ELECTRIC CHARGES CHAPTERR

AND FiELDS
GLIMPSES
Electrostatics is the sthudy of electric
Only electric field is associated charges at rest.
with stationary
charges.
Electric charge (Scalar: SI Unit
C) Electric field (Vector: SI
Intrinsic property of elementary unit NC)
provides electric force between
particles which Electrostatic force
acting per unit test charge
Electric flux (Vector:SIunit Nmc
objects. Total number of electric lines of force
Basic properties of charges passing
E Force F normally through a given area. If 0 is the angle
1. Addivity:9=+92 Charge between E and normal to area element AS, then
2 Quantisation: 9 =ne, n= 0, t 1, t 2,.. Electric field of a point charge
3. Conservation: Total charge of an isolated At distance r from
charge q,
system remains constant. Gaussian surface
E
4.Like charges repel and unlike 4r (pherically symmetric) Any hypothetical surface enclosing a charge.
charges attract.
5.Speed has no effect on the charge of a body. Gauss's theorem
Basic quantum of
Superposition principle for electric fields Total electric flux
charge Electric field due to group of point eharges is the equal to 1/ E timesthrough
a closed surface S is
It is the charge vector of the electric fields
on an electron or
proton. sum the charge q enclosed by the
each produced by
c= 1.602182 x 10-1° c charge individually at the
given point. surface S.

Coulomb's law E =E+E2t E

The force of E.aS-
attraction or
repulsion between two
stationary point charges separated by distancer
in free space is -) 4TE i=1 |P-F Electric field of
At a
perpendicular
a line charge
distance r from a long
F= 492 Electric dipole straight wire of a linear charge density A,
47TE A pair of equal and opposite charges +g and -q E Ec
E permittivity of free space separated by some distance 2a 2Te
8.854 x10-2 C?N-'m?, Electric dipole moment Electric field of an infinite
plane sheet of charge
Permittivity P= Exther charge x a vector drawnfrom-4 to +9 E- surface charge density.
Property of a medium which determines the
qx2
electric force between charges Situated in tnat For d >0,the field is directed away from the sheet
medium. Direction of dipole moment is from -9 to +9 For o<0, the feld is directed towards the sheet
SI unit of dipole moment Cm
Relative permittivity Electric field of two positively charged plates
Ratio of the force between two charges placed in Electric field at an axial point of a dipole
For o, >2 >0,
free space to the force between the same two At distance r>>a,

charges placed the same distance apart in a E-t(+ ) Outside the plates]
medium ia
Direction along P)
vac Inside the plates]
o med Electric field at an equatorial point of a dipole
At distance r >>a,
Principle of superposition of forces Electric field of two equally and oppositely
The net force on a given charge is the vector of - (Direction antiparallel ) charged parallel plates
the forces exerted it due to all other E = 0
on charges. [Outside the plates]
Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field
If e is the angle between and E,
E- [Lnside the plates]

F Total force on charge q due to

many point charges q' Electric field of a thin spherical shell
t pE sin 9 or T=PxE

4T0 i2 -P Electric lines of force

EE [Outside points, r >R]

Inside points, r< R]

A curve along which a small positive charge
- tends to move in àn electric field and the tan- [At the surface, r = R]
2q gent to which at point gives the direction of
4T0 all point |7-
charges
electric field at thae point.
Electric field of a uniformly charged solid sphere
Continuous charge distribution Properties of electric lines of force
E (Outside poits, r>R]
For 4 > we can ignore the quantum nature of Continuous curves without any breaks.
charge and assume that the charge is distributed 2. They start from +ve charges and end on
ina continuous manner. negative charges [Lnside points, r<R}
3.No two lines offorce can intersect each other.
4 ER
Volume charge density, p= av Cm
4. They do not form closed loops. E= At thesurface,r =R]
Surface charge density, g Cm 5. Normal to the surface of a conductor.
6. Their relative closeness
Linear charge density, =Cm
measures
strength of where q= nR° p
electric field. (1)
 CHAPTER

ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

GLIMPSES
Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
2
Electric
potential (Scalar : SI unit vol Conductors Capacitor
tof work done in bringinga unit positive
Amount o f w The substances which allow large scale physical An arrangement of two conductors separated
an insulating medium that
is used to store
infinity to
thegiven point, V= movement of electric charges through them by
charge from under an external electric field. They contain a electric charge and electric energy

Potential difference large number of free electrons. Capacitance of a capacitor

be supplied to either
nount
A m o u
of work done in a unit
from one point to another
bringing Electrostatic properties of a conductor The charge required to

conductor of a capacitor to increase the p.d.

nositive dharge 1. Net electrostatic field is zero in the interior of
amount.
conductor. between the two conductors by unit
volt
of P.D. is
Unit
pD.between two points is 1 volt if 1ofJ of1 work is
C fromn
2
Justoutside the conductor Eis normal to the c
done in moving
a
posiave charge Surface.
SI unit of capacitance is farad
pointto the other.
1 V=1JC"=1 Nm C-1 conductor is
one
.Thenet charge in the interior ofresides
a
its The capacitance of a capacitor is 1 F if 1 C of
Electric potential due to a point charge
Zero and any excess charge on
charge is transferred from its
one plate to
surface of 1 V between the
distancerfrom a charge q, V=-1 another on applying p.d.
a
Ata 4 Potential is constant within and on the
4TE r two plates.
surface of a conductor.
Spherically symmetric) 5. At the surface of a charged conductor, E « a. 1F-IpF-10 F
Electric potential due to a dipole
6. Electric field is zero in the cavity of a hollow
pcos Parallel plate capacitor
conductor. If A is the area of each plate and d is the plate
Electrostatic shielding then
fromparaion,
The phenomenon of making a region free
Vaia4 (=0°or 180°) electric field by surrounding it
conducting sheet.
with a
c
equ0 (0 90°) Capacitors in series
Electric potential due to group of point charges Capacitance of a conductor
to increase the
The amount of charge required
unit amount.
potential of a conductor by
Capacitors in parallel
Relation between electric field and potential C
E--ve of potential gradient= - dV/ dr
G+2+Cg*
of spherical conductor
Capacitance a
Energy stored in a capacitor
Equipotential surfaces
C 4Te R, R=radius of the conductor.
Any surface that has same electric potential at Common potential of charged conductors u-jcv--ov
every pointon it. Their properties are in contact
LNo work is done in moving a test charge over placed Energy density
an equipotential surface. 2. E acts always Total charge Energy stored per unit volume in the region
of

normal to the equipotential surface at every

Total capacitance C + C2 +Ct electricfield.

point. 3. Equipotential surfaces are close

togetheri the regions of strong field. 4. No two S+G+Gt
equipotential surfaces can intersect each other. G+C+C* Dielectric constant
Loss of energy on sharing charges by two conductors
Electric potential energy
K
Capacitance with dielectric between the plates
Capacitance with vacuum between the plates
Amount of work done in assembling the point
charges at their locations by bringing them in, AU v-V, C
from infinity. Co
P.E. of charge = Charge x Potential at the Dielectrics
given point A substance which does not allow the flow of Also KE
PE. of two point charges charges through them to exert
it but permits E-Ep
electrostatic forces on one another. Polar
Capacitance ot a capacitor with a dielectric slab
dielectrics are made of polar molecules.
Non-polar dielectrics are made of non-polar
C A (For td)
P.E. of three point charges molecules.
Polarisation of a dielectric
U 4t EL
, 2
1h,5h| If the region between the capacitor plates is c C (For t d)
filled with a dielectric, the electric field due to
PE. of a dipole in uniform electric field
the charged plates induces a net dipole moment
fis apacitance ot a capacitor with a
the angle between p and E, then in the dielectric. This effect is called polarisation
slab
conlucting
which induces a field in the opposite direction.
U-pEcos0=- p.E. The electric field inside the dielectric decreases.
When 9-0, u-pE (Stable equilibrium) The p.d. between the plates also decreases. c -
When 990, U=0 Hence the capacitance C increases.
When 180,u = +
pE (Unstable equilibrium)
(67)
 CHAPTER
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
GLIMPSES
Current
electricity is the
magnetic
study
fields
of electric
are
charges in
associated with moving charges.
motion. Both electric and
3
Electric current (Scalar : SI unit A)

nount of charge flowing across

Temperature coefficient of resistance Two cells connected in series
Amou a
given area The change in resistance
per unit time. per unit original
resistance per degree rise in
temperature. E+E, and
Tah*h
For steady flow of charge, I= Two cells connected in parallel
a c1 K
flow ofcharge, I=42
R-4) or
Eh and 'a
For variable dt For -C=C,
SI unit of current= 1 A =1Cs
a or R,-R,0 and

Ohm's law
Joule'slaw of heating
Current through a conductor is proportional to rect of temperature on resistance

thep.d. across its ends, provided temperature is +ve for metals, -ve for insulators and H-Vit joule=1Rt joule = joule
remains constant.
semiconductors and very small for alloys like
V ocl or V= RI constantan and manganin. Electric power

Resistance Mobility of a charge carrier P- V=1?R =

R
Drift velocity
The property by virue ot which a conductor acquired by a charge carrier per
SI unit of power = 1W =1Js" =l VA
opposes the fow of charges through it. unit electric field.
Power consumed by a series combination of
resistances

SI unit of =mvs
SI unit of resistance = 1Q=1VA1
Relation between electric current and
Resistivity or specific resistance
mobility
For a conductor, I= en Au E Power consumed by a parallel combination
The resistance offered by a unit cube of the For of resistances
material of a conductor.
a
semiconductor, I=eAE (np,+ PH)
and G=e(n,+ P' P=R+P+ Pgt
n= free electron
density and h
density. hole Kirchhoff's laws
p- 2m =

First law or junction rule. In an electric circuit,

Ohmic conductors
Current density the algebraic sum of currents at any junction is
The conductors which obey Ohm's law. Their V-I
zero.
Amount of charge flowing per unit area normal graph 1s a straight line passirng througn
to the direction of flow of charge. It is a vector in orgin.
eg, a metallic conductor for small currents. l=0 or Incoming current= Outgoing current
the direction of motion of +ve charge. Second law or loop rule. Around any current
Non-ohmic conductors loop of network, the sum of changes in potential
A conductor which does not obey Ohm's law. is zero.
Ohm's law fails if () V depends on I
non EAV=0 or 28=2R
Conductance linearly (i) V depends on sign of V for sameiv Potentiometer
and (ii) V-I relationship is non-unique.
Conductance Resistance Dr
R Resistances in Series
A device used to compare emís of two cells. It
works on the principle that V « l or V = kl,
SI unit of G= ohm = mho = siemen (S) when a constant current flows through a wire of
R =R+ Rz Rg + +..
uniform cross-sectional area and
Conductivity or specific conductance Resistances in parallel composition.
1 1 ) To compare emfs of two cells:
Conductivity =-Resistivity or g

SI unit of (i) Internal resistance ofa cell :

o=ohm m=Sm Internal resistance of a cell
Drift velocity and relaxation time The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell
tthe freevelocity is the
average velocity acquired by
electrons of a conductor inthe opposite
to the flow of current between its electrodes. It
depends on nature and concentration of the Wheatstone bridge
ecaon of external electric field. Relaxationelectrolyte and on separation and common areaAn arrangement of four resistances used to
ame is the average time that elapses between of electrodes dipped in the electrolyte determine quickly and accurately one resistance
the two successive in terms of other three resistances. When the
collisions of an electron.
Relations between emf &, terminal p.d. V and bridge is balanced,
eE internal resistance r
R
(when R = 0)

I=en Av j=emv Metre bridge or slide wire bridge

An application of Wheatstone bridge used to
Vector forms of Ohm's law V=E-r, V = IR =
R+T measure an unknown resistance. f the balance
point is obtained at length l, then

(151)
 GHAPTER
Magnetic Effecls of Current
GLIMPSES 4
effects of current
F acts
Magnetic
MDobserved that a magnetic field is perpendicular to both o and B. No work Stretch the thumb and the fist twofingers otthe
other.
is done on the charge by this force. lefthand mutually perpendicular to each
0eed by a current-carrying conductor. E the forefinger points in the direction of the
When | | B, 0=0°, F =0 =a maximum.
produce

of
Biot-Savart law magnetic field, central finger in the direction
then the thumb gives the direction of
BO etic field due to a
current-carrying When v LB,0=90°, Current,
he
m a g n e t
F= qvB =a minimum. the force on the charged particle.
d at the observation point, whose
element Lorentz force Force between two parallel long current-
vector is r, is
position Total force on a charge q moving with velocity 7
Force perunit length between two long
paralle
in field E and field B is F q(E+ 7xB) conductors carrying currents I and I2 and
47 separated by distance r,
14/sine
SI unit of magnetic field is tesla
dB = 0 The magnetic field in which a charge of 1 C
Magnitude,
4T LT

permeability of free space moving with a speed of Ims perpendicular to For currents in direction, F is attractive.
same
Fo the field experiences a force of 1 N.
4t x10 Tm A For currents in opposite directions, F is repulsive.
1 tesla (T)= 1NA m,1 gauss (G) = 10T.
anetic field of a circular current lo0op SI unit of current is ampere
Motion of a charge in a uniform magnetic held
a drcular loop of N turns, radius a and One ampere is that current which, when flowing
or
carrying current 1, 0 When initial velocity ||B, F=0 and the in two parallel infinitely long conductors of
B="% charge follows a straight path. negligible cross-section placed in vacuum at a
the centre ofthe loop, distance of 1 m from each other, duces
At
from the centre
(i When initial velocity LB, F=qvß =a between them a force of
2x 10 N
per metre
axial point at distance 7
mAt an maximum force. F acts perpendicular to v and B length
of the loop, and provides centripetal force to make the Torque on a
H Nla2 particle move in a circle normal to B. current-carrying coil in a
magnetic field
B2+ i )When v' makes angle 6 with B, the perpen- A rectangular coil of area A, number of turms N,
Ampere's circuit law
dicular component v sin 8 makes the charge carrying current I in a field B experiences a
Line integral of B around any closed path move along a circular path of radius r and
the torque about a
perpendicular axis,
=H xtotal current I threading the loop Paralle component v sin moves it along B. t = NIBAsin6 =mBsin 8 or 7=mxB
The net effect is a helical motion of pitchh
angle between normal to the plane of
mosin 6 21umvcos
qB qB coil and feld B
Magnetic field of a straight current-carrying
m = NIA = magnetic dipole moment
conductor Cyclotron
When 6= ma NBA
Ataperpendicular distance r from a long straight In
a perpendicular magneticfield, charged
particle executes uniform circular motion
a
90
Moving coil galvanometer
conductor carrying current1, B=Fo normal to B with a frequency,
2tr A device used to detect current in a circuit. It
Field lines are concentric circles with the 5 works on the principle that a current-carrying
conductor at the centre and perpendicular to the 2Ttm coil placed in a magnetic field experiences a
Conductor.
This frequency, called cyclotron frequency, is Current dependent torque, which produces
independent of both v and r. This fact is used in angular defilection. In a radial field B, plane of
Magnetic field of a long straight solenoid a cyclotron to accelerate charged particles by
Forasolenoid of length l and having n turns per alternating electric field of frequency coil | B. In equilibrium position,
tlength, Restoring torque = Deflecting torque
(9 Wellinside the solenoid, B =Hnl
Maximum K.E. gained by positive ions
1 mv ka NIBA a al
(i At either end of the solenoid, B -

nl qB 0
Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter
Magnetic field of a toroidal solenoid Knam 4'B A galvanometer can be converted into an
Asolenoid bent into the 2m ammeter by connecting a shunt, a small
form of a closed ring is
atoroidal solenoid. Inside field is uniform in the Force on a current-carrying conductor in a resistance Sin parallel with it.
torm of concentric
circles. magnetic field
For a conductor of lengthI carrying current I
B-Mnl-oN
27tr held in a field B at an angle 0 with it, An ammeter is connected in series in a circuit.
NIS the total number of turns and r is the Conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter
average radius of the toroid. F lBsin
A galvanometer can be converted into a
Ona charge moving in a magnetic field In vector form, F = I(! xB) voltmeter by connecting a large resistance R in
Ne
magnetic Lorentz forae on a charge q series with it.
moving max8, when 0= 90°
withvelocity at an angle 6with field B, rule R--6
F= qvBsin Fleming's left hand
It gives direction of foroe ona current-carying A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the
h vector form, F q{v = x B) conductor in a perpendicular magnetic field. conductor across which p.d. is to be measured. (245)
 CHAPTER
Magnetism
GLIMPSES
Magnets and magnetism Current loop as a magnetic dipole H n,
B ="g nl =uoH
A piece of material that has both attractive and A planar current loop of A and
carrying
area
directive properties. Its property of attracting current I acts as a
magnetic dipole of dipole H- Am' (H)-['al
small pieces of iron, nickel, cobalt, etc., is called moment, m= IA or m =
IA o
magnetism. Magnetisation or intensity of magnetisation
The direction of m is given by right hand thumb
Basic properties of magnets
Magnetic moment developed per unit volume
Magnets tend to point in north-south direction. rule when a material is placed in a
magnetising field.
Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron
Magnetic poles always exist in pairs
M-Am or NmT-1
An electron
revolving around the central
Magnetic poles
nucleus has orbital magnetic moment, Magnetic induction
The regions of apparently concentrated eh Total number of magnetic lines of force
crossing
magnetic strength in a magnet where the
magnetic attraction is maximum.
22-n per unit area through a magnetic material.
where is the B=Po(H+ M) tesla
angular momentum of the
Coulomb's law of magnetic force electron in nth orbit.
Magnetic permeability
The force of attraction of repulsion between two Bohr magneton Ratio of magnetic induction to the magnetising
magnetic poles is directly proportional to the The magnetic moment associated with the field intensity
product of their pole strengths and inversely orbital motion of an electron in first orbit of
proportional to the square of the distance hydrogen atom. TmA
H
or Wbm'A
between them.
eh Relative permeability
H (1min4Tum,
Gauss's law in ,
Permeability of material
Ho 4TX10 TmA-1 magnetism Permeability of frees pace Ho
The net
permeability offree space magnetic flux through any closed Magnetic susceptibility
surface is zero.
Magnetic dipole Magnetisation induced
An arrangement of two equal and opposite
B.ds S
=0. mMagnetising field intensity M
H
dipoles separated by a small distance.

Magnetic dipole moment

This law implies that isolated
not exist.
magnetic poles do 1+m),u, =1+z
Classification of magnetic materials
m=Pole strength x Magnetic length 9m =
x2 Earth's magnetic field () Diamagnetic substances. Feebly repelled by
SI unit of m= Am or
JT-l Earth behaves as a
huge magnet. Its held magnets and develop feeble M in the opposite
Magnetic field of a bar magnet resemble to that of a direction of Ba- X is small and negative (B1, Cu,
(hypothetical) magnenc Pb, H,0, NaCIl).
Atadistancer >>l from the centre of the magnet, dipole of magnetic moment 8.0 10 x
Am
located at the centre of the (i) Paramagnetic substances. Feebly attracted
earth by magnets and develop feeble M in the
Elements of earth's magnetic field
4T direction of Bo. Xis small and positive (AL, Na,
Three parameters which are used to completely Ca,
describe earth's magnetic field at a given
CuCl2).
B place (i) Ferromagnetic substances. Strongly attracted
equatorial 4T These are : () Magnetic declination (a). The
by magnets and strongly magnetised in the
Torque on a magnet in a uniform magnetic field anglebetween the geographic meridian and the direction of
BoH, is very large (10 to 10,000).
magnetic meridian at the g place. Angle Strong magnetic regions called domains are
fis the angle between m and B, then of dip (8). The angle made by the earth's total
present (Fe, Ni, Co, Gd).
magnetic field with the horizontal direction. Curie's Law
tmBsin (ii) Horizontal component of earth's magnetic
Invector form, 7= mx B field. It is the component of the earth's total m (paramagnetic) « or
xm
magnetic field B in the horizontal direction.
This
torque tends to align the dipole parallel to B Bcos8
Curie Temperature (T)
feld B. The
At equator, B = Bcos0°=B temperature above which a ferromagnetic
If9 90, tmaxmD substance becomes paramagnetic.
At poles, B Bcos90=0
=

C
PE. of a
magnetic dipole in a magnetic field Relation between the elements of earth's
magnetic field
X(ferromagnetic)- Te)
PE. is taken zero when m LB. Then P.E. of the BBcos8, B, = Bsin8
Hysteresis
dipole in any orientation is Thephenomenon of lagging of B behind H in a
ferromagnetic material. Area of B- H loop
U=- mB cos 6 - . B y=tan , B=+B gives energy wasted in a sample in one cycle of
parallel to B is the position of stable
Magnetising field
magnetisation. Retentivity is magnetic inductian
left in thesample after the magnetising field is
equilibrium. The field that exists in vacuum and induces removed. Coercivity is the reverse
0, U -mB =a minimum magnetism. In a solenoid, B, =Hol tesla. field required to make the residual
magnetising
magnetism
)When-90, U=0 Magnetising field intensity or magnetic intensity of sample equal to zero.
a

rmanent magnets
parallel to B is the The number of ampere-turns (nl) flowing round
L position of un-

e ength of the solenoid required to ubstances which at room temperature retain

equilibrium. G= 180, U=+ mB= a max. produce a given magnetising field. their ferromagnetism for a long duration. (327)
 Electromagnetic Induction CIAPR

GLIMPSES
Magnetic flux Fleming's right hand rule
The number of
magnetic ines of fore panning ThiN rule gives direction of induced emf. f w Self-inductance or coefficient felf
normally through a given area. If the normal to stretch the thumb and the first
the surface area two
A makes angle 0 with field B, rlght hand mutually perpendicular fingers of Inductance is the ratio of
then -BA cos B. A other if the
forefinger to each flux-linkage to current,
magnetic and
field pointa in the direction of L/I
It is a
scalar quantity. Its dimensions central finger in the
OuOn the conductor, then thedirection
are
IML'AT finger points in the central
Sl unit of in the conductor. direction of current induced el-iductance of a coil is the
magnetic flux is weber (Wb) up in itwhen the current
induced emf set
The flux produced when a passing through it
field of 1 T passes Relation between changes at the unit rate.
normaly through an area of 1 m*. induced charge
change in magnetic flux and
CGS unit of magnetic flux = maxwell. Self-inductance of a
long solenoid
I weber 10" maxwell Aq ApR Net
change in magnetic flux For
long solenoid of length l,
a
area of
Resistance cross-section A and having N turns,
Electromagnetic induction
The production of Methods of
As BAcosgenerating
induced current) dueinduced
emt induced emf
(and hence
to a change magnetie
or 0, ¢ can be =MoLA, n=
dux linked with a closed circuit. and
can be induced by three methods changed hence emf
For a solenoid wound
changing B, (fi) by () by over a soft
iron core of
Faraday's laws of
electromagnetic induction 00p and (un)
changing the area A of he relative
permeability , , L =p,H, IA
First law. Whenever the magnetic flux linked ne
by changing relative orientation 0 Factors on which L
with a closed circuit 00p and the magnetic field. depends
set up in it which
changes, an
lasts oniy induced emt
is
Induced emf in Self-inductance of a coil depends on () its
change in flux is taking place. 1Ong SO as tne
If an N rotating coil
a
number of turns, (i) area of cross-section A,
turn coil of area A (i) relative
Second law. The magnitude of induced emt is angular velocity o in a magnetic fieldrotated with permeability of core
is material.
B about an
equal to the rate of axis Mutual
change of magnetic flux acrossperpendicular to B, then motional emf The induction
linked with the closed circuit. the ends of the coil is production of induced emí in
one coil
E-d E= NBA o to due
change of flux through the neighbouring coil.
at
sin ot =
E sin ot =

E, sin 2n ft
where& NBA o = peak value of E. Mutual-inductance or coefficient of mutual
Lenz's law induction
The direction and magnitude
The direction of induced current
is such that it of E change sinu. Flux linked with
secondary coil Current in
opposes the change in flux which produces it. soidally with time. Such an emf is called Prnary coll
«

alternating emf.
Mathematical form of the laws of electro-
A.C.
ocI or = MI
magnetic induction generator
Combining Lenz's law with Faraday's flux rule
A device which
converts mechanical energY
E- -
M
1 » E- M
dt
-

into electrical dt
energy of alternating form. Here a Mutual-inductance of two coils is the
coil of N turns and area A
E-- do -
velocity o about an axis
rotates with angular emf set up in one
induced
coil when the current in the
t
field B of perpendicular to the neighbouring coil changes at the unit rate.
For a coil of N turns, E--N permanent magnet.
a

N
Flux- NBAcos at linked Mutual-inductance of two long solenoids
-

The negative sign shows that induced

with the coil changes. For two long co-axial solenoids wound over one
emfnduced emf, &=
NBA »sin ot E, sinot =
another,
opposes the hange in flux.
NBAsin ot M-oN, N, A
Current, I=-
Motional emf R Sin ot
The emf induced across
the ends of a conductor , number ot turns per unit length of
due to its motion
in a Eddy currents
conductor of magnetic field. If a
The currents induced in solid metallic
the two solenoids,
length I moves with masses l= common length
perpendicular to both I and B, then velocity
v
when the magnetic flux
threading through them A=
changes. Eddy currents cause t =
cross-sectional area of the
Induced emf, E= Blv unnecessary inner solenoid.
heating and wastage of power. They can be
reduced by using laminated soft iron cores. Factors on which M depends
Induced current, Blv They are useful in M
I= R depends on (i) number of turns and the
() electric brakes, geometrical shape of two coils, (i) relative
rorce orientation of two coils, (iin) common
necessary to move the conductor, (i) speedometers,
(ii) induction furnaces, and
cross-sectional area, and (iv) relative orientation
FBP of the two coils.
R (iv) electromagnetic shielding
SI unit of inductance henry (H)
rOwer
dissipated as Joule heating loss, Self induction Inductance is one henry if an induced emf of 1 V
The production of induced emf in a coil when Is set when the current
PFu B22 a
up changes at thhe rate of
changing current passes through it. 1 As
R I henry (H) = 1 VsA ' = 1 Wb A

(383)
 CHAPTERR
ALTERNATING CURRENT
GLIMPSES

e capacitor. The current in the capacitor is

A l e r n a t i n g c u r r e n

ating s in magnitude continuously anead of Here cos is called power factor

wrue
Thecurrent

change: its
ar

direction periodically. Its voltage in phase by n /2 rad. ratio of true power (Pa) to the apparent power

instantaneous value is
md

,1/ oC Xc (m rma
of=', 2ryft
sin
I=l,
sin
Power factor, cos ZR? (0oL -
1/ oC
current amplitude of a.c.
peak value
or =

is t e value of a.c. Over a complete cycle

T h ea v e r a g
Xc 1/ oC 2.(1/oC) ) For a pure resistive circuit, o =
0,

s z e r o .
Capacitance reactance
D i r e c tc u r r e n t
Itis the effective
resistance or opposition offered Pa msmg R
hich
which lows
flows with constant by a capacitor to the flow of a.c.
The
current

the same IXed direction. through it (i) For a pure inductive circuit, = Pa =0.
mitude in
mean
value of a.c. oC 27fC* (ii) For a pure capacitive circuit, - P0.
or
Average
value ofd.c.which
sends the. same charge For
the same timeas is sent by given
he
circuit in Wattless current
its half time period.
arcuit n For dc, f=0, so Xc=o The current in an a.c. circuit is said to be wattless
c in the same
if the average power consumed in the circuit is
S0 a
0637 capacitor allows a.c. to flow through it
easily but blocks d.c. zero. It is the component ms Sin 9 o
value of a.c. current. n an inductive or
or rms
or virtual alternating
Effective
of d.c. which produces the s Impedance capacitive a.c. circuit, the phase difference
Thee value
iect in a given resistor as is produced n ttalopposition to the flow of current due between voltage and current 4= tr/2Power
ting when passed
for the same time. resistance R as well as rea factor cos ¢=0 and so the current is wattless.
by the given a.c. It is given by Z= VR2 + X2
or or , =0.7071 Energy stored in an inductor
tan o
R X
Alternating voltage
Orcos A
Thevoltage whose magnitude varies continuously
with time.
Energy stored in a capacitor
and direction reverses periodically The series LCR-circuit Impedance triangle
Instantaneous value, =E, sin ot,

Ea176,,
Applied voltage, =E sin ot
Instantaneous current
u--o
LC-oscillations
When a charged capacitor is allowed to
A.C. circuit containing resistor only
l=sin(ot-)=sin(ot-4) discharge through a non-resistive inductor,
= ® sin øt applied to
Analternating voltage,current I In ot in
sin the tne total effective resistance, called electrical oScillations of constant amplitude and
a resistor R'drives a =

the LCR-circuit. frequency are produced. These oscillations are

resistor. The current is in phase with the applied mpedance of called LC-oscillations.
votage,/R tan X*c R
and cos Z Frequency of free oscillations,
AC cireuit containing inductor only
leads the
8, sin ot applied toAL*c
Analemating voltage,L&=drives
current, LAc
Voltage current.

voltage lags behind the current.

fo227 LC
pure inductor a
Transformer
sin (ot1/2) in the inductor. The Resonance condition of the LCR-circuit
A device used to convert a.c. at high voltage into
unt
in phaseinbythe1 /2
lags behind the voltage
inductor
rad. EX, =X the impedance of LCR cirauit is
that at low voltage or vice versa. It works on the
Z=RX-X=R principle of mutual induction ie., when a
Peak value, o The impedance is minimum and hence current changing current is passed through one of the
oL X is maximum. The cireuit is purely resistive. two inductively coupled coils, an induced emf is
in same phase. This is
and current set up in other coil. It consists of an iron core
Voltage are
the resonance condition of LCR-circuit and is over which are wound a primary coil of N,
oL 2.aL turns and a secondary coil of N, turns. For an
satisfied at the resonant frequency,
Reactance ideal transformer,
E on-resistive opposition to the flow of a.c. it
may be inductive reactance(X,) or capacitive
Teactance (X Q-Factor
It gives a measure of the sharpness or curren kis called transformation or turns ratio.
Inductive reactance the resonance condition of the
peak in
ective resistance or opposition offered bi () For a step up transformer, k>1 or
N, >N,
nductor LCR-circuit.
to the flow of V,V, and 1,<l
a.c. through t. Resonant frequency ,
for X= ol =2fLQ Q-factor= Band width i)Forastep down transformer, k< 1 or N, <N,
X, «fa.c,
d.c, f=0, Power in an a.c.-circuit V,<V, and1,1
The average power in an a.c. circuit consumed Energy losses in a transformer
circuittcontainingX=.
so
.

cycle is given by ) Leakage of magnetic flux (i) Eddy currents

ating voltage, E=Ecapacitor
padtor
onily per
cos (iin) Copper loss (iv) Hysteresis loss.
Cdrives a sin ot
appu ed to a current, I In sin (@t +
= T 2)
Pa msrms COS 2
(437)
 CHAPTER

ELECTROMAGNETIc WAVES

GLIMPSES
travel
Mathematical representation of e.m. waves E.Mwaves carry energy as they electric and
Displacement current Their energy is shared equally by
e.m. wave offrequency v,
which comes into existence
For a plane the magnmetic fields.
The current
propagating along x-axis,
whenever the electric field and hence
the wavelength à and follows:
be represented as
electric flux changes with time. E and B fields may ; . i
d -E,E, stin(kr-t) E.M. waves transport momentum
U to a
If an e.m. wave transfers total energy
law
Modified Ampere's circuital surface in time t, then total linear momentum

field B over a E, E = 0
The line integral of the magnetic transferred to the surface is p=
times the sum of
closed path is equal to Ho
currents
B -Bk-B, sin(kr - of)k
conduction and displacement Intensity of an e.m. wave

threading the closed path. Power

I n t e n s i t yitu = Energy/time
Area Area

For an e.m. wave of average energy density u,

Electromagnetic wave
Propagation constant, k= I= uc

A wave radiated by an accelerated charge a Basic properties of e.m. waves

basic properties of e.m.
waves Also, I , E c=*, E
as coupled
propagates through space
which fields, oscillating
1. Produced by accelerated charges
electric and magnetic for their and I=-B
direction 2. Do not require any medium
perpendicular to each other and to the
of propagation of the wave. propagation.
3. Oscillations of E and B fields are perpen Electromagnetic spectrum
Principle of production of e.m. waves
The orderly distribution of the e.m.
waves in
An accelerated charge produces electric and dicular to each other as well as to their
direction of propagation. So they are accordance with their wavelength or frequency
magnetic fields,which vary both in space and
transverse in nature. into distinct groups having widely differing
time. The two oscillating fields act as sources of
each other and hence sustain each other. This 4. All e.m. waves travel in free space with the properties is called electromagnetic spectrum.
in the order
results in the propagation of an e.m. wave same speed, .The main parts of an e.m. spectrum
of increasing, wavelength from 10A or
through space. 13x10 ms 10-12 m to 10 m are y-rays, X-rays, ultraviolet
microwaves
Source of an.e.m. wave rays, visible light, infrared rays,
An electric charge oscillating, harmonically 5. Oscillations of E and Bfields are in same and radiowaves.

with frequency v, produces electromagnetic phase.

waves of same frequency v. An electric dipole is
a basic source of e.m. waves. 6. Amplitude ratio, c=-

Electromagnetic spectrum

Name Frequency Wavelength Production Main properties and uses

range (Hz) range
Radiowaves 10 to 10 0.1 m Rapid acceleration and deaccelera-(a)In radio and TV communication systems.
tions of electrons in
aerials. (6) In radioastronomy

Microwaves 10 to 102 O.1 m to Klystron valve or magnetron valve. () In radar systems

1 m
(6In microwave ovens

Infrared waves 0 1 mm to Vibration of atoms and molecules (4) In green houses to keep plants warms.
700 nm
(b) In remote controls of TV sets

Visible light 4x 10 to 700 nm to Electrons in atoms emit light when ( ) Provide information of the world around us.
10 400 nm they move from one energy level to à (b) To initiate certain chemical reactions.
lower energy level.
Ultraviolet light 106 to10 400 nm to Inner shell electrons in atoms moving (a)In LASIK eye surgery
nm from one energy level to à lower level. (6)In UV lamps to kill germs in water purifiers.
X-rays 10 to 10 1 nm to K-ray tubes or inner shell electrons. (a) In medical diagnosis.
10 nm
() In the study of crystal structure.
y-rays 10h8 to 102 10 nm Radioactive decay of the nucleus. (a) In radiotherapy to destroy cancer cells.
(6)In initiating nuclear reacthons. (503)
 GHAPTER
RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

GLIMPSES
Relation between refractive indices Power of a lens
Ray optics
The study of nature, production and propa-
gation of light. Ray optics deals with particle
Pmi1 dioptre (D) =iml
nature and wave optics deals with wave nature Lens combinations
Relation between real and apparent depths
of light. m= x x
Real depth m m, m, X,..
Laws of reflection of light Apparent depth For n thin lenses in contact,
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal at the point of incidence all lie in the H1 Apparent depth <Real depth o r P= P+ Pat* P
same plane. Critical angle
2. 2 of incidence = 2 of reflection or Zi= Zr. The angle of incidence in the denser medium for
Refraction through a prism
which the angle of refraction becomes 90° in the Angle of deviation is the angle between the
Spherical mirror rarer medium. Using i=i, and r = 90° in Snel's directions of incident and emergent rays.
A mirror whose reflecting surface forms a part la
aw Angle of prism+ Angle of deviation
of a hollow sphere. A narrow beam of light
Angle of incidence + Angle of emergence
parallel to the principal axis' either actually Sin or = A+8-i+ i' and A=r+ r'
converges to or appears to diverge from a point sin 90 H
F on the principal axis after reflection from the Relation between the refractive index and
lotal intermal reflection
mirror. This point is called principal focus of the angle ot minimum deviation
between the focus and the The phenomenon in which a ray of light
mirror. The distance called an angle of incidence greater than
n the position of minimum deviation, refracted
pole of the mirror is its focal length (f). travelling at
the critical angle from a denser to a rarer ray passes parallel to the base of the prism.
New Cartesian sign convention for spherical medium is totally reflected back into the denser i=i, r=r and 8=8
mirrors/lenses medium. A+m
1. Distances measured in the direction of Sin i Sin
incidentlight are positive; those measured in Totally reflecting prism Sin r
the opposite direction are negative. A 45°-90-45 prism is called a totally sin
2
from
measured the eriecting prism. rays through 90°
It can deviate
2. All distances are
or 180. In these prisms, light is totally reflected, Simple microscope
pole/optical centre of the mirror/lens.
reflecting properties are permanent and no Itis a convex lens ofshort focal length.
3. The heights measured upwards
and multiple images are formed. D
perpendicular to the principal axis are taken For image at near point, m =1+
positive and the heights measured downwards Optical fibre
are taken negative. A hair-thin long strand of quality glass or Fo
For image at far point, m=
quartz surrounded by a glass coating of slightly
Spherical mirror formula lower refractive index. It works on the principle
Object distance u, image distance v and focal of total internal reflection. It is used as a guided Compound microscope
medium for transmitting an optical signaB from Objective is a convex lens of very short focal length
length f are related as+= and of smal aperture. Eyepieceisa convex lens of
one place to another.
fis -ve for a concave mirror and +ve ror a Spherical lens slightly larger focal length and of larger aperture.
convex mirror. When the final image is formed at the near point
A piece of refracting medium bounded by two
Linear or transverse magnification surfaces, at least one of which is a curved m= 1
surface. A convex lens is thicker at the centre
mHeight
m= ofimage
Height of object
_U-_f_D
u f-u ind converges a parallel beam. A concave lens
J When the final image is formed at infinity
is thinner at the centre and diverges a parallel L D
If m is +ve, the image is virtual and erect.
If m is -ve, the image is real and inverted.
beam of light.
Refraction through a spherical surface
m
Refraction of light ) Refraction from rarer to denser medium Astronomical telescope
The phenomenon of bending of light from its Objective is a convex lens of large focal length
straight line path as it passes at an angle from one R 21 and large aperture. Eyepiece is a convex lens of
transparent medium to another. small focal length and small aperture.
11) Refraction from denser to rarer medium
Laws of refraction of light When the final image is formed at the near point
H1H2H1H2 (424)
First law. The incident ray, the refracted ray and vu R
the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the Lens maker's formula
same plane.
When the final image is formed at infinity
Second law. For a given pair of media,
sin i
4,
Sin
a constant. This law is also known as -L-f*
For the lens in air,
Snell's law of refraction. Reflecting telescope
Thin lens formula It uses a concave paraboloidal mirror of large
Refractive index of a medium
aperture to view the distant objects.
(0u-Speedoflightin vacuum C 111
Speed of light in medium v (At distance D)
Linear magnification produced by a lens
(i Waelength oflightin vacuum vo size of image -
Wavelength of light in medium med m= (At far point)
sizeofobjecth f+u (53
 GHAPTER

Wavefront
GLIMPSES
WAVE OPTICS

Ratio of intensity at maxima and minima in Resolving power

I0
The ability of an optical instrument to resolve or
locus of all such of the an interference pattern
The continuous particles separate the images of two nearby point objects
medium which arevibrating in same phase at
so that they can be distinctly seen. It is equal to
any instant. wavefronts are spherical from a
min (4-4a,) the reciprocal of the limit of resolution.
cylindrical from a narrow slit and
noint source, Resolving power of a microscope
distance from any source.
plane at large r amplitude ratio
of two waves The reciprocal of the smallest distance d
2
Ray wavefront
between two point objects at which they can be
drawn perpendicular to a
An arrow Width ratio of two slits, , 1 , just resolved by the microscope.
of propagation of a wave.
in the direction
normal to wavefronts. 1 24 sine
1. Rays are Coherent sources P =
taken by light to travel from one
Two sources of light which continuously emit
2. The time
front to another is the same along any ray. = halt the angle of cone of light from each
light waves of same frequency with a constant
point object
Huygens' principle phase difference between them. Hsin = Numerical aperture (N.A.).
1.Each point on a wavefront acts as a source ot Conditions for sustained interference
secondary disturbance. 1. The two sources should be monochromatic, Resolving power of a telescope
2. The secondary wavelets starting from these narrow and coherent. The reciprocal of the smallest angular
spread out in all directions with the separation between two distinct objects whose
points 2. The interfering waves must have same ampli-
images be just resolved by it.
speed of the can
wave.
tude and travel nearly alorng the same direction.
3. The forward envelope of these secondary RP. = D
3. For sufficient fringe width, D >>d.
wavelets gives new wavefront at any later time.
Diffraction of light
de 1.22
Interference of light waves
diameter of the telescope objective.
phenomenon of bending of light around the
he D
When light waves from two coherent sources
corners of small obstacles or apertures and ther Polarisation of a wave
travelling in the same direction superpose each
other, the intensity in the region of superposition spreadng
crEuent shadow.
nto tne Tegions orThe phenomenon of restricting the oscillations
geometrical of a wave to just one direction in the transverse
redistributed, becoming maximum at some
gets slit
Diffraction at single
pointsand minimum at others. This pheno- a
plane
menon is called interference of light. A plane wavefront incident on a rectangular slit Unpolarised light
of width a produces a diffraction pattern with a The electric field vector of the light wave
Constructive interference
central maximum. vibrates in all possible directions in the
Ifpath difference p= nà or phase difference
For nth minimum transverse plane, rapidly and randomly.
=2n7, the two superposing waves are in same
phase and add up to give maximum intensity. a sin 0, nia, n=1,2,3,. Plane polarised or linearly polarised light
Destructive interference For nth secondary maximum : The electric field vector vibrates just in one
direction perpendicular to the direction of wave
If p=(2-1)/ 2 or =(2n-1)7, the two a sin 0, -(2n+ 1)n=1,2,3,..
waves are out of phase, their propagation.
Superposing
and hence intensity is
amplitudesgetsubtracted
minimum.
Angular position of th sec. min, 0, =

a
Polariser
A device that plane polarises the unpolarised
DN
Young's double slit experiment Distance of nth min. from the centre, x, = n
a
light passed through it, e.g, a tourmaline
Two identical narrow slits S and S2 are placed crystal, nicol prism and a polaroid, etc.
symmetrically with respect to a narrow slit S Angular position of rth secondary maximum, Law of Malus
illuminated with monochromatic light. When a beam of plane polarised light is passed
Interference pattern is obtained on a screen - (2+1) through an analyser, the intensity of trans-
placed at large distance D from the two slits Distance of nth sec. max. from the centre, mitted light is proportional to cos* 6, where 0 is
DA the angle between the transmission directions of
Position of nth bright fringe, x, =" =(2+1)
2a polariser and analyser.
Position of nth dark fringe Width of central max. =2 x Width of sec. max. I=1, cos 0
2DA = maximum intensity of transmitted light.
x-(2-1) P 2
Fringe width = Separation between two either
Drewster angle (G,)
Angular spread of cerntral maximum on
successive bright or dark fringes side, The angle at which a beam of unpolarised light
faling on a transparent surface is reslected as
a completely plane polarised light.
Resultant amplitude and intensity of Fresnel's distance Brewster law
interfering waves The distance at which diffraction spread of a tan p
beam becomes equal to the size of the aperture.
a=yaf +a+ 24,42 cos Polaroids
I=4+l2 + 2/11, cos D Thin commercial sheets which use the property
If
amplitude of each wave is a, and intensity of selective absorption to produce an intense
13Ray optics is valid for a distance D<Dp -

then Limit of resolution

beam of plane polarised light. Polaroids are
used in sunglasses, camera filters, wind screens
I-2ka (1+cos 6)= 21, (1+ cos ) The smallest linear or angular separation and car head lights of motor cars to reduce glare
between two point objects at which they can be of light reflected from shiny surfaces.
=4 cos just resolved by an optical instrument. (643)
 CHAPTER
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

GLIMPSES
the
Wonk function Cut off or stopping potential Explanation of photoelectric emission
emission
on

needed by an electron to The minimum value of negative potential

basis of Einstein's photoelectric
e minimum energy
The m
applied to the anode of a photocell to make the 1. Clearly, above the threshold frequency
a metal surtace ( W% or
o,).
ome out from photoelectric current zero. It depends on Kmx v ie, the maximum K.E. of the emitted
Electron emission
( frequencymaterial.
of incident light, and (i) the nature
For a given frequency of
electrons depenids Iinearly
incident radiation.
on the frequency of
metal surface can be of emitter
plectrons from
a
The h supplying energy greater than W, incident light, it is independent of its intensity, 2. When v<vg Kmx becomes negative. The
emited heating (thermionic emision) or tis related to the maximum K.E. of the emited kinetic energybecomes negative which has no
field (field emission) or electrons as physical meaning. Hence there is no photo-
anlving strong electric electric emission below the threshold frequency
of suitable frequency
irradiatingit by light
(photoelectric emission).

3.It isobvious from the photo-electric equation

an accelerated electron that the maximum K.E. of photo-electrons does
K.E.gained by from rest through a p.d.
Threshold frequency
5 Pr The minimum value of the frequency of not depend on the intensity of incident light.
Anelectron accelerated
of V volts, incident radiation below which the
It is Dual nature of radiation
=eV photoelectric emission stops altogether. a

Gain in K.B. =mo has dual nature. It manifests itself as a

characteristic of the metal. Light
wave in diffraction, interference, polarisation,
Laws of photoelectric emission in
Electron volt
etc, while it shows particde nature
Kinetic energy gained by an electron when 1. For a given metal and a radiation of fixed photoelectric effect, Compton scattering ett
accelerated through a p.d. of V volts. frequency, the rate of emission of photo-
electrons is proportional to the intensity of Dual nature of matter
1eV=1.6 x 107J, 1MeV = 16 x 10j
incident radiation. According to de-Broglie hypothesis, material
Particde nature of light: The photons like
2. For every metal, there is a certain minimum particles in motion display wave
This was based on
According to Planck's quantum theory of frequency below which no photoelectrons are properties. hypothesis
radiation, an electromagnetic wave travels in emitted, howsoever high is the intensity of ) de-Broglie concept of nature loves symmetry,

incident radiation. This frequency is called and (i) matter can be converted into energy and
the form of discrete packets of energy called
quanta. One of quantum of light radiation is threshold frequency. vice versa. So moving particles like protons,

called a photon. 3. For the radiation of frequency higher than the neutrons, electrons, etc. are associated with
waves and their wavelength is given

radiationnresnold requency,
the maximum kinetic energy de-Broglie
Photon picture of electromagnetic
1. In its interaction with matter, radiation
ofthethefrequency
is directly
photoelectrons proportional
to
of incident radiation and is inde-
behaves as if it is made of particles, called pendent of the intensity of incident radiation. P mv

photons. 4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous

2. Each photon carries an energy (E = hv) and Davisson and Germer experiment
process. This electron diffraction experiment has
momentum p(=h/2), which depend on the
frequency of radiation and not on its intensity. Failure of wave theory to explain verified and confirmed the wave-nature of
3. Photons are electrically neutral not deflected photoelectric effect electrons.
by electric and magnetic fields. The picture of continuous absorption of energy
de Broglie wavelength of an electron
4. In a photon-electron collision, total energy from the radiation could not explain
The wavelength associated with an electron
and total momentum are conserved but the 1. the independent of Kmax on intensity,
number of photons may not be conserved. 2. the existence of threshold frequency and beamaccelerated througha potential ditference
5. The rest mass of a photon is zero.
Vo of V volts is given by
3. the instantaneous nature of photoelectric
6. The equivalent mass of a photon is given by emission. 1.227

v
Einstein's theory of photoelectric effect
2meVN
E mc =hv or
m=2
When a radiation of frequency vis incident on a
metal surface, it is absorbed in the form of
Photoelectric effect
Lhe phenomenon of emission of electrons from discrete photons each of energy hv.
a metal surface, when electromagnetic Photoelectric emission occurs because of single
collision ofa photon with a free electron.
radiations of sufficiently high frequency are

incident it. Metals ike Li, Na, K, Ce show

on The energy of the photon is used to
photoelectric effect with visible light while 1. free the electron from the metal surface. It is
metals like Zn, Cd, Mg respond to ultraviolet equal to the work function W, of the metal.
light. 2. provide kinetic energy to the emitted
electron.
Photoelectric Current
hv Kmax + Wo
he current constituted by photoelectrons. It
dlepends on () the intensity of incident light,
p.d. applied betwcen the two electrodes and
or max mmax= hv- W
(7) the nature of emitter material.
This is Einstein's photoelectric equation.
(711)
 GHAPTER
ATOMS

GLIMPSESS
12
model of an atom Bohr's theory of hydrogen atom (if) Paschen series. It lies in infrared region.
Thomson's An electron of charge - e revolves with speed v
atom consists of a
sphere of positively
An
charged in which negatively charged
matter in a circular orbit of radius r round the nucleus n= 3
of charge +e. For a circular orbit, n =4,5,6,.|
rons are uniformly embedded like plums in
his
model failed to explain mu k Ze (iv) Brackett series. It lies in far infrared region.
a pudding
scattering of a-particles
r
=4
Quantisation of angular momentum gives
Rutherford's
model of a n atom
7 5,6,7
mass of the atonm and its positive nh
() Pfund series. It lies in far infrared region.
Most of the L mvr =
and
are
concentrated in a tiny nucleus, 27t
charge revolved around it. This model The above two equations give radius of nth 5
the electrons of atoms and the 2 6,7,8
to explain the stability orbit,
failed characteristic line spectra of atoms D
of
emission
of different elements.
4 m kZ e

Failure of Bohr's model

It is applicable only to hydrogen like atoms and
closest aPproach of electron in nth orbit,
Distance of Speed fails in case of higher atoms. It fails to explain
of mass m and velocity v
even fine features of hydrogen spectrum.
a-particle
When an
towards a nucleus of atomic 21ke--a
moves directly nh
its distane of closest approach is
number Z, Excitation energy
8ven by 27T k
as the energy required by
fine structure constant. an
where a = It is defined
2k Ze 4k Ze ch electron of an atom to jump from its ground
T E mv Total energy of an electron in nth orbit, state to any one of its excited states.

E mv * _kZ kZ2
E, =K.E. +P.E.
=
where 2r Ionisation energy
2r
an electron from
The energy required to
remove

and k -9x10° Nm2 c2, 27 mk z2

an atom.
E,
13.6 2 Excitation potential
Impact parameter ZRhc which gives to a
distance of the n It is that accelerating potential
It is defined as the perpendicular electron sufficient energy to
excite
from the centre bombarding
vector of the a-particle of its electrons
velocity
of the nucdeus, when it is far away from the where R 2m mke 1.0973 x 10 m, the target atom by raising
one

orbit.

atom. The shape of the trajectory of the ch from an i n n e r to an outer

on the Rydberg's constant.

scattered a-particles depends inmpact is the
field.
nature of the potential lonisation potential
parameterband the atom
Rutherford deduced the following relationship
Spectral series of hydrogen It is that accelerating potential
which gives
to
from a higher ionis-
b and tne whenever an electron jumps sufficient energy to
between the impact parameter level n, the bombarding electron its electro
level n, to a lower energy one of
scattering angle : energy in the form ot a the target atom by knocking
difference of energy appears out of the atom.
completely
given by
cot photon of frequency .

b
4Tt E0

Bohr's atom model 1v_2tmk Z*e

model for hydrogenic (single
Bohr proposed a
following
which is based
on
atoms
electron)
postulates Wave number,
in
an electron revolves
In a hydrogen atom,
orbits)
certain stable orbits (called stationary
without the emission of radiant energy
the
those in which
atom
series for hydrogen
The stationary orbits
are
2.
is an
integral Different spectral
of a n electron ultraviolet region.
angular m o m e n t u m n is an It lies in
27 i.e., L nh/
2, where series.
multiple of h/ number.
=

()Lyman
of quantum
nteger called the principle radiation in
emit or
the
absorb
-2,3,4
An atom can an
. energy photons
when
in visible region.
discrete or
of
higher to a lower orbit Balmer
series. Itlies
electron jumps from a v (i)
The frequency
higher orbit.
a
lower to a
absorbed photon is givern
by -3,4,5
oFthe emitted or

hv=E2-E
 CHAPTER
NUCLEI

GLIMPSES
Nucleons
Mass defect dN
N
udeus of an atom consists of protons and The difference between the rest mass ofa
T h e ne

are collectively called nucleons.

ettrons. They ucleus and the sum of the rest masses of its The law may also be expressed as N -
Ng "
number, mass number and neutron constituent nucleons. 0and A 1s
where is the number of nuclei at t=
Atomic N
number
Am Zm, +(A-Z) m, -m decay constant
Z
Atomic number is
the number of protons in a Binding energy Decay constant
nucleus Mass number A1s theotal number of The energy required to break up a nucleus into The reciprocal of time interval in which the
protons and neutronsina nugie he umber its constituent protons and neutrons and to number of active nuclei in a radioactive sampie
neutrons or neutron number N is (A-Z).
Separate them to such a large distance that they reduces to 36.8%or 1/ etimes of its initial value.
Nuclide may not interact with each other. Or, the Half-life
Aspecific nucdeus of an atomX characterised by Surpus energy which the nucleons give up by The time interval in which one-half of the initial
virtue of their attractions when
atomic number Z and mass number
its they bound number of nuclei disintegrates.
together to form a nucleus.
denoted by 2X.
and isotones 0.693
Isotopes, isobars AE, =|Z m + (A- Z) m, - m] c
Nuclides with the same atomic number Z, but Binding energy per nucleon
n= number of half-lives in time t=
differe neutron number N are called isotopes. The average energy required to extract one
Nucides with the same mass number A are nucleon from the nucleus.
Ty2
isobars and nuclides with the same neutron Mean-life
B- B.E.m +(A-Z) m, m)c
-

number N are called isotones. AE or

A
The ratio of the combined age of all the
atoms to

Atomic mass unit the total number of atoms presernt in the given
In the mass number range, A= 30 to 170, the
It isth of the mass of one Catom. sample.
binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant,
12
1 amu = 1.660565 x10 kg = 931 MeV.
about8 MeV per nucleon. 12-14
0.693
Tu
Qvalue of a nuclear process
Electron volt Decay rate or activity of a sample
Q Final K.E. - Initial K.E.
The energy gained by an electrorn when It is the number of radioactive disintegrations
accelerated through a p.d. of 1 volt.
By conservation of mass energy,
taking place per second in a given sample.
Q= [sum of initial masses
leV 1.602 x 10-19 J, sum of final masses] ¢.
1MeV = 10° eV = 1.602 x 10-3 j. R= N =iN, e* or R=R,
Radioactivity
Relation between size of nucleus and mass The
Thephenomenon of spontaneous disintegration Units of radioactivity
number of a nucleus with the emission of one or more 1.1 bequerel 1 bq=1 decay per second
The volume of a nucleus is proportional ot its radiations like a-particles, P-particles or y-rays.
2.1 Ci (curie) = 3.70 x10 disintegrations/s
mass number A. So its radius is proportional to Sody-Fajan's displacement laws
the cube root of A. 3.1 rd (rutherford) 10° disintegrations/s
In a-decay, Z decreases by 2 and A decreases
R=R A3 Nuclear fission
by 4. Inß-decay, Z increases by 1 and A remains
For electrons as probe particles,
It is the process in which a heavy nucleus
same. In y-decay, both Z and A remain same.
(A>230) when excited gets split up into two
R 1.2 x 107 m=1.2 fm Alpha decay smaller nuclei of nearly comparable masses. For
Nuclear density It is the process of emission of an
a-particle example,
from a
The density of a nucleus is independent of the radioactive ucleus. U BaKr+ 3n-Q
size of the nucleus.
Nuclear mass
x2-Y+SHe+ Thermal neutrons
Pnu Nudear volumne
nu
Beta decay
These are the slow moving neutrons of energy
R3 It is the process of emission of an electron or a 0.0253 eV, corresponding to the velocities of
Nudear density is of the order of 10" kg m*. positron from a radioactive nucleus.
2200ms
Discovery of neutrons 2Xz+1Y+P"+ -decay) Moderator
In 1932, James Chadwick discovered neutrons Any substance which is used to slow down fast
2X Z-iY+ p" +v (B-decay)
by bombarding berylium nuclei with moving neutrons to thermal energies is called a
a-particles. Gamma decay moderator. The commonly used moderators are
It is the process of emission of a y-ray photon water, heavy water (D,0) and graphite.
He+Be C+ Nuclear fusion
with during the radioactive disintegration of a
Aree neutron decays spontaneously, a

half life of about 1000 s, as follows nucleus. This occurs when a nucleus in an It is the process of fusion of two smaller nuclei
excited state makes a transition to a state ot into a heavier nucleus with the liberation of
H + e+ large
lower energy amount of energy. For
example,
Nuclear forces 4x X Y
HH He +24 Mev.
he strong attractive forces which hold protons(Excited state) (Ground state)
and neutrons together in a These reactions require the extreme conditions
tiny nucleus. Nuclear Radioactive decay law of temperature and pressure so that the reacting
orces () are strongest attractive forces, (i) are
Short range forces, (ii) have charge independent ne number ot atoms of a radioacive sample nucel can overcome their electrostatic repulsion
disintegrating per second at any instant is directly For this reason, these reactions are called
character, and (iv) show saturation ettect.
proportional to the number of undecayed thermonuclear reactions.
FeFEy1:103%103 radioactive nuclei present at that instant.
(795)
 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS GHAPIER

GLIMPSES

Electronic devices
14
D
uice whose action is
Extrinsic semiconductors
based on the
Alled A semiconductor doped with Reverse biasing of
flow or junction pn
Contr duct
Semicond ctors are elecronstnrough
basic materials used
it. atoms so as to
increase its
suitable impurity
pside of the pn junction is
These terminal and -side to +ve connectea
types (r+type andconductivity.
in are of two
present solid state electror devices such the
ptype). terminao
baftery. Potential barrier, width
diode,,transistor, lICs,etc. THtype semiconductors of
depletion
layer and resistance across the junction al
Solids on basis of their
an the basis. If
resistivity values pentavalent impurity atoms of Bi, Sb or P are increase. Reverse bias current is small (LA) and
low resistivities (10 doped in tetravalent is due to drift of
minority charge carrie
have
ars have high resistivity -10° Nm), semiconductor. A Ge/Sipentavalent
crystal, we get type
(>10°2) and produces conduction impurity Dynamic resistance of diode a

niconductors have intermediate values

of levels lie
electrons whose energy AV
resistivity. just below C.B. These energy levels are
called donor levels. Here
electrons are majornity
Semiconductors charge carriers, n, >>nh Rectification
Their number density of charge carriers is much Ptype semiconductors The process of converting a.c.into de.
lower than that of metals. semiconductors f trivalent
may impurity atoms of B, Al or In are ier
be elemental (Si, Ge) and compound (GaAs,
doped in tetravalent Ge/Si crystal, we get ptype Ajunction diode conducts wnen
CdS, etc.). 1her temperature coefficient of semiconductors. A trivalent impurity produces and does not conduct when torwa
resistivity (a) is both negative and high.
noles whose energy levels lie just above V.B.
reverse olase
unidirectional characteristic of the diode
Energy bands in solids These energy levels called enables it to be used as a rectifier. A half-wave
are
acceptor levels.
FHere holes are majority charge carriers, n, >n,, rectifier uses only a single diode while a full
An enormously large number of energY levels In any wave rectifier uses two diodes.
closely spaced in a very small energy range semiconductor, n,",=
constitute an energy band. The allowed energy Holes Zener diode
bands areseparaiedby regions in which energy A vacaney for an electron in covalent bond. A junction diode specially designed to work
levels cannot exist. These forbidden regions are Holes act as +ve charge carriers in V.B. They only in the reverse breakdown region
called band gaps zener diode. The
or energy gaps. The highest move in the direction of electric field. Continuously is called a

energy band filled with valence electrons is voltage drop across it is practically independent
called valence band and the next empty Puncion of current through it. So it can be used as a

allowed band is called conduction band. A single crystal of Ge or Si doped in such voltage regulator.
manner that one half portion of it acts as p-type Photodiode
Fermi level semiconductor and other half as type It is a junction diode made from a
The highest energy level filled with electrons at semiconductor. When pn junction is made,
photosensitive semiconducting material in such
absolute zero is called fermi level. holes from pregion diffuse into +region and It is
a
way that ight can tall on its junction.
insulators and semiconductors on electrorns from region diffuse into pregion. inareverse bias condition. The photon
Vetals, This sets up a potential barrier V,which operated
excitation results in a change of reverse
band theory the further diffusion of electrons and
opposes saturation current which helps us to measure
Metals. The conduction band is partially filled holes through the junction. The small region in light intensity.
or valence and conduction bands partially the vicinity of the junction which is depleted of
Overlap, E, =0. They have high conductivity. free charge carriers and has only immobile ions Light emitting diode (LED)
Insulators. Conduction band is empty and is called depletion reglon. A forward biased p-n junction diode which
valence band is filled. Here E, >sev, no spontaneously converts the biasing electrical
Diffusion current visible radiation. It is
intrared or
electrical conduction is possible. egy nto
The that flows across the juntion of a
current made from a transulent semiconductor like
Semiconductors. E, is 0.2 eV to 3 eV. Electrons
emiconductors.
Eiecuros diode difference in the concentraion
diode due to the difference
concentraion
C.B. So GaAs or nP. LEDs have low operational
can be excited from V.B. to either side.
of electrons and holes on
voltage, Fast ON/OFF switching action, less
emiconductors have small conductivity even at
room temperature. Drift current power consumption and long life and
the diode due to rug8edness
Intrinsic semiconductors The current that flows through
electric field. Solar cell
electrical
ne pure semiconductors in which the
the electrons Forward biasing a pu junction It is a junction diode used to convert solar
conductivity is totally governed by is connected to +ve energy nto electrical energy.
It is based on
excited from the V.B. to C.B. due to thermal pside of the p-n junction -ve terminal of the etfect (generation of voltage due to
to the pnotovoltaic
exctation. Conductivity is due to electron-ho1e terminal and -side
bombardment of light photons). The materials
width of depletion
pairs. battery. Potential barrier,
across the junction all usea
tor solar cells are Si and GaAs.
Solar cells
layer and resistance polution tree, long lasting and maintenance
decrease. Forward
bias current is large (mA) are
ree.
Doping to diffusion of majority charge
and is due
ne process of deliberate addition of a desirao carriers.
to
impurity pure semiconductor as
to a so

ncrease its conductivity. The impurity atoms

added are called
dopants.
L Pentapalent dopants (donors). As, Sb andP.
2.Trivaler dopants (acceptors) In, BandAl (853)