1a

The general trend in first ionisation energy across a period is that:

● (First ionisation energy) shows a general increase; [1]

● (Across the period) there is a greater/increased nuclear charge
OR
There are more protons in the nucleus; [1]
● The electrons are added to the same shell
OR
The shielding is the same / shielding does not change
OR
No additional shells of electrons are added; [1]
● There is a stronger attraction between outer electrons and the nucleus; [1]

[Total: 4 marks]

● You do not need to explain the anomalies in this trend as the question is only asking for the
general trend, but be careful - sometimes they do ask this
● Be sure to state that you are talking about outer electrons
● First ionisation energy generally increases across a period
○ This is because each element will have an extra proton in its nucleus compared to
the previous, meaning an increased (and more effective) nuclear charge
○ The extra proton will attract the outer shell electrons more strongly, since the
electrons are added to the same shell
○ This makes it increasingly more difficult to remove the outer electrons and therefore
more energy is required
○ Hence, ionisation energy increases
1b
The element that deviates from the general trend is:

● Oxygen; [1]
● It has paired electrons in a (2)p orbital; [1]
● Which repel each other (making it slightly easier for one to be removed); [1]

[Total: 3 marks]

● This pattern is not just seen in period 2 of the periodic table; an identical trend is seen in
period 3 of the periodic table (although the period 3 elements have lower first ionisation
energies)
● Boron deviates from the trend because despite the additional proton:
○ Its outer electron is in a 2p orbital, rather than a 2s orbital, so is further away from the
nucleus
○ 2p orbitals have a slightly higher energy
○ There is additional shielding from the s electrons
● Oxygen deviates from the trend because despite the additional proton:
○ The outer electron of oxygen is its 4th p orbital electron, meaning that you are now
removing a paired electron
 2p4 electron ↑↓ ↑ ↑

● Having two electrons in an orbital causes repulsion

● The repulsion makes it easier for the electron to be removed
1c
Nitrogen is classed as a p block element because:

● Its outermost / highest energy electron is in a (2) p orbital

OR
Its electron which is furthest away from the nucleus is in a (2) p orbital
OR
Its valence electron is in a (2) p orbital; [1]
● 1s2 2s2 2p3; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● Whichever block an element has its outermost electron in, that is what ‘block element’ we
would describe it as, and that is why it is placed in that block of the periodic table
○ For example, nitrogen’s outermost electron is in a p orbital (2p3), so we say it is a p
block element and it is placed in the p block of the periodic table
● Another example - magnesium’s outermost electron is in an s orbital (3s2), so we would say
that it is an s block element, and it is placed in the s block of the periodic table
● The number 2 in the answer is not needed, but be careful: if you give any other number you
will lose the mark because you will be incorrect
● If the question says full electron configuration, make sure to start at 1s and not give the
shorthand version
○ E.g., the shorthand version for a nitrogen atom would be [He] 2s2 2p3
2a
a) The covalent bond between the carbon and hydrogen in the molecule shown and how it is
formed

● A sigma bond formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals; [1]

● S orbital from hydrogen and sp3 from carbon; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● The carbon hydrogen bond is a single bond resulting from the end to end overlap of an s
orbital and a sp3 orbital
● A sigma bond is when two atomic orbitals overlap along the bond axis(imagine a line
running between the two nuclei in the bond)
This can be overlap between s,p and hybrid orbitals
It is always the bond that forms in a single covalent bond
In a sigma bond the electron density is concentrated between the nuclei of the bonded
atoms
2b
b) The number of sigma and pi bonds in cis but-2-ene-1,4-dioc acid are:

● 11 sigma bonds; [1]

● 3 pi bonds; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● Single bonds are sigma bonds

There are 8 single bonds
● Double bonds consist of a sigma and a pi bond
○ There is one C=C bond
○ There are two C=O bonds
2c
c) The Lewis structures, shapes and bond angles for xenon tetrafluoride, XeF4

Lewis structure for XeF4:

● ; [1]
(Any combination of lines / dots / crosses can be used to represent electron pairs)
● XeF4 shape is square planar; [1]
● XeF4 bond angle is 90°; [1]

[Total: 3 marks]

● To figure out the Lewis structure of XeF4

The total number of valence electrons is = Xe + 4F = 8 + (4 x 7) = 36
The number of bonding pairs is 4, which accounts for 8 electrons
The remaining 28 electrons would be 14 lone pairs
Each fluorine would accommodate 3 lone pairs, accounting for 24 electrons, leaving two
lone pairs on the xenon
● XeF4 has an expanded octet with 6 electron domains
○ Two non-bonding pairs will maximise their distance apart by arranging those pairs at
180° to each other
○ This gives a square planar shape
● Be careful to avoid some of the common pitfalls with a question like this including
○ Forgetting lone pairs on the fluorine atoms
○ Only having four negative charge centres around the Xenon atom

3a
a) Lewis (electron dot) structures for C2F4 and N2F4:
 ● Correct structure for C2F4; [1]
● Correct structure for N2F4; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● Check that the number of electrons for each atom is correct after drawing your diagram
● Nitrogen should have three bonds when not charged
● Carbon should have four bonds when not charged
● Fluorine should have four bonds when not charged
3b
b) Predictions and explanations of bond angles:

F-C-F:

● Any angle between 118o and 122o; [1]

● Due to three electron domains around the carbon; [1]

F-N-F:

● Any angle between 104o and 108o; [1]

● Due to four electron domains around the nitrogen; [1]
● Extra repulsion from unbonded pairs/ lone pairs of electrons; [1]

[Total: 5 marks]

● Electron domains repel each other as far apart as possible

● Unbonded/ lone pairs of electrons reduce bond angle as they repel the bonding pairs more
3c
c) The differences between the molecular polarities are because:

● C-F bonds and N-F bonds are both polar; [1]

 ● C2F4 is a symmetrical molecule; [1]
● Bond polarity in C2F4 cancels out/ there is a symmetrical distribution of charge; [1]
● N2F4 is an unsymmetrical molecule/ has an unsymmetrical distribution of charge; [1]

[Total: 4 marks]

● All bonds to halogens are polar

● A molecule is only polar if it has polar bonds and an unsymmetrical distribution of charge
● Always refer back to the molecular geometry to answer these types of question
4a
a)

i) The first ionisation energy is defined as:

● Is the standard enthalpy change that occurs on the removal of 1 mole of electrons; [1]
● From 1 mole of gaseous atoms or positively charged ions; [1]

ii) The second ionisation energy for calcium is greater than the first ionisation energy because:

● Electrons lost in the same orbital / valence shell; [1]

● Second electron / electron being lost from Ca+ is harder to remove as it is held by a positive
charge; [1]
● Second electron / electron being lost from Ca+ is not subject to electron pair repulsion from
others in the same orbital / 4s orbital; [1]

[Total: 5 marks]

● Make sure you learn your definitions, you could be asked for them and you'll need to be
able to use them in energy cycles or to identify a part of an energy cycle
● Remember the electronic configuration of calcium is
○ Ca = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3d10 3p6 4s2
● Therefore, there are two electrons sharing the same 4s orbital in Ca so there will be
repulsion
● For the calcium 1+ ion, the outermost electron is alone in the 4s shell
○ Ca+ = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3d10 3p6 4s1
● So, not only is it experiencing attraction from a positively charged ion, it is also not subject
to any repulsion from a neighbouring electron

4b
b)

i) The enthalpy change for the conversion of Ca (s) → Ca2+ (g) + 2e-

Ca (s) → Ca2+ (g) + 2e-

● ΔHθat Ca + ΔHθIE1 Ca + ΔHθIE2 Ca = 178 + 590 + 1145 = (+)1913 (kJ mol-1); [1]
(ΔHθIE1 Ca from Data Booklet)

ii) The enthalpy change for the conversion of Cl2 (g) + 2e- → 2Cl- (g)

Cl2 (g) + 2e- → 2Cl- (g)

 ● ΔHθBE Cl2 + (2 x ΔHθEA Cl) = 242 + (2 x -349) = -456 (kJ mol-1); [1]
(ΔHθEA Cl from Data Booklet)

[Total: 2 marks]

● This question seems much more complicated initially than it is

● Quite often you are asked to calculate the value for one enthalpy change in the Born-Haber
cycle, usually ΔHθf, but make sure you practise how to calculate other enthalpy values by
manipulating the equation
● Here you only need to calculate a small part of the Born-Haber cycle by adding the up the
values
● For Ca (s) → Ca2+ (g) + 2e- we need the enthalpy values for:
○ Ca (s) → Ca (g) and then Ca (g) → Ca2+ (g) + 2e-
● For Cl2 (g) + 2e- → 2Cl- (g) we need the enthalpy values for:
○ Cl2 (g) → 2Cl (g) and then 2Cl (g) + 2e- → 2Cl- (g)
● Careful: It is a common mistake to forget to double or half enthalpy values when needed
○ For example in this cycle, there are 2 moles of Cl atoms required, therefore we must
double the value for ΔHθEA Cl
○ But do not get confused with 1st and 2nd values for ionisation energy and electron
affinity
○ These are required when you have a +2 or -2 ion in the compound e.g. CaO or MgO

4c
c) The enthalpy of formation for calcium chloride, ΔHθf CaCl2 , can be calculated by:

ΔHθf CaCl2 = (ΔHθat Ca + ΔHθIE1 Ca + ΔHθIE2 Ca) + (ΔHθBE Cl + [2 x ΔHθEA Cl] +

ΔHθlattice CaCl2
OR
ΔHθf CaCl2 = ans c) i) + ans c) ii) + ΔHθlat CaCl2
OR
ΔHθf CaCl2 = 1913 + (-456) + (-2271); [1]

● ΔHθf CaCl2 = (-)814 (kJ mol-1); [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● Remember: The value for ΔHθf CaCl2 will be the sum of all the values as shown by the
Born-Haber cycle
 ○ The arrow for ΔHθlattice CaCl2 goes down, therefore the value required should be

negative
● We can use the indirect route to calculate ΔHθf CaCl2
5a
a) The Hess’s Law cycle for the reaction is:

● Correct elements in standard states; [1]

● Balanced elements; [1]
● Correct arrows going up from elements to reactant and products; [1]
● Correct labels on both arrows; [1]

[Total: 4 marks]

● The trickier part of this question is the fact you need to balance the elements in their
standard state
● Therefore double check and make each element is balanced in all three places
5b
b) There are no values listed for Al (s) and Mg (s) because:

● They are elements; [1]

[Total: 1 mark]

● Remember: Standard enthalpy of formation is:

○ The enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements
under standard conditions
● The enthalpy of formation for an element in its elemental state will always be 0 because it
takes no energy to form an element
5c
c) To calculate the enthalpy change of reaction, ΔHr, for the reaction in part (a).

● ΔHr = 3 x ΔHf (MgO) - ΔHf (Al2O3); [1]

● ΔHr = (-601.7 x 3) - (-1675.7) = -129.4 (kJ mol-1); [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● You can use the Hess’s Law cycle to help you with the calculation, or you can use:
○ ΔHr = ∑ΔHf products - ∑ΔHf reactants
○ Use which ever way works best, but remember to take note of the stoichiometry of
the equation!
■ So here, use we need 3 x ΔHf (MgO)
6a
i) The term Brønsted–Lowry acid is defined as:

● Any species that can donate a proton / proton donor; [1]

ii) A difference between Brønsted–Lowry acids and the traditional theory of acids is:

● Brønsted–Lowry acids do not have to be in aqueous conditions; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● You must learn the definitions of Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases

● A Brønsted–Lowry base is a proton acceptor
● Brønsted–Lowry acids and bases theory an be applied to non-aqueous systems such as the
reaction between ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride:
○ NH3 (g) + HCl (g) ⇌ NH4Cl (s)
6b
The structure of the conjugate base of 2-hydroxyethanoic acid is:

● Correct drawing showing the carboxylate anion; [1]

[Total: 1 mark]

● You should know the structure of ethanoic acid and be able to work out how to draw
2-hydroxyethanoic acid, by adding an -OH group onto the second carbon atom
● The conjugate base must show one less proton, H+, than the acid
● This proton comes from the carboxylic acid, not from the -OH group
● The result is a carboxylate anion which has a negative charge either shown on the oxygen
or it can be shown in the centre if you have drawn the delocalized version of the ion
● Be careful to follow the instructions and show all the bonds not include condensed
structures like -OH
6c
The equation for the reaction between glycolic acid and limescale is:

● 2C2H4O3 (aq) + CaCO3 (s) ⭢ (C2H3O3)2Ca (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
OR
2HOCH2CO2H (aq) + CaCO3 (s) ⭢ (HOCH2CO2)2Ca (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l); [1]

One observation you would make:

● Fizzing/ bubbling/ gas given off AND carbon dioxide is produced;

OR
The limescale dissolves AND soluble products are formed; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● State symbols are not necessary the score the mark

● This is an acid-carbonate reaction so it will produce a salt, water, and carbon dioxide
● The previous part of the question shows you it is a monoprotic acid as it has one carboxyl
group, so it has one replaceable proton
● This enables you to deduce the formula of the calcium salt, which requires two of the anions
to balance the +2 charge on a calcium ion
● Any time a gas is given off you are going to see bubbles / effervescence
7a
a) An expression for the acid dissociation constant, Ka, of monochloroacetic acid is:

[Total: 1 mark]

Remember: Writing Ka and Kb expressions is a fundamental part of this topic, so take time to
practise writing them
7b
b) To calculate the pH of a 0.050 M solution of monochloric acid:
[Total: 3 marks]

● The larger the Ka value, the stronger the acid

● If we compare this to the Ka value for ethanoic acid, 1.77 x 10-5 we can see that
monochloric acid is a stronger acid due to the higher Ka value

7c
c) To calculate the value of [OH-] for the solution of monochloric acid:

[Total: 2 marks]

● You should be able to use and manipulate the ionic product of water constant:
○ Kw = [H+][OH-]

8a
a) To calculate the value for Kc in this reaction:

● Moles of SO2 at equilibrium= 0.680 x 0.32 = 0.2176; [1]

● Moles of SO3 at equilibrium = 0.680 - 0.2176 = 0.4624 moles; [1]
● Moles of O2 at equilibrium = 0.2176 / 2 = 0.1088; [1]

Correct calculations of all equilibrium concentrations of reactants and products:

● SO3 = 0.4624 / 3.04= 0.152

● SO2 = 0.2176 / 3.04 = 0.0716
● O2 = 0.1088 / 3.04 = 0.0358; [1]

Correct Kc expression / substitute values into expression for Kc

 ●
● 7.9 x 10-3 to 2 significant figures; [1]

Allow 3 marks for Kc = 2.4 x 10-2 (Kc solved without dividing mols by volume)

[Total: 6 marks]

● To calculate Kc, you must first calculate the equilibrium concentration of each substance

● Careful:
○ Only concentrations can go into a Kc calculation
○ So each value for moles at equilibrium value must be divided by the volume

8b
b) The size of the container for the reaction in part (a) is decreased. State the effect if any on the
equilibrium constant, Kc

● No change in Kc; [1]

● Changes in pressure do not affect equilibrium constants; [1]
● Equilibrium shifts to LHS / favours reverse reaction / pathway; [1]
● Increase in pressure pushes equilibrium to the side with the fewest gaseous molecules to
counteract the change; [1]

[Total: 4 marks]

● The only factor that will change the value of Kc is temperature

○ Kc is only constant at a constant temperature
● Decreasing the size of the reaction container increases the pressure
● Le Chatelier’s principle states that if a change is made to a system then it will oppose that
change to establish a new equilibrium
● An increase in pressure would favour reverse reaction as there are fewer gaseous
molecules on the LHS of the equation
● This would therefore decrease the yield of SO2 and O2
● Careful; be specific about your explanation as to why the reverse reaction is favoured
○ For example; not just increased pressure favours the side with the lowest pressure
8c
c) Comment on whether the reaction will take place spontaneously at temperature T:

● The reaction will not happen spontaneously; [1]

● (As) K < 1; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● A reaction will not happen spontaneously given ΔG > 0 (positive)

● You could have used the value of K calculated in part (a) to determine ΔG for this reaction
● However this is not necessary as you should notice that for ΔG to be positive K must be
less than one, which is the case in this example
● For a spontaneous reaction to occur, ΔG < 0 and K > 1
9a
The names of the compounds are:

compound name

CH3CH2CH2CH(OH)CH3 pentan-2-ol

CH3CH2COCH3 butanone

CH3CH2CH2OH propan-1-ol

CH3CH2CH2CHO butanal

● Four correct names; [2]

OR
Three or two correct names scores; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● The numbers are essential when positional isomers are possible

● You can also place the number in front of the name of the alcohols
○ E.g., 2-pentanol and 1-propanol
● It is not necessary to write a number for butanone or butanal as there is no other place for
the functional group to be in the molecule
9b
The structural isomers are:

● Butanone and butanal; [1]

● They show functional group isomerism; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]
 ● There are three types of structural isomers you should know: branched-chain, positional
and functional group
● It is a good idea to have some examples of these up your sleeve in case you have to drawn
them in an answer
○ Branched: butane and methylpropane: CH3CH2CH2CH3 and CH3CH(CH3)CH3
○ Positional: 1-chloropropane and 2-chloropropane: CH3CH2CH2Cl and CH3CHClCH3
○ Functional group: ethanol and methoxymethane: CH3CH2OH and CH3OCH3
9c
i) The empirical formula of propofol is:

● C12H18O; [1]

ii) The number of positional isomers or propofol:

● 4; [1]

(Shown below for reference – not needed for the mark)

iii) Two functional groups in propofol are:

● Phenol AND phenyl; [1]

(Allow hydroxyl for phenol)

[Total: 3 marks]

● The empirical formula is the simplest possible whole number ratio of atoms of each element
in a compound
● In this case, the molecular and empirical formula are the same since C12H18O cannot be
further simplified
● Phenyl is the name of the functional group and benzene is the specific molecule, C6H6.
9d
i) The general formula for a carboxylic acid is:

● CnH2n+1COOH; [1]

ii) The systematic name for valeric acid is:

● Pentanoic acid; [1]

iii) The condensed structural formula for valeric acid is:

● CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH; [1]

[Total: 3 marks]

● You need to know the general formulae of:

○ Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, ketones, alcohols, aldehydes, and carboxylic acids
● The systematic name for carboxylic acids follows the generic rule: alkanoic + acid so we
have the homologous series:
○ Methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid, butanoic acid, pentanoic acid and
hexanoic acid
● There are no positional isomers for carboxylic acids because the functional group will
always be on the first carbon in the chain
10a
a) The definition of the term stereoisomer is:

● compounds with the same structural/ molecular formula

AND

different arrangement in space/3D structures; [1]

[Total: 1 mark]

Do not accept “similar” instead of “same”.

10b
b) The conditions needed for a compound to show cis-trans isomerism are:

● Restricted rotation around a (double/ pi) bond; [1]

● Carbon atoms of the C=C/ carbon-carbon double bond (in alkene)/ carbon atoms of the
C–C/ carbon-carbon single bond (in cycloalkane) must each have two different atoms/
groups of atoms attached/ OWTTE; [1]

Do not accept “functional groups” for “groups of atoms” in the second mark.

[Total: 2 marks]

● Cis - trans isomers are not limited to just different functional groups connected to the double
bond - they can have different hydrocarbon chains connected, such as in a cyclic alkane
● Hence we have to use the phrase "groups of atoms" which is broader

10c
c) The drawings for the E and Z stereoisomers of pent-2-ene are:
 ● Correct E stereoisomer; [1]
● Correct Z stereoisomer; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

● The CIP rule states that the atom/group of atoms (attached to each C of the C=C) with the
higher atomic/mass number is given higher priority
● The E isomer of pent-2-ene has the higher priority groups on opposite sides of the double
bond
● The Z isomer of pent-2-ene has the higher priority groups on the same side of the double
bond
10d
d) The errors with the student's stereoisomer diagrams are:

● E and Z labels incorrect / should be the opposite way around; [1]

● 1-bromo-1-chloropropene has been drawn (not 2-bromo-1-chloropropene) ; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

Remember

● The E isomer should have the high priority groups on the opposite side, in this case,
bromine and the methyl group are the higher priority groups on each side respectively on
the diagrams drawn, and the bromine and chlorine respectively on what should have been
drawn
● Z isomer should have the high priority groups on the same side of the C=C bond
● The correct drawings should have been:
11a
a) The type of chemical information obtained from X-ray crystallography studies is:

Two from:

● The crystal structure of ionic compounds; [1]

● The shape / structure of complex organic molecules; [1]
● The location of individual atoms; [1]
● Internuclear distances / bond lengths; [1]
● Bond angles; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

11b
b) The reason X-ray crystallography is not very useful for compounds containing hydrogen is:

● The electron density around hydrogen atoms is too low; [1]

● Hydrogen are not visible; [1]

[Total: 2 marks]

Hydrogen has only one electron so its electron density is very low
11c
c) Another limitation of X-ray crystallography for organic compounds is:

● The compounds have to be solid/ crystalline (not useful for smaller organic molecules); [1]

[Total: 1 mark]
11d
d) An estimate the radius of a copper atom is:

● 0.10-0.11 (nm); [1]

[Total: 1 mark]

● The distance between the centre of two copper nuclei is approximately 0.21 nm
● The radius would be half that distance, i.e. 0.10-0.11 nm
●