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CHAPTER-1 Coulomb’s law in vector form
ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS  Force on q1 due to q2 is,
Electrostatics - study charges at rest.
Methods of charging a body
 Rubbing (charging by friction)  Force on q2 due to q1 is,
 Conduction - by direct contact
 Induction – without direct contact

Super position principle

 Force on a charge due to a number of
charges is the vector sum of forces due to
individual charges.

Electric field
 Region around a charge where its effect
can be felt.
 Intensity of electric field is the force per
unit charge.
F
Electroscope – device for charge detection E 
q
Properties of electric charges F  qE
 Unit of electric field is N/C or V/m.
 Charges are additive –total charge is sum
of all charges. Electric field due to a point charge
Q = q1+q2+q3+ …..
 Charges are quantized- charge of a body 1 q
E
is integer multiple of electron charge. 4 0 r 2
Q = ne, n- integer, e =1.6 X 10 -19 C.
 Charges are conserved – total charge of Electric field lines
an isolated system is constant.
 Pictorial representation of electric field.
Coulomb’s law
Properties of field lines
 Start from positive charge, end at negative
charge. Do not form closed loops.
 Force between two stationary charges is  Field lines are continuous in a charge free
region.
1 q1q2
F  Two field lines never intersect.
4 0 r r 2  Field lines are parallel in uniform electric
 Where  0 -permittivity of free space,  r - field.
relative permittivity.  Tangent at any point gives direction of
 electric field.
 Relative permittivity is given by ,  r   Number of field lines gives intensity of
0 electric field.
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  qE  2a sin  ,   pE sin 
Or   p  E
positive charge negative charge Electric field due to a dipole
Axial point

Positive and negative charge (dipole)

Equatorial point

Two positive charges

 The electric field is given by

Electric Dipole
 Two equal and opposite charges
Relation connecting axial field and equatorial
separated by a small distance.
field of dipole

 Total charge and force on a dipole is zero.

Electric flux
Dipole moment  Number of field lines passing normal
p  q  2a through a surface.
q- charge, 2a- dipole length   EA cos 
 Direction is from negative to positive  Unit – Nm2/ C
charge.
 SI unit- coulomb metre ( C m) Gauss’s Theorem

Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field  Total electric flux over a closed surface is
q

0
Applications of Gauss’s law
Electric field due to a straight charged wire

Torque = force X perpendicular distance

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
 On the surface r=R, therefore E 
0

Points inside the shell

 Thus E= 0 inside the shell.
 Vanishing of electric field (E=0) inside a
charged conductor is called electrostatic
shielding
 Using Gauss’s law
l ****
E  2 rl 
0

 Thus E CHAPTER -2
2 0 r ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND
CAPACITANCE
Electric field due to a plane sheet of charge
Electrical potential

 W-work, q - charge
 It is a scalar quantity.
 Unit is joule/coulomb or volt (V).

Potential due to point charge

A
 Using Gauss’s law E  (2 A)  V
1 q
0 4 0 r

 Thus E  Equipotential surface
2 0
 Surface with constant value of potential.
Electric field due to a charged spherical shell
Points outside the shell Properties of Equipotential surface
 Work done to move a charge on an
equipotential surface is zero.
 Electric field is perpendicular.

Equipotential surface of a single charge

 Using Gauss’s law

  4 R 2
E  (4 r 2 )  Equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field
0
 R2
 Thus E 
 0r 2

Points on the shell

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Equipotential surfaces for a dipole Capacitors in series

Equipotential surfaces for two identical positive

charges
 In series V  V1  V2
 Thus Q Q Q
 
C C1 C2
 Therefore effective capacitance is
1 1 1
 
C C1 C2

Relation between electric field and potential Capacitors in parallel

dV
E
dr
 Why it is safer to be inside a car during
lightning?
 Due to Electrostatic shielding, E=0 inside
the car.
Q  Q1  Q2
 In parallel
Capacitor  Thus CV  C1V  C2V
 Charge storing device.  Therefore C  C1  C2
Q Energy stored in a capacitor
Capacitance C 
V
 Energy stored in a capacitor is the electric
 SI unit of capacitance is farad. potential energy.
 We have the Q – V graph of a capacitor,
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor

 Energy = area under the graph

1
0 A  Thus , U   Q  V
 The capacitance C  2
d
1
A- Area of plates , d -separation  Also U  CV 2
2
Effect of dielectric on capacitance
*****
 When dielectric medium is placed
capacitance increases. CHAPTER -3
 0 KA CURRENT ELECTRICITY
C , K- dielectric constant. Electric current
d  The current
q
Combination of capacitors I
t
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 It is scalar quantity.  Eg: metals
 SI unit – ampere (A) Non ohmic conducors
Current density  Conductors do not obey ohm’s law.
J 
I  Eg: diode, transistor etc.
A Temperature and resistance
 Unit – A/m2  Conductors – resistance increases with
Drift velocity temperature.
 Average velocity of an electron in an
electric field.
Relaxation time
 Average time interval between two
 Semiconductors – resistance decreases
successive collisions.
with temperature
Relation connecting drift velocity and relaxation
time
eE
v
m  Alloys – independent of temperature
Relation connecting drift velocity and current
 I  nAve , n-electron density, A –area,
v- drift velocity, e- electron charge
Ohm’s law Why materials like constantan and manganin
 At constant temperature V  IR , are used to make standard resistances?
V- potential, I – current, R- resistance  Resistance does not change with
Resistance temperature.
 Ability of conductor to oppose electric  Material has high resistivity.
current. Colour code of resistors
l
 SI unit – ohm , R  , ρ- resistivity
A
Factors affecting resistance of a conductor
 Nature of material
 Proportional to length of the conductor
 Inversely proportional to area of cross
section.
 Proportional to temperature
Resistivity (specific resistance)  BB ROY of Great Britain has a Very Good
RA Wife.
  , Unit – ohm meter
l
 Resistivity of conductor depends on
nature of material and Temperature
Conductivity
1
 Reciprocal of resistivity   Combination of resistors
 Resistors in Series
Copper is used as for making connecting wires
 Copper has low resistivity.
Nichrome is used as heating element of
electrical devices
 Nichrome has High resistivity
 High melting point.  V  V1  V2  V3 , thus IR  IR1  IR2  IR3
Ohmic conductors  Therefore R  R1  R2  R3
 Conductors which obey ohm’s law.

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Resistors in parallel Circuit diagram

 I  I1  I 2  I 3 , thus V V V
  
V
R R1 R 2 R 3
 Therefore 1  1  1  1
R R1 R2 R3
Internal resistance of a cell  When no current in the galvanometer,
 Resistance offered by the components of
a cell.
 Internal resistance is given by
Potentiometer
Principle
 Where E – emf, I –current  Secondary emf is proportional to
Factors affecting internal resistance balancing length that is E α l.
 Nature of electrolytes Comparison of emfs
 Distance between electrodes Circuit diagram
 Temperature
Kirchhoff’s rule
First rue (junction rule)
 Current entering a junction = current
leaving the junction

 We have, E1 l1 and E2 l2

E l
 Thus 1  1
E 2 l2
Second rule (loop rule) To find internal resistance
 In a closed circuit algebraic sum of Circuit diagram
voltages is zero.
Wheatstone’ s bridge
 Used to find unknown resistance

 The internal resistance is given by

 Where l1- balancing length key K1open,

Wheatstone’ s principle
 If galvanometer current is zero,
Meter bridge
 Works on Wheatstone’s principle.
 Used to find resistance of a wire.
l2- balancing length key K1 closed
P R

Q S Why potentiometer is preferred over voltmeter
for measuring emf of a cell?
 In potentiometer null method is used, so
no energy loss in measurement.
******

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Chapter-4 Cyclotron

Moving Charges and Magnetism  Cyclotron is a machine to accelerate

charged particles to high energies
Magnetic Lorentz force
 It is the force acting on a charge moving
in a magnetic field
 𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵sinθ
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗)
 If charge is moving perpendicular to filed
B, the force is maximum (𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵)
 If charge is moving parallel to the field the
force is zero
 Direction of magnetic Lorentz can be
found by Fleming's Left-Hand Rule
Principle
Lorentz Force
 The electric field in between the dees
 It is the force acting on charge moving in increases the speed of the charged
an electro-magnetic field particle and the magnetic field takes it in
 𝐹 = 𝑞[𝐸⃗ + (𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗ )] a circular path inside the dees.
 As the speed increases the radius of its
Force acting on current carrying conductor path also increases.
placed in a magnetic field  𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑟 =
𝑚𝑣
𝑞𝐵
 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛θ  The frequency of the circular motion of
Motion of Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field the charged particle is independent of its
speed and this frequency is made equal to
 When a charged particle enters a Magnetic the frequency of the applied oscillating
field in direction perpendicular to the field Electric field (resonance condition)
the path of the charged particle is  This frequency is called cyclotron
circular. frequency.
 The centripetal force for the circular motion  𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ν = 2π𝑚
𝑞𝐵

is provided by the Magnetic Lorentz

 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
force. 𝑞𝐵𝑅
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑒
= 𝑞𝑣𝐵 𝑚
𝑟 1 𝑞 2 𝐵2 𝑅2
 2
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑚
𝑚 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒  Limitations – 1. Very light charged
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 particles like electrons cannot be
𝒎𝒗 accelerated.
 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝒓 = 𝒒𝑩
2. Uncharged particles like neutrons cannot
 For a given charge radius increases with be accelerated
increase in velocity
2π𝑟 𝟐𝛑𝒎
 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑻 = = Magnetic Field due to Current Element – Biot-
𝑣 𝒒𝑩
𝒒𝑩 Savart Law
 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝛎 = 𝟐𝛑𝒎
 Magnetic field due to a small current
 Frequency / Time period is independent of
element is given by
the velocity of the charged particle

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𝛍𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉
 Using Ampere’s theorem
𝒅𝑩 = 𝐵2π𝑟 = μ0 𝐼
𝟒𝛑 𝒓𝟐
 Where μ0 = 4π × 10−7 𝑇𝑚⁄𝐴 𝛍𝟎 𝑰
𝑩=
(Permeability of free space) 𝟐𝛑𝒓
 Direction is given by Right hand grip rule
Magnetic Field on the axis of a Circular
Current Loop Magnetic Field due to a Long Solenoid

 Using Ampere’s circuital law

⃗⃗⃗ = μ0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∫𝐵
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑁 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐵𝑙 = μ0 𝑛𝑙𝐼 where n is number of turns
𝛍𝟎 𝑵𝑰𝒂𝟐 per unit length.
𝑩=
𝟐(𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )(𝟑⁄𝟐) 𝑩 = 𝛍𝟎 𝒏𝑰
 Magnetic Field at the Centre of the coil
(x=0) Magnetic Field due to a Toroid
𝛍𝟎 𝑵𝑰
𝑩𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒆 =
𝟐𝒂
Ampere's Circuital Law

 Line integral of magnetic field along a Magnetic field at point in the axis
closed path is equal to μ0 times the total  𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑎𝑤 ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 =
current through the closed path. μ0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = 𝛍𝟎 𝑰 𝐵 2π𝑟 = μ0 𝑁𝐼
μ0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
2π𝑟
Applications of Ampere's Circuital Law 𝑩𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 = 𝛍𝟎 𝒏𝑰
 Magnetic field due to a straight wire
carrying current  Where n is number of turns per length of the
toroid

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Force between two Parallel Current 𝑘
𝐼=( )ϕ or 𝐼∝ϕ
𝑁𝐴𝐵
carrying conductors
 Current is directly proportional to the deflection
produced in the galvanometer.
𝑘
 is galvanometer constant
𝑁𝐴𝐵

Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter

 Force per unit length between the current

carrying wires
𝛍𝟎 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
𝑭=
𝟐𝛑𝒅
 The force is attractive if the two currents
are in same direction
I – Current to be measured
 The force is repulsive if the two currents
Ig – maximum safe current through
are in opposite direction
Galvanometer
 Parallel currents attract, and anti- Rg – Resistance of Galvanometer
parallel currents repel. S – Shunt resistance
Torque acting on a Current Loop (Magnetic  A Galvanometer can be converted to Ammeter
Dipole) in a Magnetic Field by connecting a small resistance parallel to it
(shunt resistance)
 τ = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵sinθ = 𝑚𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )𝑆
N – Number of turns of coil 𝑰𝒈 𝑹𝒈
𝑺=
I – Current through the coil 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒈
A – Area of the coil
B – Magnetic field Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter
θ – Angle between magnetic field and
normal to plane of the coil

Moving Coil Galvanometer

V – P.d to be measured
Ig – maximum safe current through
Galvanometer
Rg – Resistance of Galvanometer
R – High resistance
A galvanometer is converted to Voltmeter
by connecting a high resistance in series
with it.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑅 + 𝑅𝑔 )
𝑽
 Moving Coil Galvanometer is used to 𝑹 = − 𝑹𝒈
𝑰𝒈
detect small current in a circuit.
Principle
𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝑘ϕ
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CHAPTER 5
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
Properties of Magnetic Field Lines
 The magnetic field lines are continuous
closed loops.
 Two magnetic field lines never intersect.
 The tangent at any point gives the direction
of the field at that point.
 The direction is from South Pole to North
Pole.
Gauss’s Law in magnetism
 The net magnetic flux through any
closed surface is zero
Dynamo Effect
 Earth’s magnetism is due to convective
motion of metallic fluids in the outer core
of earth.
Magnetic Meridian
 A vertical plane passing through the
magnetic north and south.
Geographic Meridian
 The vertical plane passing through the
geographic north and south poles
Magnetic field lines of earth
Elements of earth’s magnetism
 Declination (D) , Dip or Inclination (I) ,
Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic
field (BH)
Magnetic Declination
 The angle between the geographic
meridian and magnetic meridian.
 The declination is greater at poles and
smaller near the equator.
Dip or Inclination
 Dip is the angle between total magnetic
field BE of the earth and horizontal
direction.
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 Dip is maximum (90 degree) at the
magnetic poles and minimum (0 degree)
at the magnetic equator.
Horizontal Component of earth’s magnetic field
Magnetistion or Intensity of Magnetisation (M)
 Net magnetic moment per unit volume
Magnetic Intensity or Magnetising Field (H)
where, B – net magnetic field, M – Magnetistion,
μ0-permeability of free space
Relation connecting B , M and H
B = μ0 (H + M)
Magnetic Flux (φ)
 It is the number of magnetic field lines
passing normally through a surface.
 The SI unit is Weber( Wb)
Classification of Magnetic Materials
Diamagnetic materials
 Substances which experiences weak force
of repulsion in a magnetic field.
 Egs:- bismuth, copper, lead, silicon,
nitrogen (at STP), water and sodium
chloride, glass, marbles, diamond, gold,
mercury, silver, zinc, alkali halides etc.
A diamagnetic substance kept in a magnetic
field
Superconductors
 Materials exhibiting perfect conductivity
and perfect diamagnetism.
Meissner effect
 Perfect diamagnetism in superconductors
is called the Meissner effect.
Paramagnetic materials
 Substances which experiences a weak
force of attraction in a magnetic field
 Egs: aluminium, sodium, calcium,oxygen
(at STP) and copper chloride, chromium ,
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lithium, Magnesium, niobium, Platinum,  Eg: steel, Alnico, cobalt steel, ticonal.
tungsten. Properties of electromagnets
A para magnetic substance kept in a magnetic  Low retentivity
field  Low coercivity
 Small area for hysteresis loop
 High permeability
Curie’s law  Eg:- soft iron
 The magnetization of a paramagnetic
*******
material is inversely proportional to
CHAPTER 6
the temperature T.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Ferromagnetic materials
Magnetic Flux
 Strongly magnetised when placed in an
 Magnetic flux, фB = B . A = BA cosθ
external magnetic field.
B –magnetic field, A - area
 Egs:- iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium,etc.
Hard ferromagnetic materials
 Magnetization remains even after the
removal of external magnetic field
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
 Egs: Alnico, an alloy of iron,
 The magnitude of the induced emf is
aluminium, nickel, cobalt and copper
 Used to make permanent magnets.
Soft ferromagnetic materials
 Magnetization disappears on removal of  If there are N turns
the external field , Eg: soft iron
Magnetic Hysteresis
 Lagging of magnetic induction (B) behind
 The negative sign shows the direction of
the magnetic intensity (H)
emf.
B-H curve of a ferromagnetic material
Lenz’s Law
 The polarity of induced emf is such that it
tends to produce a current which
opposes the change in magnetic flux that
produced it.
 Lenz’s law gives the direction of induced
e.m.f.

Retentivity or Remanence
 The value of magnetic field B at
magnetizing field H = 0
Coercivity
 The value of magnetizing field H at Polarity of a current carrying loop
magnetic field B=0.  anticlockwise current north pole.
Area of the Hysterisis Loop  Clockwise current south pole
 The area within the B-H loops gives the Lenz’s law and Law of conservation of Energy
energy dissipated per unit volume  Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of
conservation of energy.
Properties of permanent magnet
Ways to increase the induced emf
 High retentivity
 By increasing the number of turns, N.
 High coercivity
 By changing magnetic flux.
 Large area for hysteresis loop
 High permeability
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Eddy Currents CHAPTER 7
 Eddy currents are the surface currents ALTERNATING CURRENT
produced when bulk pieces of conductors Representation of ac
are subjected to changing magnetic field.  An ac voltage can be represented as

 This current is also known as Foucault

current. RMS Value (effective current
 The direction of eddy currents is given by
Lenz’s law.
Disadvantages of eddy currents
 Dissipate energy in the form of heat. Phasors
 Eddy currents are minimized by using  it is a rotating vector
laminations.  The magnitudes of phasors represent the
Applications of Eddy currents peak values.
 Magnetic braking in trains AC through a resistor
 Electromagnetic damping in  In a resistor the voltage and current are in
galvanometers. phase.
 Induction furnace, Electric power  Average power is not zero.
meters, Metal detectors , Induction Ac through an inductor
cookers, Speedometer, Induction  In an inductor current lags voltage by 90
motors degree.
Relation connecting self inductance and induced  Average power is zero.
emf Ac through a capacitor
 Current leads voltage by 90 degree.
 Average power is zero.
Energy stored in an inductor Inductive reactance
 The work to be done against the back emf  Resistance of an inductor to ac.
in an inductor is stored as magnetic
potential energy.
Capacitive reactance
 The energy stored is  Resistance of a capacitor to ac.
AC Generator
 An ac generator converts mechanical LCR circuit
energy into electrical energy.
Principle/Theory
 A.C. generator works on the principle of
electro-magnetic induction.

*******
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 The current is  Works only in ac

 The voltage is Construction

Impedance

 Total resistance of an LCR circuit.

Transformer Equation
Impedance Triangle

Step-up transformer

 The secondary coil has a greater number

of turns than the primary.

LCR resonance

 We have
 When XC = XL , impedance is minimum,
the current in LCR circuit is maximum.
Step-down transformer
Resonant frequency
 The secondary coil has less turns than the
primary

Frequency – current graph

Energy loss in transformers

 Energy loss in the form of heat –

Applications of resonance
 Used in tuning of radio or TV.
TRANSFORMER
 Device to change alternating voltage.
 It works on principle of mutual induction.
14
minimized by using thick wires
 Eddy current Loss (Iron Loss) –minimized
by using laminated core
 Magnetic flux leakage –minimized by
winding the coils on the same core.
 Hysteresis Loss - Minimised by using a
magnetic material with low hysteresis loss.
*********
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CHAPTER 8
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
● The current due to changing electric field
is called displacement current .
Properties of EM waves
• Moves perpendicular to electric and
magnetic field.
• Shows transverse wave nature.
• No material medium is needed
• Not deflected in electric field and magnetic
field.
• The velocity of em waves in any media is
given by
● EM waves are polarised.
● Carry energy and momentum like other
waves.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
● An arrangement of electromagnetic
radiations according to their wavelength or
frequency.
● Waves in the increasing order of
frequency (decreasing order of
wavelength) are :
Radio waves, microwaves, infra-
red, visible light, ultra violet, x-rays,
Gamma rays
Radio waves
• Produced by the accelerated motion of
charge.
• Used in radio and television
communication systems.
Microwaves
• Produced by using klystrons, magnetrons
and Gunn diodes.
• Used for the radar systems
• Used in Microwave ovens.
• Used in satellite communication.
Infrared waves
• Produced by hot bodies and molecules.
• Also called heat waves
• Plays an role in greenhouse effect.
• Used for military purposes and to observe
growth of crops.
• Used in the remote switches,in secret
signaling and burglar alarms,in the
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treatment of dislocations, paralysis etc, in
physiotherapy
Ultraviolet rays
• Produced by special lamps and very hot
bodies
• Used in LASIK eye surgery.
• Used to kill germs in water purifiers.
• Used in the manufacture of fluorescent
tubes .
X-rays
• Produced by bombarding metal target by
high energy electrons.
• Used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and
as a treatment for certain forms of cancer.
Used to detect cracks and holes inside a
sheet of metal.
Gamma rays
• Produced in nuclear reactions and also
emitted by radioactive nuclei.
• Used in medicine to destroy cancer cells.
• Used to sterilize surgical Instruments,
****
CHAPTER 9
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Laws of reflection
• The angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence.
• The incident ray, reflected ray and the
normal lie in the same plane.
• e from.
Focal length
• The distance between pole and principal
focus.
Spherical aberration
• The inability of a spherical mirror of large
aperture to focus at a single point
Cartesian Sign Convention
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Reflection of light by spherical mirrors
Concave mirror

Covex Mirror

Laws of Refraction
• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
normal lie in the same plane.
Snell’s law:-
Relation between focal length and radius of
curvature of a spherical mirror
• Where n21 - refractive index
Refractive index
The mirror equation • The refractive index depends on
• Nature of the pair of medium
• Wavelength of light
• v-image distance, u-object distance • Medium with larger value of refractive
index is called denser medium.
• A medium with smaller value of refractive
index is called rarer medium.

Refraction through a glass slab - Lateral shift

Linear Magnification
v
m
u
Significance of magnification ‘m’
• When ‘m’ is positive, the image is erect
(virtual)
• When ‘m’ is negative, the image is Applications of refraction
inverted (real) Apparent depth
• For enlarged image, m>1 • The bottom of a tank filled with water
• For diminished image, m<1 appears to be raised due to refraction.
Uses of spherical mirrors
Concave mirrors
• Used as reflectors of table lamps
• Used in reflecting type astronomical
telescopes.
• Used as shaving mirrors
Convex mirrors
• Used in automobiles as rear view mirrors Apparent position of sun
• Early sunrise and delayed sunset is due to
REFRACTION OF LIGHT refraction.
• Change in path of light as it goes from one
medium to another is called refraction.

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Total reflecting prisms
• Total reflecting prisms are based on total
internal reflection.
• Total reflecting prisms are used in
periscopes.
Optical fibres

Twinkling of stars
 Due to refraction and continuous variation
of air density.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (T I R)

• Optical fibre consists of a core and

cladding.
Uses of Optical fibres
• Used as a light pipe for visual examination
of internal organs.
• Optical fibres are used to carry electrical
signals .
Conditions for total internal reflection
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES
• The light ray should travel from denser
Expression for refraction at a convex surface
medium to rarer medium.
• The angle of incidence should be greater
than the critical angle.
Critical Angle
• It is the angle of incidence in the denser
medium for which the angle of refraction
becomes 900.
Relation connecting refractive index and critical
angle
1
n
sin ic
Applications of Total Internal Reflection
Mirage Refraction by a lens - Lens maker’s formula
• Mirage is due to total internal reflection.

 The lens maker’s formula is given by

Brilliance of Diamond
• Brilliance of diamond is due to total
internal reflection.

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Thin lens formula • Due refraction, total internal reflection,
again total internal reflection and
refraction.
Linear magnification of a lens

Power of a lens

• The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre

(D).
• Power of a lens is positive for a convex
lens and negative for a concave lens. • Violet colour on the top and red on the
bottom.
REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM Scattering of light
• The irregular and partial reflection of light.
Rayleigh’s scattering law
• Intensity of the scattered light is inversely
proportional to forth power of wave
length.
Blue color of the sky
• Low wavelength region (bluish region) is
more scattered. So sky appears blue.
Prism Formula ( Eqn. for refractive index) White clouds
( A  D) • All colors of sunlight are almost equally
sin scattered. Thus clouds appear white.
n21  2
A Color of setting or rising sun
sin
2
i-d curve

• Light has to travel more distance through

Formation of rainbow the atmosphere.
Primary rainbow Blue color of the sea
• Due to refraction, total internal reflection • It is due to the scattering of sunlight at the
and again refraction. water molecules and dust particles.
• Blue region is more scattered.
The eye
Accommodation
 Ability of the eye to adjust focal length is
called accommodation.
Near point (least distance of distinct vision)
 For normal eye it is about 25cm.it is
denoted by D.
• Red colour on the top and violet on the
bottom. Presbyopia
Secondary rainbow • Increase of near point due to aging.
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• Corrected by using a convex lens
Nearsightedness or myopia
• Image formed in front of the retina.
• Corrected by using a concavelens
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Compound microscope
• The focal length and aperture of
objective is less than those of eye piece.
Ray diagram

Far sightedness (long sight) or hypermetropia

• Image formed behind the retina.
• Corrected by using convex lens.

Linear magnification
Astigmatism When the image is at near point
• Occurs when the cornea is not spherical in
shape.
• Corrected by using cylindrical lens.

Image formed at infinity

Simple microscope Telescope

• Convex lens of small focal length is used A refracting telescope
as a simple microscope.
Linear magnification
Image formed at the near point D

Magnification(m)

Disadvantages of refracting telescope

• Chromatic aberration is a main

When the image is at infinity Reflecting telescopes

***

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Chapter Ten  The fringe width is given by
WAVE OPTICS

Wavefront
 A wavefront is locus of all points in same Fringe width can be increased by
phase of vibration. • Increasing the wavelength of light (λ)
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT • Increasing the distance between the
Superposition Principle sources and screen (D)
 The resultant displacement is • By decreasing the distance between the
the vector sum of displacements due to two coherent sources (d).
individual waves. Conditions for getting sustainable interference
 Intensity of a wave is proportional to the pattern
square of its amplitude. • The two sources must be coherent
• The coherent sources must be narrow and
very close to each other.
Coherent Sources of light • The screen must be at large .
 Same wavelength or frequency
 Nearly equal amplitude Some observations
 Are in phase or having a constant phase • If one of the slits is covered with black
difference paper – no interference pattern.
 Eg: light from a double slit • If the source is moved towards the slits,
Interference the fringe width do not change but
 The modification in the distribution of intensity increases.
light energy when waves from coherent • If white light is used, then a white band at
sources superpose. the centre and colored bands on either
Constructive interference side are formed.
 Crests of two waves or two troughs • The color of thin films of soap solution, or
superpose- amplitude maximum. oil or petrol spread over water is due to
Condition for constructive interference interference.
 The path difference of the waves is
DIFFRACTION
• It is the bending of the light at the sharp
Destructive interference
corners of obstacles.
 Crest of one wave superpose with trough
Comparison between interference and
of the other - amplitude minimum
diffraction
Condition for Destructive Interference
Interference Diffraction
 The path difference is given by
It is the superposition It is the superposition
of secondary waves of secondary waves
from two different from different parts of
YOUNG’S DOUBLE- SLIT EXPERIMENT wave fronts. the same wave front.
• To study interference.
Fringes may or may Fringes are never of
Expression for band width ( Fringe width)
not be of equal width. equal width.
All bright fringes have Intensity of bright
same intensity. fringes decreases as
we
move from the central
bright fringe.
The regions of The regions of
minimum intensity are minimum intensity are
perfectly dark. not perfectly dark.
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 The number of photoelectrons emitted per
POLARISATION second is directly proportional to the intensity
• Polarization shows that light is a of incident radiation
transverse wave.
• Sound waves cannot polarize.
Polaroids
• Polaroid is an artificially made polarising
material.
• Polaroids are in sunglasses,
windowpanes, photographic cameras, 3D  The minimum negative (retarding) potential
V0 to stop the photocurrent is called the cut-
movie cameras etc.
off or stopping potential.
Malus’ law
• The intensity of plane polarised light
varies as

Methods of polarization
• Polarization by scattering
• Polarisation by reflection  Stopping potential is a measure of maximum
Brewster’s angle (polarizing angle) kinetic energy of photo electrons
• The angle of incidence at which the Kmax = e V0, e- charge of electron
reflected ray is totally polarized.  The stopping potential V0 varies linearly with
Brewster’s law the frequency of incident radiation
tan iB  n  for a given photosensitive material

• iB- Brewster angle, n- refractive index

****
Chapter :11

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION  Minimum frequency below which no

Electron emission photoelectric emission is possible is known as
Threshold frequency
 Thermionic emission: electron emission by  The maximum kinetic energy of the
heating. photoelectrons varies linearly with the
 Field emission: electron emission by applying frequency of incident radiation, but is
a very strong electric field. independent of its intensity
 Photo-electric emission: electron emission by Laws of Photoelectric emission
light.
Work function:  For a given photosensitive material and
frequency of incident radiation (above the
 The minimum energy required to escape an threshold frequency), the photoelectric
electron from a surface current is directly proportional to the intensity
 work function of platinum is the highest of incident light.
 (φ0= 5.65 eV) and that of caesium is the  For a given photosensitive material and
lowest (φ0 = 2.14 eV) frequency of incident radiation, saturation
PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT current is found to be proportional to the
intensity of incident radiation whereas the
 photoelectric emission was discovered by stopping potential is independent of its
Heinrich Hertz intensity
Experimental observations on photoelectric  For a given photosensitive material, there
effect exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of
the incident radiation, called the threshold

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frequency, below which no emission of • Electrons are revolving round the nucleus
photoelectrons takes place in circular orbits.
 The photoelectric emission is an • The centripetal force is given by the
instantaneous process electrostatic force
EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION Limitations of Rutherford Model
• Could not explain the stability of the atom.
 Energy of incident radiation is used to
• Could not explain the line spectra of
liberate the electron and the rest is used for
atoms.
its motion
ℎ𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥
BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN
 the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectron is
ATOM
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈0 ) Postulate I
• Electrons in an atom can revolve in
where ν0 is the threshold frequency certain stable orbits without radiating
Particle nature of light energy.
Postulate II
Properties of Photons • The angular momentum (L) of the
orbiting electron is quantised.
 .Each photon has energy E=hν. L = nh/2π , where n= 1,2,3..
 Intensity of light is related to the number of Postulate III
photons receiving per second. • An electron make a transition from one
 The photon energy is independent of intensity orbit to another.
of radiation.
 Photons are electrically neutral and are not Radii of Bohr’s Stationary orbits:
deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Wave nature of matter • The radii of the stationary orbits are in the
ratio, 1: 4: 9: …..
 wave associated with a moving particle is
called matter wave or de Broglie wave
Bohr Radius
• The radius of the lowest orbit (n=1) is
 The de Broglie wavelength of a particle of
ℎ ℎ called Bohr radius.
mass m moving with velocity v is 𝜆 = = • The Bohr radius is given by
𝑚𝑣 𝑝
 de Broglie wavelength of a particle having
kinetic energy K is
ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = = • Thus the radius of nth orbit becomes:
𝑚𝑣 𝑝 √2𝑚𝐾
 If a charged particle q is accelerating through
a potential difference of V volt then the de
Broglie wavelength is 𝜆 =
ℎ ℎ
= =
ℎ Velocity of electrons in an orbit
𝑚𝑣 𝑝 √2𝑚𝑞𝑉
 wavelength of an electron accelerating
through a potential difference of V volt then
1.227 Total energy of an orbiting electron
the de Broglie wavelength is 𝜆 = 𝑛𝑚
√𝑉

****
Chapter 12
ATOMS Energy level diagram of hydrogen atom
Rutherford’s planetary model of atom (nuclear
model of the atom)
• Most of the mass and all the positive
charges of the atom are concentrated in the
nucleus.

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• For Pfund series n1 = 5 and n2 = 6, 7,……
• This series is in the far infrared region of
the spectrum.
Limitations of Bohr Model
• Applicable only to single electron atoms.
• Could not explain relative intensities of
spectral lines.
• Could not explain the fine structure of
hydrogen spectrum.

Excitation energy ****

• energy required to excite an electron
from its ground state to an excited state. Chapter Thirteen
Ionization energy
• The energy required to take an electron NUCLEI
completely out of the atom. Atomic number (Z)
• The ionization energy of hydrogen atom is  Number of protons in the nucleus.
13.6 eV. Mass number (A)
Rydberg formula  Total no. of nucleons = no. of protons +
number of neutrons
Neutron number (N)
 N= A-Z.
• Where R – Rydberg constant Atomic mass
Spectral lines of Hydrogen Spectrum • Accurate measurement of atomic masses
is carried out with a mass spectrometer.
• Atomic mass unit (u), is defined as 1/12th
of the mass of the carbon (12C) atom.
• Energy of 1 amu = 931 MeV
Composition of nucleus
 Nucleus contains protons and neutrons
 James Chadwick-discovered neutrons
Isotopes
 Atoms with same atomic number but
different mass number are called
isotopes.
 Three isotopes of hydrogen are, protium,
Lyman Series
deuterium and tritium
• For Lyman series, n1 = 1 and n2 = 2, 3, 4
• Lyman series lies in the ultra violet  Tritium is unstable
region. Isobars
Balmer Series  All nuclides with same mass number A
• For Balmer series n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4, 5 and different atomic number.
• The first four lines of the Balmer series lie
in the visible region of the spectrum and Isotones
the rest of the series goes to the u.v.  Nuclides with same neutron number N but
region.
different atomic number Z
Paschen Series
• For Paschen series n1 = 3, n2 = 4, 5, 6, …..
• Paschen series lies in the infrared region. SIZE OF THE NUCLEUS
Brackett Series • The radius of a nucleus
• For Bracket series, n1 = 4, n2 = 5,6 ……..
• Brackett series lies in the infrared region.
Pfund Series
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Mass Defect • Alpha particles are positively charged
• The difference in mass of a nucleus and its particles
constituents • Can be deflected by electric and magnetic
Nuclear Binding Energy fields.
 It is the energy equivalent of mass • Can affect photographic plates.
defect. Beta decay
• In beta-minus decay,
NUCLEAR FORCE
 Force that binds the nucleons together. • When β – particles are emitted, the atomic
 Strongest force in nature. number increases by one.
 Short range force. • In beta-plus decay,
 Does not depend on charge.
RADIOACTIVITY  When β+ particles are emitted the atomic
• H. Becquerel discovered radioactivity. number decreases by one.
• Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon in NUCLEAR ENERGY
which an unstable nucleus undergoes a • In conventional energy sources like coal or
decay. petroleum, energy is released through
Three types of radioactive decay occur in chemical reactions.
nature : • 1 kg of uranium, will generate on fission
• α-decay in which a helium nucleus (He) is 1014 J of energy.
emitted; Nuclear Fission
• β-decay in which electrons or positrons • When heavy nucleus breaks to light nuclei
are emitted; energy is released
• γ-decay in which high energy photons are • The energy released (the Q value ) in the
emitted. fission reaction of nuclei like uranium is
Law of radioactive decay of the order of 200 MeV per fissioning
• The number of nuclei undergoing the nucleus.
decay per unit time is proportional to the • Nuclear reactors works on nuclear
total number of nuclei in the sample. fission.
N = No e- λt • The enormous energy released in an
Decay Rate atom bomb comes from uncontrolled
• It gives the number of nuclei decaying per nuclear fission.
unit time Nuclear reactor
• The average energy of a neutron
• The SI unit for activity is becquerel,. produced in fission of U (235) is 2 MeV.
• 1 becquerel = 1Bq = 1 decay per second • moderators are used for slowing down
Half life period (T1/2) fast neutrons.
• It is the time in which the number of • The moderators commonly used are
undecayed nuclei falls into half of its water, heavy water (D2O) and graphite.
original number. • The reaction rate is controlled through
control-rods made out of cadmium.
Nuclear fusion
• Energy can be released if two light nuclei
Mean life (τ) combine to form a single larger nucleus, a
1 process called nuclear fusion.
  • Energy production in stars is due to

nuclear fusion.
Alpha particles
• Alpha-decay obeys the radioactive law
*****

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Chapter14
Semi-Conductor Electronics
Classification of solids on the basis of band theory
(1) Distinguish between conduction band, valence band and forbidden energy gap (band
gap energy)?
1) Valence band: - the range of energy possessed by valence shell electrons is called valence
band.
2) Conduction band: - the range of energy possessed by free or conduction electrons is
called conduction band.
3) Forbidden energy gap(Eg):- the gap between valence band and conduction
4) band where no electrons can remain is called forbidden energy gap or band gap energy.

(2) Classify solids on the basis of Band theory?

1) Metals:- metals have either overlapping valence and conduction band or partially empty
valence band and partially filled conduction band.
Ev—highest energy in
Conduction Conduction valence band
E E
E Ec—lowest energy in
E Valence conduction band
Valence

2) Insulators :- in the case of insulators valence band is completely filled and conduction
band is empty with a very large energy gap which is more than 3eV

Conduction band
Ec

Eg>3ev

Ev
Valence band

3) Semi conductors :- they have completely filled valence band and empty conduction
band with a small energy gap which is less than 3eV.

Conduction band
Ec

Ev
Valence band

Eg<3ev

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Semiconductors
(3) What are the two types of semiconductors?
1) Intrinsic semiconductor: - A semiconductor in its pure form is called an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Eg: Ge, Si
2) Extrinsic semiconductor: - An intrinsic semiconductor in which impurity are added is
called extrinsic semiconductor.
Eg: Phosphorous added Ge, Boron added Si
Note :-
(a) In an intrinsic semiconductor the valence electrons are held together by covalent
bonds.Therefore electrons are obtained only by breaking this covalent bonds.
(b) In an intrinsic semiconductor 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖
𝑛𝑖 =intrinsic charge carrier concentration

(4) What is doping?

The intentional addition of impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor to increase its
conductivity is called doping and the impurity added are called dopants.
(5) What are two types of extrinsic semiconductors?
1) N-type: - when a pentavalent impurity like As, Sb, Bi, P are added to an intrinsic
semiconductor , then the semiconductor is called N-type.
2) P-type: - When a trivalent impurity like B, Al, In, Ga are added to an intrinsic
semiconductor, then the semiconductor is called P-type.
p-n Junction
(6) What is a p-n junction?
When two semiconductors ie,p and n are formed on the same crystal, a junction
is formed and is called p-n junction.
(7) What is a semiconductor diode?
A p-n junction which has metallic contacts at the ends is called a
semiconductor diode or simply diode.
(8) What are the two types of biasing of a diode?
(1) Forward biasing (2) reverse biasing

(9) Explain forward biasing of a diode.

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When p side of a diode is connected to positive and n side to negative of a cell, then
biasing is called forward biasing.

Note:
Threshold voltage depends on the crystal. For Ge it is about 0.2V and for Si it is about
0.7V.
(10) Explain reverse biasing of a diode.

(11) Define rectification and rectifier

The process by which alternating current is converted into direct current is called
rectification and the device which converts ac into dc is called a rectifier

(12) Explain the working of a full wave rectifier.

An alternating current is supplied to the primary turns of the transformer whose
secondary is centre tapped. The secondary is connected to two diodes D1 and D2 and a load

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resistor RL is connected as shown in figure. During the positive half cycle, A becomes positive
with respect to C and B becomes negative with respect to C. So diode D 1 conducts since it is
forward biased and D2 do not conduct since it is reverse biased. Hence a current flows through
the closed circuit AD1DEFGHICA or an output is obtained. During negative half cycle, A
becomes negative with respect to C and B becomes positive with respect to C. so diode D 2
conducts since it is forward biased and D 1 do not conduct since it is reverse biased. Hence a
current flows through the circuit BD2JEFGHICB and an output is obtained.
This process repeats and a full wave rectification is obtained as shown in the figure (2).
Note:-
(i) The output frequency is same as the input frequency in a half wave rectifier and double
in a full wave rectifier.
(ii)Usually a small amount of ac called ripple will be present in the output of a rectifier. It can
be eliminated using filter circuits.
(13) What is a Zener diode?
A diode which is specially designed to work in the reverse breakdown region is called a zener
diode.Symbolic representation:-

(14) Explain Zener diode as a voltage regulator

Principle :- In the reverse break down region, the voltage across the diode remains constant
irrespective of the current flowing through it.
Construction and working

When the input voltage is increased beyond a certain limit, the voltage across the zener
diode remains constant which is equal to zener break down voltage. But the current through
the zener diode increases sharply after breakdown voltage. Due to this, the increased
voltage appears across the dropping resistor `R’. since RL is connected parallel to the zener
diode, the voltage across RL remains the same as that of the zener breakdown voltage.
Hence the output voltage remains constant.

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(15) Explain logic gates

GATE CIRCUIT SYMBOL TRUTH TABLE REMARKS

NOT GATE Fundamental gate

OR GATE Fundamental gate

AND GATE Fundamental gate

NAND GATE Universal gate

NOR GATE Universal gate

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