Property  Sym Equation  Unit  Definition  Links 

bol 

Electric  F​e  N  Force that attracts any two  F​e​ = (V​e​ x q)/r 
force    objects with charge  

Electric  E  NC​-1  The force per unit charge  E is equal to electric force 
field  experienced by a small  over charge 
 
strength  positive test charge in the   
field  E is equal to electric 
 
potential over distance 

Electric  V​e  V  The work done per unit   

potential    charge in moving a small 
charge from infinity to a 
point in the field 

Electric  E​p  J  The work done to move a  E​p​ is equal to electrical 

potential    point charge from infinity  potential times charge 
energy  to a point in the field 
 
5.1 Electric fields 
Charge  is  measured  in  ​coulombs  (Q).  ​A  coulomb  is  defined  as  the  charge  transported  by  a  current  of  1 
ampere  in  1  second.  The  ​Law  of  Conservation  of  Charge  states  that  charge  cannot  be  created  or 
destroyed,  but  can  be  transported  from  one  object  to  another.  All  electrons  are  identical,  with each one 
having a charge of 1.6 x 10​-19 ​C. This is known as the e​ lementary charge.  
 
Conductors/Insulators/Semiconductors 
Conductors  are  substances that can easily transport electrons without trying to impede them. In metals, 
delocalized  electrons  are  charge  carriers,  as  they  are  charged  and  mobile, and so can move through the 
structure  of  the  metal  whilst carrying a charge. This is in addition to the vibration of positive metal ions. 
This makes metals good conductors. 
Insulators​ are substances that impede the flow of electrons 
Semiconductors  are  substances  that  lie  between  conductors  and  insulators.  At  high  temperatures, 
conductivity increases. At low temperatures, conductivity decreases 
 
Forces between charged objects and Coulomb’s Law 
Coulomb’s  Law  states  that  the  electric  force  between  two  point  charges  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them 
F​e ∝
​ Qq/r​2 
F​e​ = kQq/r​2 
 
k  is  Coulomb’s  constant  and  =  ​8.99  x  10​9  Nm​2​C​-2​.  This  only  applies  to  charges  in  a  vacuum.  For  other 
mediums:  ​k  is  also  equal  to  ​1/4πε​0  {​ε​0  is  the  permittivity  of  free  space  and  =  ​8.85  x  10​-12  C​2  N​-1  m​-2​}.  The 
value of permittivity varies for different mediums, and hence the value of k 
 
For  the  Coulomb’s  Law  equation,  if  both  charges  are  of  the  same  sign,  the  value  of  F  is  positive. 
Therefore,  for  repulsive  forces,  the  value  of  F  is  positive. If charges are of the opposite sign, the value of 
F is negative. Therefore, for attractive forces, the value of F is negative. 
 
Electric fields 
An  ​electric  field  is  a  region around a charged body where another charged body experiences a force. The 
direction of an electric field​ is the same as the direction of the force acting on a positive charge. 
 
Electric  field  strength is the force per unit charge experienced by a small positive test charge in the field. 
It is measured in N ​ C​-1​.  
There are certain conventions for drawing electric fields: 
● Lines start and end on charges of opposite sign 
● An arrow shows the direction in which a +ve charge moves (away from +ve, towards -ve) 
● Where the field is strong, lines are closer together 
● Field lines never cross 
● Lines meet a conducting surface at 90° 
 
The diagram on the right shows various electric field patterns.  
 
A  uniform  electric  field  is  generated  between  two  oppositely charged 
parallel  plates.  The  edge  effect  (weakening  of  the  electric  field  at  the 
edges)  is  minimized when the length of the plates is long compared to 
the separation of the plates. 
 
Electric current 
Current (I) i​ s the rate of flow of charge. It is measured in a​ mperes (A)​. I = Q/t 
 
Drift velocity 
In  a  metal, free electrons move very rapidly but collide constantly with the atoms in the crystalline lattice 
structure  of  the  metal.  Through  any cross-section of the conductor, electrons maintain a constant speed 
called the drift velocity. This is different for different materials 
- Net current is NOT zero 
- Electrons  still  have a high velocity, but this time the net migration is in the direction of the lower 
potential 
- The speed of this net migration is ​DRIFT VELOCITY 
 
V​random​ = 10​6​ m/s. When connected to a battery, the drift velocity is about 10​-4​ m/s 
 
 
  
Through  any  time  interval  Δt,  only  the  charges  Δq  between  the  two  cross-sections  will  provide  the 
current 
In one second, a volume ​Av​ of charge carriers passes P (d = vt, but t = 1, so d = v) 
The total number of charge carriers in this volume is n ​ Av​, so the total charge is n
​ Avq 
This is the charge that passes the point in 1 second, so current, ​I = nAvq 
 
Potential difference  
Electric  potential  difference  is  the  work  done  per  unit  charge  upon  moving  a  small  positive  test  charge 
from one point to another. V = W/Q 
 
Important note: 
Electron flow is from the -ve terminal to the +ve terminal 
Conventional flow current is from the +ve terminal to the -ve terminal 
 
EMF 
The total work done per unit charge in moving charge from one terminal of a cell to another 
 
The  term  electromotive  force  (EMF)  is  used  when  energy  is  transferred  to  the  electrons  in  the  circuit. 
Potential difference is used when the energy is transferred from the electrical form. 
 
5.2 Heating effect of an electric current 
Note​: the symbols of various electrical components are found in the data booklet 
 
Practical measurements of current and PD 
Analog  meters  consist  of  a  mechanical  system  made  from  a  coil  and  a  magnet.  When  charge  flows 
through the coil, a magnetic field is formed, which interacts with the magnet 
 
Digital meters​ sample PD across the terminals of the meter and convert the answer for the display 
 
Ammeters  ​measure  current  in  a  circuit.  These  need  to  be  connected  in  ​series​.  To  not  alter  the  original 
properties  of  the  circuit,  ​ideal  ammeters  have  an extremely low resistance to minimize the effect on the 
original current. 
 
Voltmeters  measure  voltage  in  a  circuit. These need to be connected in ​parallel​. To not alter the original 
properties of the circuit, ​ideal voltmeters have extremely high resistance (low current flows) to minimize 
the alteration to the original current 
 
Potential divider circuits / Potentiometers 
 
A  ​potential  divider  is  a  circuit  made  of  2  or  more  series 
resistors  that  allow  us  to  tap off any voltage we want that is less 
than the battery voltage 
 
V​out​ = IR 
V​out​ = (V​supply​ / R​1​+R​2​) x R​2 
 
 
 
Resistance 
The  ​resistance  (R)  of  a  material  is  the  ratio  of  the  potential  difference  (V)  across  the  material  to  the 
current (I) flowing through the material. R ​ = V/I 
 
Ohm’s Law 
Ohm’s  Law  ​states  that  at  a  constant  temperature,  the  current  flowing  through  a  conductor  is  directly 
proportional to the potential difference across its ends.​ Ohmic conductors​ obey Ohm’s Law. 
V = IR 
The  behavior  of  various  materials  when  a  current  is  passed  through  them  can  be  represented  on  I-V 
graphs as shown below: 

 
Thermistors 
These  are  resistors dependent on the temperature of the surroundings. ​As the temperature is increased, 
the resistance from the thermistor decreases.  
 
LDRs 
These  are  resistors  dependent  on  the  light  intensity  incident  on  the  resistor.  ​As  the  light  intensity  is 
increased, the resistance from the LDR decreases​. 
 
Resistivity 
The resistance of a conductor is: 
● Directly proportional to its length ​l 
● Inversely proportional to its cross-sectional ​A 
 
 
So,  leading  to  the  definition  of  a  new  quantity  resistivity​:  
 
Series and parallel circuits 
  Currents   Potential differences 

Series  Same for all components   Split between components 

Parallel  Split between components  Same for all components 

 
Resistors in Series  Resistors in Parallel 

I is the same throughout the circuit  I through each resistor is different 

V is different:  - High R gives low I 
- High R gives high V  - Low R gives high I 
- Low R gives low V  V is the same across each resistor 

   
V​S​ = V​1​ + V​2​ + V​3  I = I​1​ + I​2​ + I​3 
IR​S​ = IR​1​ + IR​2​ + IR​3  V/R​T​ = V/R​1​ + V/R​2​ + V/R​3 
R​S​ = R​1​ + R​2​ + R​3  1/R​T​ = 1/R​1​ + 1/R​2​ + 1/R​3 

 
Using potential dividers 
Ap​ otential divider i​ s an arrangement that delivers only a proportion of the voltage from a battery. 
 
 
 
The  variable  resistor  can  be  replaced 
with  an  LDR  or a thermistor, to make an 
automated  lamp  system  and a fire alarm 
respectively 
 
 
Uses of potential dividers in: 
Light-sensitive switches 
 
In  daylight,  LDR  resistance  is  low,  so 
it  has  a  low  share  of  battery  voltage  - 
too low to turn on the transistor. 
 
In  the  dark,  resistance  rises,  so  the 
share  of  battery  voltage  is  high,  high 
enough  to  turn  on  the  transistor,  and 
so the lamp glows. 
 
 
Temperature-sensitive switches 
At  room  temp,  the  thermistor  has 
high  resistance  and  a  major  share  of 
battery  voltage. The voltage across the 
lower  resistor  is  not  enough  to  turn 
on the resistor.  
 
Upon  heating,  the  resistance  across 
the  thermistor is low, and the share of 
voltage  is  higher  across  the  lower 
resistor.  The  transistor  is  therefore 
turned  on.  The  transistor  then 
switches  on  a  relay,  which  switches 
the bell. 
Power dissipation 

 
 
 
 
Kirchoff’s Laws (junction, branch, and loop) 
Junction​: a point in a circuit where 3 or more wires are connected 
Branch​: all the wire and all the components connecting one junction to another 
Loop​: all the wire and all the components in a complete circuit 
 
Current rule (junction rule) ​∑I = 0 
Assign a current to each branch 
Entering a junction is ‘gain’ and given a positive value 
Leaving a junction is a ‘loss’ and given a negative value 
 
TOP junction: I​1​ - I​2​ + I​3​ = 0 
BOTTOM junction: I​2​ - I​1​ - I​3​ = 0 
 
 
Voltage rule (loop rule) ∑ ​ V = 0 
Each resistor is given a voltage and each battery or cell 
an  emf  ε.  Cells  increase  the  energy  of  the  current. 
Resistors  decrease  the  energy  of  the  current.  If  we 
sum  up  all  the energy gains and losses in each loop we 
must get 0 
 
In resistors: 
- When branch and loop currents are in the same direction, V = -ve 
- When branch and loop currents are in opposite direction, V = +ve 

 
For batteries: 
- If loop moves from -ve terminal to +ve terminal, the energy change is +ve 
- If loop moves from +ve terminal to -ve terminal, the energy change is -ve 

 
 
5.3 Electric Cells 
A c​ ell​ is a device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy  
 
Primary cells ​cannot be recharged 
Secondary cells​ can be recharged by applying an external voltage, reversing the chemical reaction  
 
The c​ apacity​ of a cell is the quantity used to measure the ability of a cell to release charge  
 
Discharge of a cell 
The visual below shows the typical discharge-time graph for a cell 

 
Important features of this graph are: 
● The initial terminal PD is higher than what is quoted by the manufacturer, but this drops quickly 
● For  most  of  the  discharge  time,  the  terminal  pd  remains  more  or  less  constant  around  the  rate 
emf. Sometimes there is a slow decline in the pd 
● As the cell approaches exhaustion, the terminal pd drops very quickly 
● If  the  current  is  switched  off,  terminal  pd  rises  and  can  reach  the  rated  value  again.  However, 
when discharge is resumed, the terminal pd falls very quickly 
 
Recharging secondary cells 
When  a  secondary  cell  is  connected  in  a  circuit,  the  chemicals  inside  the  cell  produce  an  excess  of 
electrons  at  the  negative  terminal.  During  discharge,  these  electrons  then  move  through  the  external 
circuit  transferring  their  energy  as  they  go.  When  the  electron  arrives  at  the  positive  terminal, all of its 
energy  will  have  been  transferred to other forms and it will need to gain more from the chemical store in 
the cell. 
 
To  reverse  this  process,  the  energy  needs  to  be  returned  to  the  cell  using  electrons  as the agents. When 
charging,  the  electrons  need  to  travel  in  the  reverse  direction  to  that  of  the  discharge  current,  and  the 
charger has to force the electrons the “wrong” way through the cell. 
 
 
Internal resistance and emf of a cell 
Internal resistance is the resistance offered by the chemicals inside a source (cell, battery, etc.) 
 
There  is  an  internal  resistance  (r)  associated  with  a  cell  or  battery which causes the cell’s voltage to drop 
when  there  is  external  demand  for  the  cell’s  electrical  energy.  Cells  heat  up  as  a  result  of  this  internal 
resistance, and the cell heat rate (power dissipation) is given by P ​ = I​2​r 
 
Derivation of internal resistance equation 
Electrical energy supplied by the battery is given by: 
E​battery​ = 𝛆q 
E​lost due to internal resistance​ = V​r​q 
E​delivered to component​ = V​R​q 
 
𝛆q = V​R​q + V​r​q 
𝛆 = V​R​ + V​r 
𝛆 = IR + Ir 
 
5.4 Magnetic effects of electric currents 
Am​ agnetic field​ is a region around a magnet where another magnet experiences a force 
Magnetic field lines ​have similar properties to electric field lines: 
● Magnetic field lines are drawn from the north-seeking pole to the south-seeking pole 
● The strength of the field is shown by the density of the field lines. Closer lines = stronger field 
● Field lines never cross 
 
Magnetic field around long conducting wire 
 
 
There  is  a  circular  field  around  the  wire 
(concentric  circles  when  drawn  in  2D).  Lines  get 
further  apart  as  you  move  away  from  the  wire, 
indicating a decrease in field strength 
 
 
 
 
  
Using  the  conventional  current  direction,  the 
relationship  between  the  current  and  the 
magnetic  field  obeys  a  ​right-hand  grip  rule 
relationship​. 
 
 
Magnetic field around a solenoid 
The  magnetic  field produced by a current-carrying coil has these 
features: 
● The  field  is  similar  to  that  around  a  bar  magnet,  and 
there are magnetic poles at the ends of the coil 
● Increasing the current increases the strength of the field 
● Increasing  the  number  of  turns  on the coil increases the 
strength of the field 
● Inside the solenoid, the lines of flux are close together, parallel, and equally spaced 
 
Forces on moving charges 
The force between two current-carrying wires 
Two  parallel,  current-carrying  wires  exert  equal,  but  opposite  forces  on  each  other,  irrespective  of 
differences in the size of the current flowing through each of them. 

 
The force between a bar magnet field and a current-carrying wire 
 
When  a  wire  carrying  a  current  is  placed  in  a  magnetic 
field  it  may  experience  a  force.  Depending  on  the 
direction  of  the current, and the direction of the magnetic 
field  lines,  the wire moves upwards or downwards. This is 
called  the  ​motor  effect  of  an  electric  current.  The 
direction  of  motion  is  determined  using  ​fleming’s 
left-hand rule​. 
 
 
Fleming′s  Left  Hand  Rule-  Also  known  as  the  Motor  Rule  this  is  a  way  of 
determining  the  direction  of  a force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic 
field. 
 
     
Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field 
Experimentation  shows  that  the  force  F on a conductor in a magnetic field is directly proportional to the 
magnetic flux density B, the current I, and the length of the conductor in the field l. 
As such F
​ = BIl [Force = flux density(tesla) x current(ampere) x length(metres) 
 
 
This only applies when the conductor is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field 
If  the  current  direction  is  not  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  field,  we  need  to  take  the 
appropriate component of I. The equation can now be written as ​F = BIl sin θ 

 
As  the  value  of  θ  decreases,  the  force  on  the  conductor  decreases.  When  θ  =  90°,  force  is  maximum. 
When θ = 0°, there is no force acting on the conductor 
 
The  size  of  the  force  depends  on the angle that the wire makes with the magnetic field, but the direction 
of the motion of the wire does not. 
 
Magnetic  flux  density  is  the  force  acting  per  unit  length  on  a  wire  carrying  a  current,  which  is 
perpendicular to the magnetic field. Units: tesla(T) 
 
A  magnetic  flux  density  of  1T produced a force of 1N on each meter of wire carrying a current of 1A at 90° 
to the field. 
 
The equation above can be modified to reflect the magnetic force on a charged particle: 
F = BIl sin θ 
F = B(Q/t)l sin θ  [I = Q/t] 
F = BQ(l/t) sin θ 
(l/t) gives the ​drift speed​ of the charge carriers, so: 
F = BQv sin θ 
 
The force on a charged particle is, therefore, directly proportional to: 
● The magnetic flux density, B 
● Charge on the particle, Q 
● The velocity of the particle, v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
10.1 Describing fields 
Fields 
Electrostatic  forces  exist  between  two  charged  objects.  There  are two types of charge: Negative - caused 
by  a  surplus  of  electrons; Positive - caused by a deficit of electrons. When two objects have the same sign 
charge,  the  force  between  them  is  repulsive.  When  two  objects  have  opposite  signs,  the  force  between 
them is attractive 
 
Field strength 
Electric  field  strength  is  the  force  acting  per  unit  charge  on  a  positive  test  charge  in  the  field.  The 
direction  of  an  electric  field  is the same as the direction of the force acting on a positive charge. The unit 
of electric field strength is N C​-1​. 
 
Electric potential difference 
Electric  potential  difference  is  the  work  done  per  unit  charge  in  moving  a positive test charge from one 
point  to  another.  The  work  done  per  unit  charge  (V​e  =  W/Q)  (measured  in  Volts  or  J  C​-1​).  ​Electric 
potential​ is the work done in moving a positive test charge from infinity to a point in the electric field. 
 
Field lines 
The field between two parallel plates: 
● Is uniform in the region between the plates 
● Becomes weaker at the edge (edge effects) 
 
Lines  of  equal  potential between two plates are known as ​equipotentials​. Field lines are perpendicular to 
equipotentials.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
Other  situations  involving  field  lines  and 
equipotentials include:  
 
 
 
 
 
 
11.1 Electromagnetic induction 
Electromotive  force  (emf)  is  defined  as  the  work  done  per  unit  charge  in  moving  a  point  charge  from 
one  point  to  another.  When  a  conductor  is  moved  in  a  magnetic  field,  delocalized  electrons  in  the 
conductor experience a force (Magnetic force where F = BQv). As a result: 
● Electrons accumulate at one end of the rod, making it negatively charged 
● This leaves the other end of the rod short of electrons, making it positively charged 
● There is now a potential difference, so current can flow 

 
 
Fleming’s  right-hand  rule  can  be  used to identify the relationship between the motion of the conductor, 
the direction of the field, and the direction of the induced conventional current. 
 
Fleming’s  left-hand  rule  can  predict  the  force  on,  and  therefore  the  flow  of  the  electrons.  This  flow  of 
electrons is equivalent to a conventional current acting in the opposite direction. 

LENZ’S  LAW  ​states  that:  ​the  direction  of  the  induced  current  is  such  that  it  opposes  the  change  that 
created the current 

Lenz’s  law  is  based  on  the conservation of energy. One cannot do work without having some opposition. 

The  induced  current  in  the  coil  is  such  that  the  induced  field  produced  by  this  current  opposes  the 
motion  of  the  magnet  you  are holding. To keep the conductor moving will therefore require a force to be 
exerted  in the opposite direction. This is a consequence of the conservation of energy. If it were not true, 
you  wouldn’t  have  to  do work to move the conductor, so the energy given to the circuit would come from 
nowhere.  

 
 

Electric potential energy in a straight conductor 

As  the  circuit is not complete, eventually the emf becomes 
large  enough  to  balance the magnetic force, and electrons 
in the rod stop moving. At this point: 
F​B​ = F​E 
BQv = EQ 
Bv = E 
Bv = V/d 
V (potential difference) = ε (emf) and d (distance) = L (length) 
So Bv = ε / L, leading to ε = BvL 
 
Magnetic flux 
Because  of  the  importance  in  orientation  between  the  area  of  the 
loop  and  the  magnetic  field  B,  a  new  quantity  called  magnetic  flux 
Φ is defined.  
Φ = B A cos Θ (Units: Tm​2​ or Wb(Webber)) 
Θ is  the  angle  between  the  direction  of  magnetic  field  lines  and  the 
normal to the surface of the coil  
 
Magnetic flux density (numerically equivalent to Magnetic field strength (B)) 
This is defined as the magnetic flux per unit area. 
M agnetic f lux density = Φ/Acos Θ = B A cos Θ/A cos Θ = B  
A rate of change of flux of one weber per second induces an emf of one volt across a conductor 
1T = 1Wb m​-2 
 
Magnetic flux linkage 
If  instead  of  a  single  loop  we  make  a  coil  of  N  loops,  the  flux  through  each  loop is ‘linked’ to each of the 
other loops in what is termed flux linkage. F lux linkage = N Φ  
Each  loop  produces  its  emf  and  these  add  to  the  total  emf.  Emf  is  only  produced  when  the  flux  is 
changing.  As  such,  the  induced  emf  in  a  circuit  is  equal  to  the  rate  of  change  of  magnetic  flux  linkage 
through the circuit.  
 
Faraday’s Law of induction  
Faraday’s  Law  of induction states that the emf induced in a coil is equal to the rate of change of magnetic 
flux linkage in the coil: ε = − N ΔΦ/Δt  
Ways to increase the emf induced include: 
● Increasing the strength of the magnetic field (by increasing current) 
● Increasing the size of the coil 
● Increasing the number of turns on the coil 
● Moving the coil faster 
 
 
11.2 Power generation and transmission 
A.C. generators  
When  a  coil  is  rotated  between  the  two  poles  of  a  magnet, ​it cuts the magnetic field lines, and there is a 
rate  of  change  of  magnetic  flux  linkage​,  so  an  emf  is  induced  in  the  coil  and  current  flows.  Fleming’s 
right-hand rule can be used to determine the direction of the current.  
 
The size of the induced emf can be increased by: 
● Increasing the no. of turns on the coil 
● Moving the coil faster (increases frequency) 
● Stronger Magnet 
 
All  these changes increase the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage, 
as  the  wire  cuts  the  field  lines  faster.  Slip  rings  extract  electrical 
energy  from  the  generator  without  wires  becoming  twisted.  The 
following  graph  illustrates  the variation of current within one cycle of 
the generator: 
 
The  graph  shows  how  induced  e.m.f  varies 
through  one  rotation.  At  the  vertical  position, no 
field  lines  are  cut,  which  means  that  the  rate  of 
change  of  magnetic  flux  is  0,  so  the  induced  emf 
is  0.  At  the  horizontal position, the coil is moving 
fastest,  so  maximum  field  lines  are  cut,  which 
means  that  the  rate  of  change  of  flux  is 
maximum, so the induced emf is maximum 
 
The  rate  of  change  of  flux  is  proportional  to 
induced emf 
 
Flux  itself  is  inversely  proportional  to  induced 
emf.  The  graph for flux would be the derivative of 
the graph of emf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Root mean square (RMS) values 
Peak  values  (on the sinusoidal curve above) are not useful in measuring a.c. current size as these are only 
momentary  values.  Average values cannot be used either, and the average current would mathematically 
be equal to 0. As such RMS values (also known as effective values) are used. 
 
RMS  value  is  the  effective  value  of  a  varying  voltage  or  current.  It  is  the  equivalent  steady  d.c.  value 
which gives the same effect.  
 

 
From this, we have the following equations: 
 
 
 
 
 
(Need to be consistent when using values - do not mix peak and RMS values in calculations) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Transformers 
Transformers  are  devices  that  change  the  value  of  an  a.c.  voltage.  It  consists  of  2  coils wound around a 
soft-iron core, as shown:  

 
When  an  a.c.  current  flows  in  the primary circuit, an alternating magnetic field is set up in the soft-iron 
core.  This  means  that  the  flux  linkage  of  the  secondary  coil  is  constantly  changing,  so  an  alternating 
potential  difference  is  induced  across  it  at  the  same  frequency.  Transformers  cannot  work  with  d.c.  as 
the  magnetic  field  would  not  be  changing  after  it  has  reached  its  constant  value.  For  an  ideal 
transformer: Power in the primary coil = Power in the secondary coil 
P​p​ = P​s 
I​p​V​p = ​I​s​V​s 
V​p​/V​s​ = I​s​/I​p 
 
Step-up  transformers  increase  the  a.c.  voltage  because  the  secondary  coil  has  a  larger number of turns 
than the primary coil 
 
Step-down  transformers  ​decrease  the  a.c.  voltage  because  the  secondary  coil  as  a  smaller  number  of 
turns than the primary coil 

 
In  real  transformers,  there  are  power  losses.  Eddy  currents  and  hysteresis  currents  are  unnecessary 
currents  that  cause  heating  (P  =  I​2​R).  To  reduce  the  flow  of  these  currents  transformers  are  laminated 
between the layers of the soft-iron core. 
 
Transformers in AC power distribution 
Transmission  cables  are  good  conductors  but  offer  significant  resistance  when  they  are  very  long. 
Energy is wasted because of the heating effect of eddy currents. 
Power loss = voltage drop x current (P = VI) 
Voltage drop = current x resistance (V = IR) 
∴ Power loss = current x resistance x current = current​2​ x resistance (P = I​2​R) 
Since the input power remains constant, increasing the voltage would result in a reduced current  
(P = VI). As a result, while the cables’ resistance is constant, the power loss is reduced (P = I​2​R) 
Therefore thinner, lighter, and cheaper cables can be used. 
 
 
 
Effect of EM radiation on health (concerning power transmission) 
The  frequency  of  transmitted  power  is  about  60Hz,  which  is  considered  very  low.  Radiation  of  this 
frequency has low energy, so it is not harmful to consumers.  
 
Diodes and their use in rectification 
A  ​diode  is  a  semiconductor  that  allows  current  to  flow  in  only  one  direction.  It  has  a 
schematic symbol that shows the direction of the conventional current. 
Diodes can be used to convert a.c. to d.c. This is known as ​rectification​. 
 
Half-wave rectification 
By  preventing  the  flow  of  current  in  one  direction,  a  single  diode  can  rectify  half  of  the  current. 
However, the other half is wasted:  

 
Full-wave rectification 
This is done using a d
​ iode bridge rectifier​: 

 
No current is wasted in this process: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The  full-wave  rectifier  converts  -ve  lobes  to  +ve  ones,  but the voltage is not constant. Although it is d.c., 
the  current  varies  from  0  to  V​0  twice  in  one  period.  This  fluctuation  is  too  great  for  some  devices.  This 
can  be  corrected  by  adding  a  large  value  capacitor  across  the  output.  Its  storage  capacity  smooths  the 
resulting waveform. 
 
.. 
11.3 Capacitance 
Capacitors  are  electronic  devices  that  store  charge.  Capacitors  are  made  of  2 
parallel  plates.  In  between  the  plates,  we  have  air,  vacuum  or  a  non-conductive 
material called a dielectric.  
 
Capacitance (C)​ is defined to be the charge per unit voltage which is capacitor is capable of maintaining 
C = q/V​ (Units: Farad) 
 
Capacitors in parallel 
When capacitors are in parallel, each capacitor has voltage V, so 
V = V​1​ = V​2 
q = q​1​ + q​2 
CV = C​1​V + C​2​V 
Cancelling the voltages, C ​ = C​1​ + C​2​ + … 
 
Capacitors in series 
When capacitors are in parallel, each capacitor has a charge q, so: 
q = q​1​ = q​2 
V = V​1​ + V​2 
q/C = (q/C​1​) + (q/C​2​) 
Cancelling the charges, ​1/C = 1/C​1​ + 1/C​2​ + … 
 
Dielectric materials 
To  increase  the  ability  of  a  capacitor  to  store  charge,  we  use  conductive  plates  instead  of  simple  wires. 
Based on this, ways to increase capacitance include: 
● Increasing the area of the plates 
● Decreasing the distance between the plates 
● Placing a dielectric with a higher permittivity 
 
Charge leakage occurs in air or vacuum, so we place a dielectric material 
between  the  plates.  This  reduces  arcing,  and  the  electric  force, 
increasing the capacity of the capacitor. 
 
When  a  dielectric  is  introduced,  molecules  of  the  dielectric  become 
polar  and  produce  an  electric  field  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that 
between the plates. The resultant electric field strength is reduced.  
 
C = q /V and V = E d, so C = q /Ed .  As  such,  when  E  decreases,  C  will 
increase 
 
 
 
Effect of leaving/removing the battery from a circuit containing a charged dielectric capacitor 
When  the  battery  is  connected,  and  the  dielectric  is  connected  to  the  capacitor,  the  voltage  across  the 
plates is constant, but the charge deposited increases, so capacitance increases. (C = q/V) 
 
When  the  battery  is disconnected, and the dielectric is still connected to the capacitor, the voltage across 
plates drops, but the charge remains constant, so capacitance increases. (C = q/V) 
 
The energy of a capacitor 
The  graph  shows  a  plot  of  voltage  against  charge.  The  product  of  voltage  and 
charge  is  equal  to  the  energy,  so  the  area  under  the  graph  is  the  energy stored 
in the capacitor. 
E = 0.5QV = 0.5(CV)V = 0.5CV​2 
 
Charging a capacitor 
 
 
When  the  switch  is  closed,  the  capacitor  starts  charging,  so  voltage 
starts  to  increase  to  the  value  of  the emf.  Over time, the charge across 
the plates also increases. 
 
 
Discharging a capacitor 
When  the  switch  is  closed,  the  capacitor  starts  discharging,  so  the 
voltage  starts  to  drop  towards  0.  The  charge  across  the  plates  also 
drops.  ​The  resistor  must  be  in  parallel  with  the  capacitor  to  allow 
discharge 
 
Graphs for charge and discharge are as follows: 
 
 
 
 
Below are the equations for discharge (do not need derivation): 
 
 
 
 
The time constant 
τ = RC  
The  time  constant  is  defined  as  the  time  it  takes  for the voltage, charge, or current in the circuit to drop 
to 37% of its original value