PHY 101

BY CYNTHIA MWANSA
 OBJECTIVES:
• Describe static electricity
• Distinguish between charges
• State and use Coulombs law of charge
• Describe Electric Fields and fields lines
• Define Electric Potential at a poin t in space
• Determine the potential at a point
• Describe electrical capacitance
• Solve problems on capacitance
• Applications
 DEFINITIONS
• Electric Field: A region in which the effect of electric force has influence.

• Electrostatic law of Charges: Like charges repel and Unlike charges attract.

• Conductors are materials in which charge can flow

• Insulators are materials in which the charges can not flow

• Electrical conductors are materials in which some of the electrons are free electrons that are
not bound to atoms and can move relatively freely through the material;

• Electrical insulators are materials in which all electrons are bound to atoms and cannot move
freely through the material.

• Conservation Of Charge: Charge can neither be destroyed nor created‖

 ORIGIN OF ELECTRICITY
• Electricity originates from charged particles.
• The most common naturally occurring charged particles that carry electricity are
electrons.
• Other charged particles that exist in nature are positrons (antielectrons), protons,
antiprotons, positive ions, and negative ions.
• Electrically neutral elementary particles include neutrons and neutrinos.
• Charged particles are normally stationary (static) in nature but are capable of being
moved by heat or external electric fields.
 ORIGIN OF ELECTRICITY
• The study of static electricity is called electrostatics, while the study of moving
electric charges is called electrodynamics.
• The study of electricity started with electrostatics.
 INSULATORS
Electrical insulators are materials in which all of the electrons are bound to atoms

• These electrons can not move relatively freely through the material

• Examples of good insulators include glass, rubber and wood

• When a good insulator is charged in a small region, the charge is unable to move
to other regions of the material

• Insulators are also called bad conductors of electricity

 CONDUCTORS
Electrical conductors are materials in which some of the electrons are free electrons
• Free electrons are not bound to the atoms
• These electrons can move relatively freely through the material
• Examples of good conductors include copper, aluminum and silver
• When a good conductor is charged in a small region, the charge readily distributes
itself over the entire surface of the material
Conductors are also called bad insulators of electricity
Examples of conductors are metals, water, human body, electrolyte solutions, etc.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are materials which when in their pure state will
behave as insulators, but when a little impurity is added to them,
they behave as conductors.

The process of adding impurities to semiconductors to make

them conductors is called doping.

The electrical properties of semiconductors are somewhere

Semiconductor Devices
between those of insulators and conductors. The conductivity of
semiconductors can be increased or reduced.

Examples of semiconductor materials include silicon and

germanium
 PROPERTIES OF CHARGE
• Electrically charged or Electrified
• Positive or negative
• Charges of the same sign repel one another and charges with opposite signs attract one
another.

• Electric charge is always conserved in an isolated system

• Electric charge q is said to be quantized
 CHARGING BY INDUCTION
Electrostatic induction is a process where by a conductor becomes charged when a body is
brought near it but not in direct contact with it
 CHARGING BY CONDUCTION
Charging by conduction is a process by which a charged object induces charge
separation on the neutral object due to realignment of charge in the molecules.
Coulomb’s law states that :
Like charges repel and opposite charges attract, with a force proportional to the product of the charges
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

where Q1 Q2 are the two charges separated by the distance r

r is the separation distance
k is the coulomb constant =
The constant is also written in the form

where the constant 𝟄0 (lowercase Greek epsilon) is known as the permittivity of free space and has the
value
CHARGE AND MASS OF ELECTRON, PROTON AND NEUTRON
 ELECTRIC FORCE
Coulomb’s law is used to generalize the properties of the electric force between two
stationary charged particles. The electric force
• is inversely proportional to the square of the separation r between the particles and
directed along the line joining them;
• is proportional to the product of the charges q1 and q2 on the two particles;
• is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign and repulsive if the charges have the
same sign;

• is a conservative force.
The electric field vector E at a point in space is defined as the electric force Fe acting on a positive
test charge q0 placed at that point divided by the test charge:

Note that E is the field produced by some charge or charge distribution separate from the test
charge it is not the field produced by the test charge itself. Also, note that the existence of an
electric field is a property of its source the presence of the test charge is not necessary for the field
to exist. The test charge serves as a detector of the electric field.
Two point charges separated by a distance r exert a force on each other that is given
by Coulomb’s law. The force F21 exerted by q2 on q1 is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the force F12 exerted by q1 on q2.
 ELECTRIC FIELD
Electric field is a region where a small charge experiences an electric force. Electric fields are
represented by electric field lines. The electric field is also known Electric field strength or Electric
field intensity. The rules for drawing electric field lines are as follows:

• The lines must begin on a positive charge and terminate on a negative charge. In the case of an
excess of one type of charge, some lines will begin or end infinitely far away.

• The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or approaching a negative charge is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

• No two field lines can cross.

• The field lines always flow from higher potential to lower potential.

• If the electric field in a given region of space is zero, electric field lines do not exist.
Electric Field lines between like
charge. The point C has no field
THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
The Superposition principle states that:
The force on any charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum of all
the forces on that charge due to other charges, taken one at a time.
The force exerted by q1 on q3 is F13
The force exerted by q2 on q3 is F23
The resultant force exerted on q3 is the
vector sum of F13 and F23
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE FOR A SYSTEM OF n CHARGES
Consider three charges located at the edges of a right angled triangle as shown
below. If q1=q3=5.0μC and q2=-2.0 μC , a=0.10 m. Find the resultant force on q3. F13
makes an angle of 45 degrees with the x-axis.
SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 1
The repulsive force F13 makes an
angle of 45° with the x-axis.
Therefore, the x and y components of
F13 are equal, with magnitude given
by
F13 cos 45° = 11N cos(45°) = 7.9 N.
Combining F13 with F23 by the rules
of vector addition, we arrive at the x
and y components of the resultant
force acting on q3:
Find the electric field strength at a point 50 cm from a charge of 1 x 10-4C.

Solution.
Use
 ELECTRIC FIELD FOR A POINT CHARGE
The diagram below shows the electric field lines associated with a positive charge +2q and a
negative charge -q. In this case, the number of lines leaving +2q is twice the number terminating at
-q. Hence, only half of the lines that leave the positive charge reach the negative charge. The
remaining half terminate on a negative charge we assume to be at infinity. At distances that are
much greater than the charge separation, the electric field lines are equivalent to those of a single
charge +q.

The electric field lines for a point charge +2q and a second point charge -q. Note that two lines leave +2q for
every one that terminates on -q.
CHARGE DENSITY
 ACCELERATION OF A CHARGED PARTICLES IN A UNIFORM
ELECTRIC FIELD
When a particle of charge q and mass m is placed in an electric field E, the electric force exerted
on the charge is q E . If this is the only force exerted on the particle, it must be the net force and
causes the particle to accelerate according to Newton’s second law. Thus,

The acceleration of the particle is therefore

If E is uniform (that is, constant in magnitude and direction), then the acceleration is constant. If
the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration is in the direction of the electric field. If the
particle has a negative charge, its acceleration is in the direction opposite the electric field.
GAUSS‘S LAW
 ELECTRIC FLUX
Electric Flux (ՓE) is the number of electric field lines crossing perpendicular to a given area.
Electric flux is directly proportional to the number of electric field lines crossing normal through
the surface. Flux is a scalar quantity.

ФE= EA
If the surface under consideration is not perpendicular to the field, the flux through it is given by

ФE= EA Cos𝝷

The flux through a surface of fixed area A has a maximum value EA when the surface is
perpendicular to the field (when the normal to the surface is parallel to the field, that is 𝞱= 0° ).
The flux is zero when the surface is parallel to the field (when the normal to the surface is
perpendicular to the field, that is, 𝝷=90°)
 EXAMPLE 3
What is the electric flux through a sphere that has a radius of 1.00
m and carries a charge of +1.00 µC at its center?
SOLUTION

A = 4πr2 = 4 x 3.143 x 12 = 12.6m2

 PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR FIELDS
The Electric field E can be resolved into two components of E|| and E┴ with respect to the
surface.
E⊥ = E Cos𝝷 E|| = E Sin𝝷
E⊥ is maximum at θ = 0 and minimum at θ = 90°. Since Cos 0 = 1; Cos(90°) = 0
 FLUX THROUGH A CLOSED SURFACE
The total flux out of the Gaussian surface becomes the sum or integral of all the infinitesimal
fluxes, dΦE, through all the infinitesimal areas, dA. The net flux ФE through a closed surface is

A Gaussian surface (G.S) is a closed surface in three-dimensional space through which the flux of
a electric vector field is calculated. Gaussian surfaces include the surface of a sphere, surface of a
torus, and surface of a cube. They are closed surfaces that fully enclose a 3D volume.
 GAUSS LAW
The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net number of lines leaving the surface,
where the net number means the number leaving the surface minus the number entering the
surface.

The general relationship between the net electric flux through a closed surface (often called a
gaussian surface) and the charge enclosed by the surface is known as Gauss’s law and is of
fundamental importance in the study of electric fields.
 GAUSS LAW
Consider a positive point charge q located at the center of a sphere of radius r. The magnitude of the
𝑞
electric field everywhere on the surface of the sphere is E= ke 2 .The field lines are directed radially
𝑟
outward and hence are perpendicular to the surface at every point on the surface. That is, at each
surface point, E is parallel to the vector ∆Ai representing a local element of area ∆Ai surrounding the
surface point. Therefore,

Since the surface is spherical

 GAUSS LAW CONCLUSIONS
The net flux through any closed surface surrounding a point charge q is given by q/є˳ and is
independent of the shape of that surface. electric field line that enters the surface leaves the surface at
another point. The number of electric field lines entering the surface equals the number leaving the
surface. Therefore, we conclude that the net electric flux through a closed surface that surrounds no
charge is zero.

Gauss’s law states that the net flux through any closed surface is

The flux through any closed surface as

 CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
A conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the following properties:
1. The electric field is zero everywhere inside the conductor.
2. Any net charge on the conductor resides entirely on its surface.
3. The electric field just outside the conductor is perpendicular to its surface and has a magnitude
σ/є˳, where σ is the surface charge density at that point.
4. On an irregularly shaped conductor, the surface charge density is greatest where the radius of
curvature of the surface is the smallest.

Solving for E gives for the electric field just outside a charged conductor
 EXAMPLE 4
A thin spherical shell of radius a has a total charge Q distributed uniformly over its
surface . Find the electric field at points

(A) outside and

(B) inside the shell.

 SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 4
A. The calculation for the field outside the shell is identical to
that for the solid sphere shown in (a). If we construct a
spherical gaussian surface of radius r >a concentric with the
shell (b), the charge inside this surface is Q. Therefore, the
field at a point outside the shell is equivalent to that due to a
point charge Q located at the center:

B. The electric field inside the spherical shell is zero. This

follows from Gauss’s law applied to a spherical surface of
radius r < a concentric with the shell (c). Because of the
spherical symmetry of the charge distribution and because the
net charge inside the surface is zero—satisfaction of
conditions (1) and (2) again—application of Gauss’s law
shows that E = 0 in the region r < a.
 EXAMPLE 5
A spherical gaussian surface surrounds a point charge q. Describe what happens to the total
flux through the surface if

(A) the charge is tripled,

(B) the radius of the sphere is doubled,

(C) the surface is changed to a cube, and

(D) the charge is moved to another location inside the surface.

 SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 5
(A) The flux through the surface is tripled because flux is proportional to the amount of charge inside the
surface.

(B) The flux does not change because all electric field lines from the charge pass through the sphere,

regardless of its radius.

(C) The flux does not change when the shape of the gaussian surface changes because all electric field

lines from the charge pass through the surface, regardless of its shape.

(D) The flux does not change when the charge is moved to another location inside that surface

because Gauss’s law refers to the total charge enclosed, regardless of where the charge is located

inside the surface.

ELECTRIC FIELD CALCULATIONS USING GAUSS LAW
• Electric potential - The relative work required to move electric charge against an electric
forces from point A to point B.

• Potential Difference – the work required to carry a positive test charge from point A to B in an
electric field.

• Battery – is a source of potential difference between its terminals.

• The potential difference between the terminals of a battery depends somewhat on whether or
not charge is flowing. Its potential difference when no charge is flowing is called electromotive
force(emf).
• Equipotential lines – are lines joining points of equal potential.
• Electron-volt Unit – S.I. unit for energy
• Test charge: A test charge is a charge with a magnitude so small that placing it at a point has
negligible effect on the field around the point.
 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
• When a test charge qₒ is placed in an electric field E created by some source charge
distribution, the electric force acting on the test charge is qₒE. The force qₒE is conservative
because the force between charges described by Coulomb’s law is conservative.
• When the test charge is moved in the field by some external agent, the work done by the field
on the charge is equal to the negative of the work done by the external agent causing the
displacement.
• For an infinitesimal displacement ds of a charge, the work done by the electric field on the
charge is

• The potential energy of the charge–field system is changed by an amount

 CHANGE IN ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A
SYSTEM
For a finite displacement of the charge from point A to point B, the change in potential energy of
the system is

The integration is performed along the path that qₒ follows as it moves from A to B.

Because the force qₒE is conservative, this line integral does not depend on the Path taken from A
to B.

At a given position of the test charge in the field, the charge–field system has a potential energy U
relative to the configuration of the system that is defined as U = 0.
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electric potential (or the potential) V is a measure of potential energy per unit charge. The electric
potential at any point in an electric field is

The SI unit of both electric potential and potential difference is joules per coulomb known as volt (V):
1V = 1J/C
The potential difference ∆V = VB - VA between two points A and B in an electric field is defined as
the change in potential energy of the system when a test charge is moved between the points divided
by the test charge q0:

Electric potential is a scalar characteristic of an electric field, independent of any charges that may be
placed in the field.
 WORK DONE TO MOVE CHARGE

The work done by an external agent in moving a charge q through an electric

Field at constant velocity is

If an external agent moves a test charge from A to B without changing the

kinetic energy of the test charge, the agent performs work which changes the
potential energy of the system:
W = ∆U.
 THE ELECTRON VOLT

The electron volt (eV) is defined as the energy a charge–field system gains or
loses when a charge of magnitude e (that is, an electron or a proton) is moved
through a potential difference of 1 V.
Because 1 V = 1 J/C and because the fundamental charge is 1.60 x 10 -19 C, the
electron volt is related to the joule as follows:

The electron volt is a unit of energy, NOT of potential

 EXAMPLE 6
A proton is released from rest in a uniform electric field that has a magnitude of 8.0 x 104 V/m.
The proton undergoes a displacement of 0.50 m in the direction of E.

(a) Find the change in electric potential between points A and B.

(b) Find the change in potential energy of the proton–field system for this displacement.
 SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 6

(a)

(b)
 POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A PAIR OF POINT CHARGES
The potential energy associated with a pair of point charges separated by a distance r12 is

This energy represents the work done by an external agent when the charges are brought from an
infinite separation to the separation r12. We obtain the potential energy of a distribution of point
charges by summing terms over all pairs of particles.
 EXAMPLE 7

A charge q1 = 2.00 µC is located at the origin, and a charge q2 = -6.00 µC is located at (0,
3.00) m, as shown in the figure below. Find the change in potential energy of the system of
two charges plus a charge q3 = 3.00 µC located at (4.00, 0) m.
 SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 7
𝑟12 2 + 𝑟13 2 = 𝑟23 2 = 3 2 + 4 2 = 5
 CALCULATING ELECTRIC FIELD FROM THE
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
The electric field E and the electric potential V are related by the Equation

The potential difference dV between two points a distance ds apart is

If the electric field has only one component Ex, then E·ds = Ex dx. Then dV = -Ex dx, or

When a test charge undergoes a displacement ds along an equipotential surface, then dV = 0

because the potential is constant along an equipotential surface. Hence dV=-E·ds = 0; thus, E
must be perpendicular to the displacement along the equipotential surface. This shows that the
equipotential surfaces must always be perpendicular to the electric field lines passing through
them.
 CALCULATING ELECTRIC FIELD FROM THE
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
If the charge distribution creating an electric field has spherical symmetry such that the volume
charge density depends only on the radial distance r, then the electric field is radial. Then

And
Therefore

The electric potential of a point charge is Hence integrating V ,

If V(r) is given in terms of the Cartesian coordinates, the electric field components Ex, Ey,
and Ez can readily be found from V(x, y, z) as the partial derivatives.
 EXAMPLE 8: The Electric Potential Due to a Dipole
An electric dipole consists of two charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign separated by a
distance 2a, as shown in the Figure below. The dipole is along the x axis and is centered at the
origin.

(a) Calculate the electric potential at point P.

(b) Calculate V and Ex if point P is located anywhere between the two charges.
 SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 8
(a)

(b)
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO CONTINUOUS CHARGE
DISTRIBUTION
The electric potential due to a continuous charge distribution is

Every point on the surface of a charged conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is at

the same electric potential. The potential is constant everywhere inside the
conductor and equal to its value at the surface.
 EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
Equipotential lines – Lines joining points of equal force, electric field intensity or equal
potential. It takes no work to move a charged particle from one point on such a Surface to
another point on the surface, for then we have dV = 0.

E1 = E2 at same radius (r) from a point charge

E is the same at the same value of r in all direction e.g at r = a.

Hence at r = a joins all equipotential points.
r= b also joins all equipotential points.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL- ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
An electrocardiogram is used to monitor your heart.
Each beat of your heart is triggered by an electrical
impulse normally generated from special cells in the
upper right chamber of your heart. An
electrocardiogram also called an ECG or EKG
records these electrical signals as they travel through
your. It measures the potential between two points on
the chest as a function of time.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL:ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)
Electroencephalograms (EEGs) have become
increasingly important measurements of brain
activities for the diagnosis and treatment of mental
and brain diseases and abnormalities. The EEG
records brainwave patterns from the continuous tiny
electrical signals coming from the brain. The
electrodes are placed on the head. The EEG machine
then magnifies the size of these signals, without
affecting the brain. The information can be recorded
on paper or computer.
A capacitor is a device used to store Electrical energy by putting opposite charges ±q on a pair of
isolated conductors. Being conductors, the respective surfaces of these two plates are all at the same
potential, but of opposite charge so we can speak of a potential difference dV between them.
The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge on either
conductor to the magnitude of the potential difference between the conductors. Capacitance is a
measure of a capacitor’s ability to store charge.
• Its given by

Where
- A is area of plates
- d is separation between the plates
- єₒis permittivity of free space between plates
- The S.I units for capacitance is Farad (F)

- A typical capacitance is in the picofarad (1pF = 10-12 F) to millifarad range

(1mF = 10 -3 F = 1000 µF ; 1µF = 10 -6 F.
 PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITY
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is proportional to the area of its plates and
inversely proportional to the plate separation,

The Electric field between two plates is

The magnitude of the potential difference between the plates equals Ed

 SPHERICAL CAPACITOR
Consider a spherical capacitor which consists of two concentric spherical shells of radii a and b, as
shown below. The inner shell has a charge +Q uniformly distributed over its surface, and the outer
shell an equal but opposite charge –Q.
The electric field is non-vanishing only in the
region a < r < b. Using Gauss’s law, we obtain
 SPHERICAL CAPACITOR CON’
The capacitance C depends only on the physical dimensions, a and b.

An ―isolated‖ conductor (with the second conductor placed at infinity) also has a
capacitance. In the limit where ∞→b, the above equation becomes
 CAPACITANCE FOR A SINGLE ISOLATED SPHERE

A conducting sphere of radius R with a charge Q uniformly distributed over its surface has
, using infinity as the reference point having zero potential, . This gives

Capacitance for a single isolated spherical conductor of radius R,

The capacitance of an isolated charged sphere only depends on its geometry, namely, the radius R.
 CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR
Consider next a solid cylindrical conductor of radius a surrounded by a coaxial cylindrical shell of
inner radius b. The length of both cylinders is L and we take this length to be much larger than b− a,
the separation of the cylinders, so that edge effects can be neglected. The capacitor is charged so that
the inner cylinder has charge +Q while the outer shell has a charge –Q.
 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL

The equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination of capacitors is the algebraic

sum of the individual capacitances and is greater than any of the individual
capacitances.
 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL CON’
The individual potential differences across capacitors connected in parallel are the same and are
equal to the potential difference applied across the combination. The flow of charge ceases when
the voltage across the capacitors is equal to that across the battery terminals. The capacitors reach
their maximum charge when the flow of charge ceases.

The total charge on capacitors connected in parallel is the sum of the charges on the individual
capacitors.
 CAPACITORS IN SERIES
The inverse of the equivalent capacitance is the algebraic sum of the inverses of the
individual capacitances and the equivalent capacitance of a series combination is
always less than any individual capacitance in the combination.
 CAPACITORS IN SERIES CON’
The charges on capacitors connected in series are the same.
Q1= Q2= Q
The total potential difference across any number of capacitors connected in
series is the sum of the potential differences across the individual capacitors.

Where
 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical
resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown
component.

Rx is the unknown resistance and can be determined from the equation

ENERGY STORE IN A CAPACITOR
 ENERGY DENSITY OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD
Consider the energy stored in the capacitor as being stored in the electric field itself. In the
case of a parallel-plate capacitor, with C=єₒ A/d and |∆V| = Ed , we have

Since the quantity Ad represents the volume between the plates, we can define the electric
energy density as
 WORK DONE TO SEPARATE THE PLATES
If the total area of the plate is A, then an external agent must exert a force, F = σ2A/2єₒ to pull the
two plates apart. Since the electric field strength in the region between the plates is given by E=σ/єₒ ,
the external force can be rewritten as

Note that Fext is independent of . The total amount of work done externally to separate the plates by a
distance d is then

Since the potential energy of the system is equal to the work done by the external agent, hence
 RC CIRCUITS
A circuit containing a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor is called an RC circuit.
During the charging process of a capacitor, a charge Q is moved from one conductor to the other
one, giving one conductor a charge +Q, and the other one a charge -Q . A potential difference is ∆V
created, with the positively charged conductor at a higher potential than the negatively charged
conductor. Note that whether charged or uncharged, the net charge on the capacitor as a whole is
zero.
Charge as a function of time for a capacitor being charged

Current as a function of time for a capacitor being charged

 CAPACITOR CHARGING
There is no current while switch S is open If the switch is closed at t = 0, however, charge begins to
flow, setting up a current in the circuit, and the capacitor begins to charge. During charging, charges do
not jump across the capacitor plates because the gap between the plates represents an open circuit.
Instead, charge is transferred between each plate and its connecting wires due to the electric field
established in the wires by the battery, until the capacitor is fully charged.
 CAPACITOR CHARGING EQUATIONS
Variation of q with time on Charging from charge Q

−𝒕
𝒒=𝑸 𝟏− 𝒆𝑹𝑪

Time constant
𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪

Charging from Zero

−𝒕
𝒒= 𝑸𝒆𝑹𝑪
 CAPACITOR CHARGING CURVES

Note that the charge is zero at t = 0 and approaches the maximum value Cε as t →∞ .The current has its maximum
value I0 = ε/R at t = 0 and decays exponentially to zero as t→∞. The quantity RC, which appears in the exponents
ε
of Equations q(t) = Cε(1-e –t/RC ) = Q (1-e –t/RC ) and I(t) = e –t/RC , is called the time constant τ of the circuit. It
𝑅
represents the time interval during which the current decreases to 1/e of its initial value; that is, in a time intervalτ,
I = e-1I0 = 0.368I0. In a time interval 2τ, I = e-2I0 = 0.135I0, and so forth. Likewise, in a time interval τ, the charge
increases from zero to Cε[1 – e-1] = 0.632Cε.
 APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITORS
Capacitors have many important applications in electronics. Some examples include

• storing electric potential energy,

• delaying voltage changes when coupled with resistors,

• filtering out unwanted frequency signals, forming resonant circuits

• making frequency-dependent and independent voltage dividers when combined with

resistors.

• used to tune the frequency of radio receivers

• to eliminate sparking in automobile ignition systems,

 PRINCIPLE OF DEFIBRILLATOR
The defibrillator can be used to stop cardiac defibrillation (random contractions) in heart attack
victims. Up to 360 J of energy is stored in the electric field of a defibrillator. The defibrillator can
deliver this energy to a patient in about 2 ms( This is roughly equivalent to 3000times the power
delivered by a 60W light bulb.
CAPACITOR TYPES
 DIELECTRICS
A dielectric is a non-conducting material, such as rubber, glass, or waxed paper. When a dielectric is
inserted between the plates of a capacitor, the capacitance increases. If the dielectric completely fills
the space between the plates, the capacitance increases by a dimensionless factor K, which is called
the dielectric constant of the material. The dielectric constant varies from one material to another.

where C0 is the capacitance in the absence of the dielectric

 CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS

A charged capacitor (a) before and (b) after insertion of a dielectric between the plates. The charge on
the plates remains unchanged, but the potential difference decreases from ∆V0 to ∆V = ∆V0/K. Thus,
the capacitance increases from C0 to KC0.
SOME DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS
DIRECT-CURRENT
CIRCUITS
 OBJECTIVES

To discuss
• Flow of electrons and creation of electric current
• Electrical resistance and resistivity
• Conductance an conductivity
• Voltage, current and power
• Kirchhoff rule and voltage divider rule
• Resistor combinations and Circuits
• Batteries and internal resistance
 ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric current(I) – flow of electrons due to a potential difference. The current is the rate at
which charge flows through this surface. If ∆Q is the amount of charge that passes through this
area in a time interval ∆t, the average current Iav is equal to the charge that passes through A per
unit time:

• The unit of current is coulomb per second or Ampere(A).

• In order for current to flow there must be an electromotive force.
 SIMPLE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
The charges passing through the surface can be positive or negative, or both. It is conventional to
assign to the current the same direction as the flow of positive charge. The direction of the current is
opposite the direction of flow of electrons.
 DRIFT VELOCITY
Drift velocity is the average velocity attained by charged particles, such as electrons, in a material due
to an electric field. It is common to refer to a moving charge (positive or negative) as a mobile charge
carrier. For example, the mobile charge carriers in a metal are electrons. If n represents the number of
mobile charge carriers per unit volume (in other words, the charge carrier density), the number of
carriers in the gray section is nA∆x. Therefore, the total charge ∆Q is
 EXAMPLE 9
The 12-gauge copper wire in a typical residential building has a cross-sectional area of

3.31x10-6 m2. If it carries a current of 10.0 A, what is the drift speed of the electrons?
Assume that each copper atom contributes one free electron to the current. The density of
copper is 8.95 g/cm3 .
 SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 9
The molar mass of copper is 63.5 g/mol (63.5 g =1mol) of copper) (. Recall that 1mol of any
substance contains Avogadro’s number of atoms (6.02 x 1023).
 CURRENT DENSITY
The current density J in the conductor is defined as the current per unit area. Because the current
I = nqvdA, the current density is

where J has SI units of A/m2. This expression is valid only if the current density is uniform
and only if the surface of cross-sectional area A is perpendicular to the direction
of the current. In general, current density is a vector quantity:

A current density J and an electric field E are established in a conductor whenever a potential difference
is maintained across the conductor.

where the constant of proportionality σ is called the conductivity of the conductor

 OHMS LAW
The ratio of the current density to the electric field is a constant σ that is independent of the
electric field producing the current.

A potential difference ∆V = Vb - Va is maintained across the wire

The quantity R = l/σA is called the resistance of the conductor

 OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s Law states that
The current (I) flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference (V) across the
terminals.

• R is the resistance in the circuit (Units are ohms, Ω.

• Resistors are circuit devices that offer resistance to current flow.
 RESISTANCE
Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. Resistance is
measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω).

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼

Resistance is a property of an object.

 FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
There are 4 different factors which affect resistance:
• The type of material of which the resistor is made.
conductors have less resistance as compared to insulators
• The length of the resistor.
Longer wires have more resistance than shorter ones
• The thickness of the resistor.
The thinner the wire the higher the resistance
• The temperature of the conductor.
When the temperature increases, resistance also increases
 RESISTIVITY
Resistivity is a property of a material e.g. copper has less resistivity than glass

The inverse of conductivity is resistivity ρ

where ρ has the units ohm-meters (ꭥ.m).

 EXAMPLE
Calculate the resistance of an aluminum cylinder that has a length of 10.0 cm and a cross-
sectional area of 2.00 x10-4 m2. Repeat the calculation for a cylinder of the same dimensions
and made of glass having a resistivity of 3.0 x 1010 ꭥ.m.
SOLUTION
 RESISTOR COMBINATIONS
• SERIES

• PARALLEL
 RESISTANCE & RESISTIVITY
The resistivity of a conductor varies approximately linearly with temperature according to the
expression
ρ=ρ𝟎 (𝟏+𝜶(𝑻−𝑻𝟎)

• Temperature Dependence of Resistance

𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜶(𝑻 − 𝑻𝟎 )

• 𝛼 is the temperature coefficient of resistivity

• Resistivity is a property of a material e.g. copper has less resistivity than

glass
SOME VALUES OF RESISTIVITY
 SUPERCONDUCTORS
• Superconductors are a class of metals and compounds whose resistance decreases to zero when
they are below a certain temperature Tc, known as the critical temperature.

• A superconductor is a material that can conduct electricity or transport electrons from one atom
to another with no resistance.

• Superconductors are materials that offer no resistance to electrical current.

• Prominent examples of superconductors include aluminium, niobium, magnesium diboride,

cuprates such as yttrium barium copper oxide and iron pnictides.

• Others examples of superconductors are mercury, zinc, vanadium, tin etc.

 EXAMPLE
Determine the equivalent resistances of the section.
 NULL LOOP

Consider the combination below.

Because of the symmetry in this circuit, the 5ꭥ resistor does not contribute to the resistance
between points a and b and therefore can be disregarded when we calculate the equivalent
resistance.
 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
The EMF is the maximum possible voltage that a battery can provide between its terminals. A
complete circuit consists of battery and resistor. The current in the circuit is constant in
magnitude and direction and is called direct current. A battery is called either a source of
electromotive force (emf). The phrase electromotive force is not a force but rather a potential
difference in volts.
 INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND TERMINAL VOLTAGE
The positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential than the negative terminal. Because a
real battery is made of matter, there is resistance to the flow of charge within the battery. This
resistance is called internal resistance r. For an idealized battery with zero internal resistance, the
potential difference across the battery (called its terminal voltage) equals its emf. However, for a
real battery, the terminal voltage is not equal to the emf for a battery in a circuit in which there is a
current. The terminal voltage is ∆V= ε – Ir
𝜀 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝑖𝑟
𝜀
𝑖=
𝑅+𝑟
This equation shows that the current in this simple circuit depends on both the load
resistance R external to the battery and the internal resistance r.
ELECTRICAL WORK
ELECTRICAL WORK
POWER LOSS
CONVENIENT CONVERSIONS
 EXAMPLE
The resistors are connected in series as shown in the circuit below. (a)Find the
current in each resistor (b) Calculate the power dissipated in each resistor.
 EXAMPLE
A battery has an emf of 12.0V and an internal resistance of 0.05ꭥ. Its terminals are connected
to a load resistance of 3.00ꭥ.

(a) Find the current in the circuit and the terminal voltage of the battery.
(b) Calculate the power delivered to the load resistor, the power delivered to the internal
resistance of the battery, and the power delivered by the battery
 SOLUTION
(a)

(b)
 EXAMPLE

An electric heater is constructed by applying a potential difference of 120 V

to a nichrome wire that has a total resistance of 8.00 Ohm. Find the current
carried by the wire and the power rating of the heater.

Use:

V = IR

P = I2 R
 EXAMPLE
A light bulb has a rating at 120V and 75W. That is, at the intended operating voltage of 120V,
it converts 75W of power. The bulb is powered by a 120V direct current power supply. Find
the current in the bulb and its resistance.

USE:

P = VI

P = I2 R
 EXAMPLE
The cost of lighting a 100 W bulb

How much does it cost to burn a 100W light bulb for 24 hours if the electric energy costs
$0.080 per kilowatt - hour.

USE:

E = Pt

Cost of Electricity = Cost Per Unit x Number of Kilowatts

1kilowatt-hour = 3 600 000 joules

 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
1. JUNCTION RULE

The sum of all currents entering any junction must be equal the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.

2. LOOP RULE

The sum of all the potential differences across all the elements around a closed
loop are equal to zero.
CONVENTION RULES FOR KIRCHHOFF’S SECOND RULE
• Because charges move from the high-potential end of a resistor
toward the low potential end, if a resistor is traversed in the direction
of the current, the potential difference ∆V across the resistor is -IR
(a).
• If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the
potential difference ∆V across the resistor is +IR (b).
• If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is
traversed in the direction of the emf (from - to +), the potential
difference ∆V is +ε (c). The emf of the battery increases the electric
potential as we move through it in this direction.
• If a source of emf (assumed to have zero internal resistance) is
traversed in the direction opposite the emf (from + to - ), the
potential difference ∆V is –ε (d). In this case the emf of the battery
reduces the electric potential as we move through it.
 EXAMPLE
Find the currents I1,I2 and I3.
 SOLUTION
Applying Kirchhoff’s junction rule to junction c gives

Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to loops abcda and befcb

and traversing these loops clockwise

Substituting Equation (1) into Equation (2) gives

Dividing each term in Equation (3) by 2 and rearranging gives

 EXAMPLE
Under steady state conditions, find the unknown currents in the circuit below.
 SOLUTION

From Equation (1) we see that I1 = I3 - I2, which, when substituted into Equation (3), gives

Subtracting Equation (4) from Equation (2), we eliminate I3 and find that
 AMMETER
A device that measures current is called an ammeter. The charges constituting the current to
be measured must pass directly through the ammeter, so the ammeter must be connected in
series with other elements in the circuit. Ideally, an ammeter should have zero resistance so
that the current being measured is not altered.
Ammeters are connected in series when measuring current as shown below.
 VOLTMETER
A device that measures potential difference is called a voltmeter. The potential difference
between any two points in a circuit can be measured by attaching the terminals of the
voltmeter between these points without breaking the circuit, as shown below
Voltmeters are connected in parallel when measuring voltage across a circuit component as
shown below.
 HOUSEHOLD WIRNG
Wiring diagram for a household circuit. The resistances represent appliances or other electrical
devices that operate with an applied voltage of 120 V.
 ELECTRICAL SAFETY
• When the live wire of an electrical outlet is connected directly to ground, the circuit is
completed and a short-circuit condition exists. A short circuit occurs when almost zero
resistance exists between two points at different potentials; this results in a very large current.

• When this happens accidentally, a properly operating circuit breaker opens the circuit and no
damage is done.

• However, a person in contact with ground can be electrocuted by touching the live wire of a
frayed cord or other exposed conductor. An exceptionally effective ground contact is made
when the person either touches a water pipe (normally at ground potential) or stands on the
ground with wet feet.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
(a)The diagram shows the circuit for an
electric drill with only two connecting
wires. The normal current path is from
the live wire through the motor
connections and back to ground through
the neutral wire. Hence, the live wire
has come into contact with the drill
case. As a result, the person holding the
drill acts as a current path to ground and
receives an electric shock.
(b)The shock is avoided by connecting the
drill case to ground through a third
ground wire. Hence, the drill case
remains at ground potential and no
current exists in the person.
 REFERENCES

1. Serway and Faughn,(1999), College Physics,5ed., Brooks/Cole- Thompson Learning.

2. Serway, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, e- Book.

3. College Physics, F. J. Bueche and Eugene Hecht