodstream, leading to slower but longer-lasting and
more generalized effects on target cells or organs.
v. Briefly explain the hormones produced by anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
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The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, also known as the adenohypophysis, produces and releases several
important hormones that regulate various physiological processes in the body. Here's a brief explanation of
the hormones produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland:
1. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH):
o ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce and release cortisol, a hormone involved in
regulating metabolism, immune response, and stress response.
2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):
o TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormones, such as thyroxine
(T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which regulate metabolism, growth, and development.
3. Growth Hormone (GH):
o GH, also known as somatotropin, promotes growth and development of tissues and bones by
stimulating cell growth, replication, and regeneration. It also regulates metabolism and
nutrient utilization.
4. Prolactin (PRL):
o Prolactin stimulates milk production (lactation) in the mammary glands of the breasts after
childbirth. It also plays a role in reproductive function and behavior.
5. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH):
o FSH regulates the growth and development of ovarian follicles in females and stimulates
sperm production (spermatogenesis) in males.
6. Luteinizing Hormone (LH):
o LH works alongside FSH in the reproductive system. In females, LH triggers ovulation and
stimulates the production of progesterone by the corpus luteum. In males, LH stimulates the
production of testosterone by the interstitial cells (Leydig cells) in the testes.
These hormones produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland play vital roles in regulating growth,
metabolism, reproduction, and stress response, among other physiological functions in the body.
vi. Differentiate between bone and cartilage with respect to TWO functions
Bone and cartilage are both types of connective tissue found in the skeletal system, but they differ in
structure and function. Here's a differentiation between bone and cartilage with respect to two functions:
1. Support and Structure:
o Bone: Bones provide structural support and rigidity to the body. They form the framework of
the skeleton, giving shape and support to the body and protecting vital organs. Bone tissue is
hard and dense due to the presence of mineralized matrix, primarily calcium and phosphate.
o Cartilage: Cartilage also provides support and structure to the body, but it is more flexible
and elastic compared to bone. Cartilage acts as a cushion between bones at joints, reducing
friction and allowing for smooth movement. It provides support to structures such as the
nose, ears, and trachea.
2. Repair and Growth:
o Bone: Bone tissue has a remarkable ability to repair and regenerate itself. When bones are
fractured or damaged, specialized cells called osteoblasts lay down new bone tissue to repair
the injury. Bone tissue also undergoes remodeling throughout life, allowing bones to grow
and adapt to changes in mechanical stress.
o Cartilage: Cartilage has a more limited capacity for repair and regeneration compared to
bone. Cartilage lacks blood vessels, nerves, and a direct blood supply, which hinders its
ability to heal quickly. Injuries to cartilage, such as tears or damage to cartilage in joints, may
heal slowly or incompletely. Cartilage growth primarily occurs during development and
growth in childhood and adolescence, with little to no growth in adulthood.
In summary, while both bone and cartilage provide support and structure to the body, bone is denser and
provides greater rigidity, whereas cartilage is more flexible and elastic. Additionally, bone has a greater
capacity for repair and growth compared to cartilage, which has limited regenerative abilities.
vii. Write FOUR main chemical compounds involved in the process of protein synthesis
Protein synthesis, the process by which cells build proteins, involves several chemical compounds. Here are
four main compounds involved in this process:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA):
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o mRNA is a type of RNA molecule that carries the genetic information from DNA in the cell
nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. It serves as a template for protein synthesis by
specifying the sequence of amino acids in a protein.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA):
o tRNA is another type of RNA molecule that carries amino acids to the ribosome during
protein synthesis. Each tRNA molecule is specific to a particular amino acid and has an
anticodon sequence that base-pairs with the codon sequence on the mRNA, ensuring that the
correct amino acid is added to the growing protein chain.
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):
o rRNA is a component of ribosomes, the cellular structures where protein synthesis occurs.
Ribosomes consist of both protein and rRNA molecules and serve as the site of translation,
where mRNA is read and amino acids are assembled into polypeptide chains to form
proteins.
4. Amino Acids:
o Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. During protein synthesis, amino acids are
brought to the ribosome by tRNA molecules and joined together in a specific sequence
dictated by the mRNA template. The sequence of amino acids ultimately determines the
structure and function of the protein being synthesized.
These chemical compounds work together in a coordinated manner during the process of protein synthesis,
ensuring that the genetic information encoded in DNA is accurately translated into functional proteins within
the cell.
viii. Briefly explain the effect of temperature in terms of its intensity. (A) -Low temperature, (B) -high
temperature

The effect of temperature intensity on biological processes can vary depending on whether the temperature
is low or high:
(A) Low Temperature:
 At low temperatures, biological processes often slow down. Enzymatic reactions, which are essential
for many biochemical processes, may proceed at a reduced rate.
 Low temperatures can decrease the fluidity of cell membranes, making them more rigid. This can
affect membrane permeability and the ability of cells to transport molecules across their membranes.
 In some organisms, particularly those adapted to cold environments, low temperatures can trigger
physiological responses to help maintain internal homeostasis. For example, certain organisms
produce antifreeze proteins to prevent ice crystal formation within their cells.
 Prolonged exposure to very low temperatures can lead to cellular damage or even cell death due to
ice crystal formation and disruption of cellular structures.
(B) High Temperature:
 At high temperatures, biological processes tend to speed up initially, as enzyme activity increases
with temperature up to a certain point, known as the optimum temperature.
 However, beyond the optimum temperature, enzyme activity can decrease rapidly due to
denaturation, where the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme is disrupted, rendering it non-
functional.
 High temperatures can also increase the fluidity of cell membranes, potentially leading to increased
membrane permeability and leakage of cellular contents.
 Heat stress can induce various physiological responses in organisms, such as increased sweating in
mammals or changes in behavior and metabolism in ectothermic animals like reptiles and insects.
 Prolonged exposure to high temperatures can lead to heat-related illnesses or damage to cellular
structures, ultimately affecting the function and viability of cells and organisms.
In summary, the effect of temperature intensity on biological processes can have diverse consequences,
including alterations in enzymatic activity, membrane fluidity, and cellular responses, ultimately impacting
the overall function and survival of organisms.
ix. Briefly explain yogurt as fermentation products.
Yogurt is a fermented dairy product produced by the bacterial fermentation of milk. Here's a brief
explanation of yogurt as a fermentation product:
1. Fermentation Process:
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o The fermentation of milk into yogurt is primarily carried out by bacterial cultures,
specifically strains of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. These
bacteria metabolize the lactose (milk sugar) present in milk and produce lactic acid as a
byproduct.
o The production of lactic acid causes the pH of the milk to decrease, which leads to the
coagulation of milk proteins (casein), resulting in the formation of a thickened, semi-solid
texture characteristic of yogurt.
o The fermentation process also contributes to the characteristic tangy flavor of yogurt.
2. Nutritional Benefits:
o Yogurt is a rich source of various nutrients, including protein, calcium, B vitamins, and
probiotics (beneficial bacteria).
o The fermentation process enhances the digestibility of lactose in yogurt, making it more
tolerable for individuals with lactose intolerance compared to regular milk.
o Probiotics present in yogurt, such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species, are known to
confer health benefits by promoting gut health, improving digestion, and boosting the
immune system.
3. Varieties and Additions:
o Yogurt comes in various forms, including plain, flavored, and Greek yogurt (strained to
remove whey, resulting in a thicker consistency).
o Fruit, sweeteners, and other flavorings may be added to yogurt to enhance its taste and
appeal. However, it's important to note that flavored yogurts often contain added sugars,
which may contribute to excess calorie intake if consumed in large amounts.
4. Cultural Significance:
o Yogurt has been consumed for centuries and is a staple food in many cultures around the
world, particularly in regions where dairy farming is prevalent.
o It is used in a variety of culinary applications, such as a base for sauces, dips, dressings, and
desserts, or simply enjoyed on its own as a nutritious snack or breakfast option.
In summary, yogurt is a popular fermented dairy product with numerous nutritional benefits, thanks to the
fermentation process carried out by specific bacterial cultures. Its tangy flavor, creamy texture, and
versatility make it a widely consumed food worldwide.
x. Briefly discuss the relation of parthenocarpy with fertilization.
Parthenocarpy refers to the development of fruit without fertilization of ovules or seeds. Here's a brief
discussion of the relationship between parthenocarpy and fertilization:
1. Natural Occurrence:
o In many plant species, fruit development typically follows pollination and fertilization.
Pollination involves the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organs (anthers) to the
female reproductive organs (stigma), followed by fertilization of the ovules within the ovary.
o However, under certain conditions, fruit can develop without fertilization occurring. This
phenomenon is known as parthenocarpy.
2. Induced Parthenocarpy:
o Parthenocarpy can occur naturally in some plant species or can be induced artificially through
various means.
o Artificial induction of parthenocarpy can be achieved by applying growth regulators, such as
auxins or gibberellins, to flowers or developing fruits. These hormones mimic the
physiological effects of pollination and fertilization, stimulating fruit development even in the
absence of viable seeds.
3. Relationship with Fertilization:
o Parthenocarpy can occur independently of fertilization, meaning that fruit development
proceeds without the need for pollination or fertilization to take place.
o However, in some cases, parthenocarpic fruit development may still be influenced by the
presence or absence of fertilization.
o For example, in certain plant species, the hormonal signals triggered by pollination and
fertilization can enhance fruit growth and quality. In the absence of fertilization,
parthenocarpic fruits may exhibit differences in size, shape, or flavor compared to fruits
resulting from pollination and fertilization.
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4. Advantages and Disadvantages:
o Parthenocarpy offers several potential advantages, including the production of seedless fruits
that may have better market appeal, improved fruit quality, and reduced susceptibility to
seed-related disorders.
o However, parthenocarpic fruit development may also have drawbacks, such as reduced
genetic diversity and the potential for decreased seed dispersal, which could impact plant
reproduction and ecosystem dynamics.
In summary, while parthenocarpy allows fruit development to occur without fertilization, the relationship
between parthenocarpy and fertilization can vary depending on the plant species and environmental factors.
Parthenocarpic fruit development offers both advantages and disadvantages, which should be considered in
agricultural and ecological contexts.
xi. Give ONE source each one of the following addictive drugs, i. Marijuana ii. Psilocybin iii.
Morphine iv. Codeine
Here's one common source for each of the addictive drugs mentioned:
i. Marijuana:
 Source: Cannabis sativa plant, particularly its flowers, leaves, stems, and seeds.
 Marijuana contains psychoactive compounds, primarily delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which
is responsible for its mind-altering effects.
ii. Psilocybin:
 Source: Psilocybin is found naturally in certain species of mushrooms, commonly known as "magic
mushrooms" or "psilocybin mushrooms."
 These mushrooms belong to the genus Psilocybe and contain varying amounts of psilocybin and
psilocin, which are hallucinogenic compounds.
iii. Morphine:
 Source: Morphine is derived from the opium poppy plant, Papaver somniferum.
 Opium poppy pods contain a milky sap, which is harvested and processed to produce morphine and
other opioid drugs. Morphine is a potent pain reliever and is also known for its addictive properties.
iv. Codeine:
 Source: Like morphine, codeine is also derived from the opium poppy plant, Papaver somniferum.
 Codeine is less potent than morphine but still acts as an analgesic and cough suppressant. It is
commonly used in prescription and over-the-counter medications for pain relief and cough
suppression.
These substances are derived from natural sources but can have potent effects on the brain and body, leading
to potential addiction and other health risks when misused.
Q.3:- a. Briefly explain process of excretion in plants in terms of i. Excretion of CO₂ ii. Excretion of O₂
In plants, the process of excretion involves the removal of waste products generated during metabolic
processes. Here's a brief explanation of the excretion of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) in plants:
i. Excretion of CO2:
 During photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere to produce glucose and
oxygen (O2) as byproducts.
 However, during cellular respiration, which occurs in all living cells, including plant cells, glucose is
broken down in the presence of oxygen to produce energy (in the form of ATP), carbon dioxide
(CO2), and water (H2O).
 The CO2 produced during cellular respiration is then released into the atmosphere through small
pores called stomata, which are primarily located on the underside of leaves. Stomata open and close
to regulate gas exchange and water loss.
 Additionally, some CO2 may diffuse out of plant cells directly through cell membranes.
ii. Excretion of O2:
 During photosynthesis, plants produce oxygen (O2) as a byproduct when water molecules are split to
provide electrons for the synthesis of glucose.
 This oxygen is released into the atmosphere through the same stomata that are used for the excretion
of carbon dioxide. When stomata open to allow CO2 uptake, oxygen is also released.
 Oxygen produced during photosynthesis may also be used for cellular respiration within plant cells,
where it serves as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, generating ATP.
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 In aquatic plants, oxygen produced during photosynthesis is released directly into the surrounding
water.
In summary, plants excrete carbon dioxide (CO2) generated during cellular respiration through stomata and
possibly through diffusion across cell membranes. Oxygen (O2) produced during photosynthesis is released
into the atmosphere or water, contributing to the oxygen content of the environment. These processes are
essential for maintaining the balance of gases in the atmosphere and supporting cellular metabolism in
plants.
Q.3:- b. Write treatment of paralysis.
Treatment for paralysis depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Here are some
common approaches:
1. Physical Therapy:
o Physical therapy plays a crucial role in rehabilitation for individuals with paralysis. It focuses
on strengthening muscles, improving mobility, and retraining the body to perform tasks
affected by paralysis.
o Therapists may use various techniques, such as range of motion exercises, stretching, and
functional training, tailored to the specific needs and abilities of the individual.
2. Occupational Therapy:
o Occupational therapy helps individuals with paralysis regain independence in daily activities,
such as self-care, work, and leisure activities.
o Therapists may teach adaptive techniques, recommend assistive devices and equipment, and
modify the home environment to maximize function and improve quality of life.
3. Assistive Devices and Mobility Aids:
o Assistive devices and mobility aids, such as wheelchairs, walkers, canes, and braces, can help
individuals with paralysis move around safely and independently.
o Advanced technologies, such as powered wheelchairs, exoskeletons, and functional electrical
stimulation (FES) devices, may also be used to enhance mobility and function.
4. Medications:
o Depending on the underlying cause of paralysis, medications may be prescribed to manage
symptoms, alleviate pain, or address related conditions, such as muscle spasms or nerve
damage.
o Medications commonly used include muscle relaxants, pain relievers, and medications to
treat spasticity or neuropathic pain.
5. Surgical Interventions:
o In some cases, surgical interventions may be necessary to relieve pressure on nerves, repair
damaged tissues, or stabilize the spine.
o Surgical procedures, such as decompressive laminectomy, spinal fusion, or nerve grafting,
may be considered depending on the specific condition and extent of paralysis.
6. Psychotherapy and Counseling:
o Coping with paralysis can be emotionally challenging, and individuals may benefit from
psychotherapy or counseling to address psychological issues, such as depression, anxiety, or
adjustment to disability.
o Support groups and peer counseling can also provide valuable emotional support and
practical advice for individuals and their caregivers.
7. Experimental Treatments and Rehabilitation Techniques:
o Ongoing research and advancements in rehabilitation techniques, such as stem cell therapy,
neural regeneration, and brain-computer interfaces, offer promising avenues for the treatment
of paralysis. However, these approaches are still experimental and may not be widely
available or proven effective for all individuals.
Overall, the treatment of paralysis requires a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach, tailored to the
individual's specific needs, goals, and functional abilities. It often involves a combination of therapies,
assistive devices, medications, and supportive care to optimize function, improve quality of life, and
promote independence.
Q.4:- a. Differentiate between elbow joint and shoulder joint.
The elbow joint and shoulder joint are both important articulations in the human body, but they differ in
their structure, range of motion, and function. Here's a differentiation between the two:
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1. Anatomical Structure:
o Elbow Joint:
 The elbow joint is a hinge joint formed by the articulation of three bones: the humerus
(upper arm bone), the radius, and the ulna (forearm bones).
 It consists of three main parts: the humeroulnar joint, where the trochlea of the
humerus articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna; the humeroradial joint, where
the capitulum of the humerus articulates with the head of the radius; and the proximal
radioulnar joint, where the head of the radius articulates with the radial notch of the
ulna.
o Shoulder Joint:
 The shoulder joint, also known as the glenohumeral joint, is a ball-and-socket joint
formed by the articulation of the head of the humerus with the glenoid cavity of the
scapula (shoulder blade).
 It is supported by a group of ligaments and tendons, including the glenohumeral
ligaments, the joint capsule, and the rotator cuff muscles.
2. Range of Motion:
o Elbow Joint:
 The elbow joint primarily allows for flexion and extension movements, with a limited
degree of rotation.
 Flexion involves bending the elbow, bringing the forearm closer to the upper arm,
while extension involves straightening the elbow.
o Shoulder Joint:
 The shoulder joint has a wide range of motion, allowing for flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction, internal rotation, and external rotation.
 Flexion involves raising the arm forward, while extension involves moving the arm
backward. Abduction and adduction refer to moving the arm away from and toward
the body, respectively. Internal and external rotation refer to rotating the arm inward
and outward.
3. Function:
o Elbow Joint:
 The elbow joint provides stability and support for activities such as lifting, carrying,
and gripping objects.
 It is essential for performing tasks that require precise control and manipulation of the
hands and fingers.
o Shoulder Joint:
 The shoulder joint provides mobility and flexibility, allowing for a wide range of arm
movements in various planes.
 It plays a crucial role in activities such as reaching, throwing, lifting overhead, and
performing tasks that require reaching behind the body.
In summary, while both the elbow joint and shoulder joint are important for upper limb function, they differ
in their anatomical structure, range of motion, and functional characteristics. The elbow joint primarily
provides stability and support for precise movements of the forearm and hand, while the shoulder joint
offers mobility and flexibility for a wide range of arm movements in different directions.
Q.4:- b. Differentiate between the function of male and female gonads in terms of i. Seminiferous
tubules ii. Epididymis
Certainly, let's differentiate the function of male and female gonads (testes and ovaries, respectively) in
terms of seminiferous tubules and epididymis:
i. Seminiferous Tubules:
 Male (Testes):
o Seminiferous tubules are the functional units of the testes, responsible for spermatogenesis,
the process of sperm cell production.
o Spermatogonia, the stem cells located in the seminiferous tubules, undergo mitosis to produce
primary spermatocytes, which then undergo meiosis to form haploid spermatids.
o These spermatids further differentiate and mature into spermatozoa (sperm cells) as they
move through the seminiferous tubules.
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o The seminiferous tubules are surrounded by Sertoli cells, which provide support and
nourishment to developing sperm cells and also regulate spermatogenesis.
 Female (Ovaries):
o Ovaries do not contain seminiferous tubules but rather ovarian follicles, which are the
functional units responsible for oogenesis, the process of egg cell (ovum) production.
o Oogonia, the stem cells located in the ovarian cortex, undergo mitosis to produce primary
oocytes, which then undergo meiosis I to form secondary oocytes.
o Meiosis II is completed upon fertilization, resulting in the formation of a mature ovum.
o Oogenesis is supported by surrounding cells, including granulosa cells and theca cells, which
provide nourishment and hormonal support to developing oocytes within ovarian follicles.
ii. Epididymis:
 Male (Testes):
o The epididymis is a tightly coiled tubular structure located on the posterior aspect of each
testis.
o Its main function is the storage, maturation, and transportation of sperm cells produced in the
seminiferous tubules.
o Sperm cells produced in the seminiferous tubules are transported to the epididymis, where
they undergo further maturation and gain motility (ability to move).
o The epididymis also plays a role in concentrating sperm and storing them until ejaculation.
 Female (Ovaries):
o Females do not have an epididymis. Instead, after oocyte maturation in the ovarian follicles,
mature ova are released from the ovary during ovulation.
o The released ovum then travels through the fallopian tube (oviduct) towards the uterus, where
it may be fertilized by sperm if present.
o The fallopian tubes do not store mature ova in the same way that the epididymis stores sperm;
rather, they provide a conduit for the transport of ova from the ovaries to the uterus.
In summary, the function of male and female gonads differs in terms of seminiferous tubules and
epididymis. In males, the seminiferous tubules of the testes produce sperm cells, which are then stored,
matured, and transported in the epididymis. In females, the ovaries produce ova within ovarian follicles, and
mature ova are released directly into the fallopian tubes, bypassing a structure equivalent to the epididymis.
Q.5:- a. Briefly explain the composition of chromosome.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, carrying genetic
information in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Here's a brief explanation of the composition of
chromosomes:
1. DNA:
o DNA is the primary component of chromosomes and is organized into long, double-stranded
molecules.
o DNA molecules consist of repeating units called nucleotides, which are composed of a sugar-
phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine).
o The sequence of nucleotides along the DNA molecule forms the genetic code, which contains
instructions for the synthesis of proteins and the regulation of cellular functions.
2. Histone Proteins:
o DNA molecules are tightly coiled and packaged around proteins called histones to form a
structure known as chromatin.
o Histone proteins help to condense and organize the DNA, allowing it to fit within the limited
space of the cell nucleus.
o The wrapping of DNA around histones also plays a role in regulating gene expression by
controlling access to specific regions of the DNA.
3. Non-Histone Proteins:
o In addition to histones, chromosomes contain various non-histone proteins that are involved
in DNA replication, repair, recombination, and transcription.
o Non-histone proteins also play roles in chromosome structure, stability, and segregation
during cell division.
4. Centromere:
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o The centromere is a specialized region of the chromosome that serves as the attachment point
for spindle fibers during cell division.
o It plays a critical role in ensuring the accurate segregation of chromosomes into daughter
cells during mitosis and meiosis.
5. Telomeres:
o Telomeres are structures found at the ends of chromosomes, consisting of repetitive DNA
sequences and associated proteins.
o Telomeres protect the ends of chromosomes from degradation and prevent them from fusing
with neighboring chromosomes.
o They also play a role in regulating cellular aging and maintaining chromosomal stability.
In summary, chromosomes are composed of DNA, histone and non-histone proteins, centromeres, and
telomeres. They serve as the carriers of genetic information, containing the instructions necessary for the
development, growth, and function of an organism. The complex organization of DNA and associated
proteins within chromosomes ensures the accurate transmission of genetic material during cell division and
provides the basis for inheritance and evolution.
Q.5:- b. Describe water pollution in terms of herbicides and chemical fertilizers.
Water pollution caused by herbicides and chemical fertilizers occurs primarily due to agricultural activities
and runoff from farmlands. Here's a description of water pollution in terms of herbicides and chemical
fertilizers:
1. Herbicides:
o Herbicides are chemicals used to control or kill unwanted weeds and plants in agricultural
fields, gardens, lawns, and other areas.
o When herbicides are applied to crops or soil, they can be carried away by rainfall or irrigation
water and transported to nearby water bodies through surface runoff or leaching into
groundwater.
o Herbicides in water bodies can have detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems, including:
 Toxicity to aquatic plants: Herbicides may harm or kill beneficial aquatic plants,
disrupting the balance of underwater ecosystems and reducing habitat and food
sources for aquatic organisms.
 Harm to aquatic animals: Herbicides can be toxic to fish, amphibians, and other
aquatic animals, causing direct mortality or sublethal effects such as impaired growth,
reproduction, and behavior.
 Disruption of food chains: Herbicides can indirectly impact higher trophic levels by
affecting the abundance and distribution of prey species, leading to cascading effects
throughout the food web.
2. Chemical Fertilizers:
o Chemical fertilizers are substances containing essential nutrients, such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium, applied to crops to enhance soil fertility and promote plant
growth.
o Excessive or improper application of chemical fertilizers can result in runoff of nutrients into
water bodies, leading to nutrient pollution.
o Nutrient pollution, particularly from nitrogen and phosphorus, can cause various ecological
and environmental problems, including:
 Eutrophication: Excess nutrients in water bodies can stimulate the rapid growth of
algae and aquatic plants, leading to algal blooms and dense aquatic vegetation.
 Oxygen depletion: Algal blooms and subsequent decomposition of organic matter
consume oxygen in the water, leading to hypoxic (low-oxygen) or anoxic (no-oxygen)
conditions that can harm aquatic organisms.
 Fish kills: Severe algal blooms and oxygen depletion can result in fish kills and other
mass mortality events among aquatic animals.
 Changes in water quality: Nutrient pollution can alter the pH, turbidity, and nutrient
balance of water bodies, affecting water quality and making it unsuitable for drinking,
recreation, and aquatic life.
In summary, water pollution caused by herbicides and chemical fertilizers from agricultural runoff can have
significant environmental, ecological, and human health impacts. Efforts to mitigate this pollution include
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implementing best management practices, such as precision agriculture, buffer strips, cover crops, and
proper nutrient management, to minimize the use and runoff of herbicides and fertilizers and protect water
resources.
Q.6:- a. State the objectives of genetic engineering with reference to development of medicine.
Genetic engineering encompasses a broad range of techniques aimed at modifying the genetic material of
organisms to achieve specific goals. In the context of medicine, the objectives of genetic engineering are
focused on advancing healthcare and addressing various medical challenges. Here are the objectives of
genetic engineering with reference to the development of medicine:
1. Gene Therapy:
o One of the primary objectives of genetic engineering in medicine is to develop gene therapy
techniques for treating genetic disorders and diseases caused by defective genes.
o Gene therapy involves the introduction of functional genes into cells to replace or supplement
faulty genes, thereby correcting genetic defects and restoring normal cellular function.
o This approach holds promise for treating a wide range of genetic diseases, including cystic
fibrosis, muscular dystrophy, sickle cell anemia, and certain types of cancer.
2. Drug Development and Production:
o Genetic engineering techniques are utilized in the pharmaceutical industry to develop and
produce therapeutic proteins, hormones, enzymes, and other biopharmaceuticals.
o Recombinant DNA technology allows for the insertion of genes encoding specific therapeutic
proteins into host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, to produce large
quantities of desired proteins for use as drugs or vaccines.
o Examples of genetically engineered drugs include insulin for diabetes, human growth
hormone for growth disorders, and monoclonal antibodies for cancer therapy.
3. Disease Modeling and Drug Discovery:
o Genetic engineering enables the creation of animal models with genetic mutations that mimic
human diseases, facilitating the study of disease mechanisms and the development of novel
therapeutic interventions.
o Transgenic animals, engineered to carry specific disease-associated genes or mutations, serve
as valuable tools for studying disease progression, testing potential drug candidates, and
evaluating therapeutic strategies in preclinical research.
4. Personalized Medicine:
o Genetic engineering plays a key role in the emerging field of personalized medicine, which
aims to tailor medical treatments and interventions to individual patients based on their
genetic makeup.
o Advances in genome sequencing and genetic profiling allow for the identification of genetic
variants associated with disease susceptibility, drug response, and treatment outcomes,
enabling more precise diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic decision-making.
5. Stem Cell Therapy:
o Genetic engineering techniques are employed in stem cell research and therapy to modify the
genetic properties of stem cells for regenerative medicine applications.
o Genetically modified stem cells can be used for tissue engineering, organ transplantation, and
cell-based therapies to repair damaged tissues, regenerate organs, and treat degenerative
diseases.
In summary, the objectives of genetic engineering in medicine include developing gene therapy for genetic
diseases, producing therapeutic proteins, modeling diseases, discovering drugs, advancing personalized
medicine, and harnessing the potential of stem cell therapy for regenerative medicine. These objectives aim
to improve healthcare outcomes, enhance treatment options, and address unmet medical needs for patients
worldwide.
Q.6:- b. Describe any THREE changes in behavior of a person, who is addicted to a drug
When a person becomes addicted to a drug, their behavior often undergoes significant changes as a result of
the psychological and physiological effects of substance dependence. Here are three common changes in
behavior that may be observed in individuals addicted to drugs:
1. Preoccupation with Obtaining and Using the Drug:
o One of the hallmark signs of drug addiction is an intense preoccupation with obtaining and
using the drug of choice.
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o Addicted individuals may spend a significant amount of time and effort seeking out drugs,
often at the expense of other responsibilities, hobbies, or relationships.
o They may engage in deceptive or manipulative behavior to acquire drugs, such as lying to
doctors, stealing from family members or friends, or engaging in illegal activities to fund
their addiction.
2. Compulsive Drug Seeking and Use:
o Addiction is characterized by compulsive drug-seeking behavior, where individuals feel
compelled to use drugs despite negative consequences.
o Addicted individuals may experience strong cravings or urges to use drugs, which can lead to
persistent drug-seeking behavior even in the face of adverse effects on health, finances, or
relationships.
o They may escalate their drug use over time, requiring larger doses or more frequent use to
achieve the desired effects, a phenomenon known as tolerance.
3. Social and Interpersonal Problems:
o Drug addiction often leads to social and interpersonal problems, as individuals prioritize drug
use over personal relationships, work, or social activities.
o Addicted individuals may withdraw from family and friends, neglecting important social
obligations and activities.
o They may exhibit changes in mood, personality, or behavior, becoming irritable, defensive,
or secretive, which can strain relationships and lead to conflict with loved ones.
o Additionally, addiction can lead to social isolation, as individuals may spend increasing
amounts of time alone or with fellow drug users, distancing themselves from supportive
social networks.
These behavioral changes associated with drug addiction can have profound effects on an individual's life,
leading to dysfunction, distress, and impaired functioning in various areas. It's important for addicted
individuals to seek help and support from healthcare professionals, addiction specialists, and support groups
to overcome their addiction and regain control over their behavior and lives.