Electric Charge (1)

• Evidence for electric

charges is everywhere, e.g.
– static electricity.
– lightning.
• Benjamin Franklin (1700’s)
discovered that there are
two types of charges:
– positive charge.
– negative charge.
 Electric Charge (2)

• Franklin also discovered that like charges

repel and unlike charges attract one
another.
• Electric charge is
– quantized (Millikan)
• The smallest possible unit is the charge on one electron
or one proton:
e = 1.602 x 10-19 Coulombs
Q = Ne
– conserved (Franklin)
 Electrostatic Charging

• Objects may be charged by

– friction (useful for charging insulators)
– conduction (requires contact with
another charged object).
– induction (requires no contact with
another charged object).

http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-i/static-electric-current/electrification.php
 Electrostatic Induction
(For conductor only)

• Charging by electrostatic induction

• A charged body is brought
near a neutral conductor.
• The conductor is earthed
by touching with a finger
while the charged body is
still present.
• The finger is removed.
• The charged body is then
removed.
 Force between Two Point Charges

• The force between two point charges is

– directly proportional to the magnitude of each
charge (q1, q2),
– inversely proportional to the square of the
separation between their centers (r),
– directed along the line connecting their centres.

+q1 -q2
r
 Coulomb’s Law
http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~vawter/PhysicsNet/QTMovies/ElectricForce/CoulombLawMain.html

• Coulomb's law describes the force between two

charged particles.

For a vacuum
1 q1q2 Where o is called the permittivity
F ( ) 2 of free space and
4 o r
o = 8.85 × 10-12 F m-1
1
And also  9.0 109 N m 2 C -2
4 o
 Coulomb’Law Apparatus
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-iv/electric-charges/coulombs-torsion-balance.php

Torsion Balance
 Electric Fields
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/nforcefield.html

• The space around a charged body, where electric

force is experienced by a test charge, is called an
electric field.
• By a test charge we
mean a charge so small
that the force it exerts
does not significantly
alter the distribution of
the charges that create
the field.
 Electric Field Lines

• The electric field lines indicate the direction of the

force due to the given field on a positive test charge.
• The field points in the direction tangent to the field
line at any point.
• The number of field lines drawn per unit cross-
sectional area is proportional to the electric field
strength.
F
+q
 Properties of Field Lines
http://surendranath.tripod.com/Applets.html

• Electric field lines start on positive charges and end on

negative charges.
• The number of lines starting or ending is proportional to
the magnitude of charge.
• The field lines cannot cross.
• The closer the lines the
stronger the field.
• Where the lines are parallel
and uniform spaced, the field
is uniform.
 Electric Field Patterns (1)

• Electric field lines for a • Electric field lines for a

single positive point single negative point
charge charge
 Electric Field Patterns (2)

• Electric field lines for two • Electric field lines for two
charges of opposite sign equal positive charges
 Electric Field Patterns (3)

• Electric field lines between two oppositely

charged parallel plates
 Electric Field Strength

• The electric field strength , E, at any point in an

electric field is defined as the force per unit charge
exerted on a tiny positive test charge at that point.
F
E Unit : N C-1 or V m-1
q
• E represents a vector quantity whose direction is
that of the force that would be experienced by a
positive test charge.
• The magnitude of q must be small enough not to
affect the distribution of the charges that are
responsible for E.
 Electric Field Strength due to a
Point Charge

1 Qq
• By Coulomb’s law F ( ) 2
4 o r
F E
• By the definition of E E
q q
r
1 Q
Then we have E( ) 2
4 o r Q

Notice that E depends only on Q which produces

the field, and not on the value of the test charge q.
 Vector Addition of Electric Field

• Suppose we have several point charges Q1, Q2

and Q3 etc. Then we can
– Evaluate E1, E2 and E3 etc., and
– Find E = Ei by using vector addition.
E1
E
r1 E2
r2
+Q1 -Q2
 Electric Field and Conductor

• Any net charge on a good

conductor distributes
itself on the surface.
• E is always perpendicular
to the surface outside of
the conductor. (i.e. E has
no component parallel to
the surface.)
• E is zero within a good
conductor.
If the charge are kept moving, as in current, these properties
need not apply
 Electric Field due to a Charged
Spherical Conductor

E
• Inside the sphere
– The electric field is zero. 
• Outside the sphere o

– For r  a
1 Q
E( ) 2
4 o r
• On the surface of the sphere a r

E
o Where  is the surface charge density.
 Electric Field due to a Non-conducting
Charged Sphere

• Inside a non-conductor,
E
which does not have
free electrons, an 
electric field can exist. o

• The electric field outside

a nonconductor need not
to be perpendicular to
the surface. a r
 Electric Potential Energy

• The Coulomb force is a conservative force

(i.e. The work done by it on a particle
which moves around a closed path returning
to its initial position is zero.)
• Therefore, a particle moving under the
influence of a Coulomb force is said to have
an electric potential energy defined by
• U = qV
 Electric Potential Energy

• As the electric force is a

radial one, work is only
done for movement along
the line joining the two
charges.
 U=0 for any tangential
displacement.
• Hence U is independent
of the path taken in
moving between two
configurations.
 Electric Potential Energy

• A negative potential energy means that

work must be done against the electric field
in moving the charges apart.
 Electric Potential Energy of a System

• Consider an electric field formed by a system of

N charges.
• Work has to be done to assemble the charges
from infinity in their final positions.
• The electric potential energy of the field is
defined to be the algebraic sum of the electric
potential energy for every pair of charges.
1
U   qiVi
2 i
 Electric Potential

• Electric potential is a measure of the electrical

potential energy per unit charge at a point in
an electric field.
• The electric potential at a point in an electric
field is the work done in moving a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point.
W
V Unit : volts (V)
q
• Electric potential is a scalar quantity.
 The Concept of Potential

• Potential is the analog of height.

Field Strength and Potential Gradient
http://www.falstad.com/vector2de/

• The work done by a force

F to move the test charge W   F r
q against the electric force
by a small distance r is
W
As V  and E  F
q q
V
We get E  
r
dV
Hence E   for r 0
dr
i.e. Electric field strength = -potential gradient
 Electric Potential due to a Point
Charge

• In terms of the E-field, the electric potential is

defined by
r
V    Edr


The ‘-’ sign indicates that work is done against

the electric force.
• For the electric field due to a point charge Q, it can
be shown that
1 Q
V
4 o r
 Electric Potential for a Charged
Spherical Conductor

• Inside the sphere the

V
electric potential is
constant, but not zero. 1 Q
• The field at any point 4 a
o
outside the sphere is
exactly the same as if 1 Q
the whole charge were 4 o r
concentrated at the
centre of the sphere. 0 a r
 Flame Probe Experiment (1)

• To find the variation of electric potential around a

charged spherical conductor.
 Flame Probe Experiment (2)

• To measure how the electric potential changes at

different locations near the metal sphere.
– +
e.h.t.
metal sphere
insulated clamp

flame probe

insulated support
stand

gas

V
10 M

metre rule
 Flame Probe Experiment (3)

• To measure how the potential

changes at different locations
within a uniform electric field.

_ +

E.H.T

V
10 M

metre rule
 Potential changes within a uniform
electric field

+ 18 V
Potential
18V

16V

14V
E = -dV/dx
12V is constant.
10V

8V

6V

4V

2V

0V Distance from top plate

Equipotentials – uniform field

 Zero Potential

• The practical zero potential is that of the Earth.

• The theoretical zero potential, according to the
definition of V, is that of a point at infinity.
Potential
(V)

High field
intensity

Low field
intensity

16 8 4 2 2 4 8 16
 Potential Difference

• The electric potential difference is the difference in

potential energy per unit charge.
 Potential Difference

• The potential difference across two points A and B

is defined as the work done by the electric field to
move a unit charge from point A to point B.
W
VAB   VB  VA
q
VB>VA if an external agent does
positive work when moving a
positive charge.
• The work done is independent of path.
 Electric Potential between two
Charged Parallel Plates

• The work done by the electric field E to move a

positive charge q from A to B is
• W = qVAB
As W = Fd and F = qE

VAB = Ed

Where d is the distance

between AB
 Equipotentials
http://www.slcc.edu/schools/hum_sci/physics/tutor/2220/e_fields/java/

• An equipotential surface is one on which all

points are at the same potential.
– The potential difference between any two
points on the surface is zero.
– No work is required to move a charge along an
equipotential.
– The surface of a conductor is an equipotential
surface.
 Contours
http://maxwell.ucdavis.edu/~electro/potential/equipotential.html

• The concept of potential, V, in electricity is

equivalent to the concept of altitude, h, in
the case of gravitational field.
 Topographic maps

• All points on the same line are at

the same elevation, just as all
points on the same equipotential
lines are at the same voltage.
• Water will always flow
downhill,hence the rivers are
always perpendicular to the lines
on the topographic map, similar to
the way electric field lines are
always perpendicular to
equipotential lines.
• When lines are close together, the
slope is steep, e.g. a cliff, just as
close equipotential lines indicate a
strong electric field.
• Lakes are at the same elevation,
in the same way conductors are at
the same potential.
Equipotential surfaces and Field Lines
(1)
 Equipotential surfaces and Field Lines
(2)

• The equipotentials are

always perpendicular
to the field lines.
• The density of the
equipotentials
represents the strength
of the electric field.
• The equipotentials
never cross each other.
Equipotential surfaces and Field
Lines (3)
 A conducting Material in an Electric Field

• Consider a pair of oppositely charged plates

which established a uniform field between them.
conductor E/V m-1
V/V

0 x/m 0 x/m
+ -
 Electrostatic Shielding

-
• The field inside the hollow metal box is zero.
• A conducting box used in this way is an effective
device for shielding delicate instruments and
electronic circuit from unwanted external electric
field.
• The inside of a car or an airplane is relatively safe
from lightning.
 Comparison between Electrostatic
and Gravitational Fields

Electrostatic field Gravitational field

F F
Field strength (unit) E  (N C )
-1 g
q m (N kg-1)
1 q1q2 m1m2
Force F F  G
4 o r2 r2
Field strength outside 1 Q M
E g  G 2
isolated sphere 4 o r2 r
Potential outside V
1 Q M
4 o r
V  G
isolated sphere r

Energy transferred W=qV W=mV

 Differences between Electrostatic
field and Gravitational field

• The gravitational force is always attractive while the

Coulombian force can either be attractive or repulsive.
• An electric field can be shielded while a gravitational
field cannot.
• The magnitude of the Coulombian force depends
upon the medium separating the charges while the
gravitational force is independent of the medium

Coaxial cable
Viewing Electric Field Pattern (1)
Viewing Electric Field Pattern (2)
Viewing Electric Field Pattern (3)
 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment
http://www.hesston.edu/Academic/FACULTY/NELSONK/PhysicsResearch/Millikan/millikan.html

http://physics.wku.edu/~womble/phys260/millikan.html
Faraday’s Ice-pail Experiment
 Gold Leaf Electroscope
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-i/static-electric-current/gold-leaf-electroscope.php

The gold leaf electroscope is an

instrument whose leaves diverge
when it is charged.
The leaf rises because it has the
same charge as the stem of the
electroscope and like charges
repel.
An electroscope can only
indicate the presence and relative
magnitude of charge.
 Flame Probe

• To measure the electric potential at which the

probe is situated. hypodermic
rubber tubing insulated wire solder needle

• The ions produced

by the flame
neutralize the charge
induced on the
probe.
insulated tape tape glue flame
gas
support