PRELIMINARY EXAM STUDY NOTES

What is communication?

Communication is a process of sharing and conveying messages or information from one person to
another within and across channels, contexts, media, and cultures (McCornack, 2014). There is a wide variety
of contexts and situations in which communication can be manifested; it can be a face-to-face interaction, a
phone conversation, a group discussion, a meeting or interview, a letter correspondence, a class recitation, and
many others.
Communication is also defined as the transmission of information (a message) between a source and
receiver using a signaling system: in linguistic contexts, source and receiver are interpreted in human terms, the
system involved is a language, and the notion of response to (or acknowledgement of) the message becomes of
crucial importance. In theory, communication is said to have taken place if the information received is the same
as that sent. (David Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics & Phonetics)

Nature of Communication

1. Communication is a process.
2. Communication occurs between two or more people (the speaker and the receiver).
3. Communication can be expressed through written or spoken words, actions (nonverbal), or both spoken
words and nonverbal actions at the same time.

Five Main Elements of Communication

Communication is divided into elements which help us better understand its mechanics or process.
These elements are the following:

1. SOURCE – the originator of the message. Senders convey their thoughts into symbols or observable
signals such as words. This is codification and is usually done through the use of language.

2. MESSAGE – the set of verbal or non-verbal symbols sent to a receiver. These are the ideas or thoughts
that are transmitted from sender to receiver. They are the result of the interpretation of symbols, when
meaning is derived from observable signals.

3. CHANNEL – the means by which a message is conveyed from a source to a receiver. The quality of a
channel depends on how free it is of noise. Noise is anything that reduces the quality of the signal sent
by the sender through the channel, weakening the communication between sender and receiver.

4. RECEIVER – the destination of the message. Receivers hear the signals and convert the symbols into
their thoughts. This is called decoding, deciphering, or interpretation.

5. FEEDBACK – refers to verbal or nonverbal reactions to a

message received by the source. It refers to the message
transmitted by the receiver in response to the message of
the speaker.

OTHER ELEMENTS IN COMMUNICATION PROCESS

INTERFERENCE – is anything that impedes the communication of a message. This may also refer to the
barriers of communication also known as the Noise.

SITUATION (CONTEXT) – it is the time and place in which communication occurs

Let’s study this process of communication.

 Process of Communication Example

The speaker generates an idea. Daphne loves Rico, her suitor, as a friend.

The speaker encodes an idea or converts the She thinks of how to tell him using their native
idea into words or actions. language.

The speaker transmits or sends out a message. She tells him, “Rico, mahalkitabilangkaibigan.”

The receiver gets the message. Rico hears what Daphne says.

The receiver decodes or interprets the message
based on the context.
The receiver sends or provides feedback.
There are two major kinds of communication:
He tries to analyze what she means based on the
content and their relationship, and he is
heartbroken.
He frowns and does not say something, because
he is in pain.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION
• Oral and written communication.
• Oral communication refers to spoken words, involves e-mails and snail mails. There is a use of speech
organs.
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
• It includes body posture, facial expression, body language, and sign language.
• Gestures like smile, nod, hug, etc. also play important roles in nonverbal communication.
• It also includes other forms of communication including paralanguage, sketches, paintings, photographs
and signboards. There are no speech organs involved.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

1. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
It involves talking to yourself. It may involve deliberation, where you think about your decisions or
possible courses of actions. It may also involve meditation about yourself, where you think about your life
and what is involved in it. In intrapersonal communication, you have the opportunity to explain yourself
including your motives and actions against your values and allow yourself to make adjustments to your
behavior based on what you think is best.
2. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
It involves talking to one or a limited number of people. This requires you to adjust your speech to
suit the character and personality of the person or people you talk to.
3. PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
It involves communication to a wide group of people with very varied traits, backgrounds, interests, and
persuasions. It, therefore, requires a lot of background explanation in expressing your ideas.
4. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
It involves communicating with a person or group of people who may not share the same assumptions,
values, allegiances as that of yours and may have different associations with the symbols you take for
granted as having a particular meaning.

Functions of Communication

1. Regulation and Control – Communication functions to control behavior.

2. Social Interaction – Communication allows individuals to interact with others.
3. Motivation – Communication motivates or encourages people to live better.
4. Emotional expression – Communication facilitates people’s expression of their feelings and emotions.
5. Information dissemination – Communication functions to convey information.

Models of Communication

LINEAR MODEL
 One of the first models of
communication was conceptualized by
mathematicians Claude Elwood Shannon and
Warren Weaver at Bell Laboratories in 1949.
Since Shannon and Weaver worked for a
telephone company, it was fitting that their
model mirrored the operation of the radio-
telephone. Their concept of communication had the
same components as the communication
process.
Known as the mother of all
communication models, the Shannon-Weaver model (1949) depicts communication as a linear or one-way
process consisting of five elements: a source (producer of message); a transmitter (encoder of message into
signals); a channel (signals adapted for transmission); a receiver (decoder of message from the signal); and a
destination.

This model, however, has been criticized for missing one essential element in the communication
process: feedback. Without feedback, the speaker will not know whether the receiver understands the message
or not. The challenges they found in the model are threefold.
Technical: How accurately can the message be transmitted?
Semantic: How precisely can the meaning be conveyed?
Effectiveness: To what extent can that meaning modify behavior?
Some experts called attention to the limitations of the linear model because it presupposes
communication only between two separate individuals and it does not take into consideration different
meanings and purposes of multiple parties or the possibility of unequal social relationships among them.

In light of this, scholars expanded the work of Shannon and Weaver. In 1960, the Sender message
Channel Receiver (SMCR) Model added clearly defined parts. This was presented by David Berlo who
discussed how the communication can be more complex as many key factors affect what could have been
simple elements. The source and the receiver could be affected by their communication skills, knowledge,
attitudes and socio-cultural system. The message can be altered depending on its content, elements, structure,
treatment and code. The channel or medium could involve the five senses, proving that communication is not as
simple as we think.

INTERACTIVE MODEL

This model presents

communication as a social interaction. It is
shown as a two-way process; the
receiver does not listen passively but
participates in the communication
process actively by giving feedback.

Wilbur Schramm, founder of the

Iowa’s Writers’ Workshop, emphasized the
impact the sender’s message would have on
the receiver and the effect of the
resulting feedback. Further, he added that communication can be governed by three sets of rules.
Syntactic – the formal properties of symbols
Semantic – the study of symbols and their meaning
Pragmatic – the relationship between these symbols and their users

One limitation of the Interactive Model is that it does not acknowledge intrapersonal communication
through diaries, internal monologue, etc.

TRANSACTIONAL MODEL

Due to the limitation of the Interactive

Model, the Transactional Model was created. The
premise of this model is that we are both senders
and receivers in the communication process.
Communication flows smoothly between
participants. According to this model, communication is a continuous, creative, and dynamic process, rather
than a discrete transmission of information.

Barriers to Communication

There are instances when miscommunication and misunderstanding occur because of certain barriers. To
become an effective communicator, you should recognize these barriers that hinder the communication
processes. This will enable you to control the situation, reset conditions, and start anew. The table below
presents some barriers to effective communication with corresponding solutions.

Barrier Example Solution

Emotional You are having a bad day or you Recognize these kinds of emotions, and politely
barriers feel frustrated. ask the other person to give you a moment so you
(Psychological can relax or calm yourself.
Noise) You sit in a meeting or class where Recognize this kind of attitude, reset, and reflect
you think the speaker is boring. on how you can be interested in what the speaker
is pointing out.
Use of jargon You are a scientist discussing a Jargon refers to the set of specialized vocabulary
(Semantic certain weather phenomenon with in a certain field. To avoid communication
Noise) your neighbor who does not know breakdown due to lack of clarity, adjust your
much about the topic. language; use layman’s terms or simple words.

Lack of You are asked to share something Develop self-confidence by joining organizations
confidence about your day or weekend, but where you can share and develop your interests.
(Psychological you are hesitant because you are Look for opportunities in your school or
Noise) shy. community that will help you find your strengths
and improve your abilities.
Noisy You are having a conversation Recognize that noise as a common barrier. Make
environment with some friends when a song some adjustments by asking someone to minimize
(Physical was played loudly. the volume or by looking for a quiet area where
Noise) you can resume the conversation.
Headache You are having a conversation Excuse yourself to your friend so you can take a
(Physiological with a friend when you suddenly medicine for your headache as well as a good rest.
Noise) felt an unbearable headache.

How can we avoid these barriers in communication?

In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations, Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center (2012) list the 7
Cs of Effective Communication. This list is widely used today, especially in public relations and advertising.

1. Completeness. Complete communication is essential to the quality of the communication process in general.
Hence, communication should include everything that the receiver needs to hear for him/her to respond, react,
or evaluate properly.

2. Conciseness. Conciseness does not mean keeping the message short, but making it direct or straight to the
point. Insignificant or redundant information should be eliminated from the communication that will be sent to
the recipient.

3. Consideration. To be effective, the speaker should always consider relevant information about his/her
receiver such as mood, background, race, preference, education, status, and needs, among others. By doing so,
he/she can easily build rapport with the audience.

4. Concreteness. Effective communication happens when the message is concrete and supported by facts,
figures, and real-life examples and situations. In this case, the receiver is more connected to the message
conveyed.

5. Courtesy. The speaker shows courtesy in communication by respecting the culture, values, and beliefs of
his/her receivers. Being courteous at all times creates a positive impact on the audience.
6. Clearness. Clearness in communication implies the use of simple and specific words to express ideas. It is
also achieved when the speaker focuses only on a single objective in his/her speech so as not to confuse the
audience.

7. Correctness. Correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact on the audience and increases the
credibility and effectiveness of the message.